Updated: August 2025
Earthquake Engineering
Lecture 1
Sasanka Borah, PhD
Civil Engineering Department, Assam Engineering College
Seismology
A study of earthquake engineering calls for a good understanding
of geophysical process that causes earthquakes and various effects
of earthquakes. Seismology is the study of the generation,
propagation and measurement of seismic waves
through earth and the sources that generate them. The
word seismology originated from Greek words, ‘seismos’
meaning earthquake and ‘logos’ meaning science. The study of
seismic wave propagation through earth provides the maximum
input to the understanding of internal structure of earth.
Core of the Earth
The earth’s shape is an oblate spheroid with a diameter along the
equator of about 12740 km with the polar diameter as 12700km.
The higher diameter along equator is caused by the higher
centrifugal forces generated along the equator due to rotation of
earth. Though the specific gravity of materials that constitute
the surface of earth is only about 2.8, the average specific
gravity of earth is about 5.5 indicating presence of very
heavy materials towards interior of earth. The interior of
the earth can be classified into three major categories as Crust,
Mantle and Core
Core of the Earth
Core of the Earth
Crust: or the lithosphere, is the outer part of the earth is where the life exist. The average thickness of
crust beneath continents is about 40km where as it decreases to as much as 5km beneath
oceans. The oceanic crust is constituted by basaltic rocks and continental part by granitic rocks
overlying the basaltic rocks. Compared to the layers below, this layer has high rigidity and
anisotropy.
Mantle: is a 2900 km thick layer. The mantle consists of 1) Upper Mantle reaching a depth of
about 400 km made of olivine and pyroxene and 2) Lower Mantle made of more homogeneous
mass of magnesium and iron oxide and quartz. No earthquakes are recorded in the lower
mantle. The specific gravity of mantle is about 5. The mantle has an average temperature of
about 2200degree Celsius and the material is in a viscous semi molten state. The mantle act like
fluid in response to slowly acting stresses and creeps under slow loads. But it behaves like as solid in
presence of rapidly acting stresses, e.g. that caused by earthquake waves.
Core: has a radius of 3470 km and consists of an inner core of radius 1370 km and an outer core
(1370 km < R < 3470 km). The core is composed of molten iron, probably mixed with
small quantities of other elements such as nickel and sulphur or silicon. The inner solid
core is very dense nickel-iron material and is subjected to very high pressures. The maximum
temperature in the core is estimated to be about 3000 degree Celsius. The specific gravity of
outer core is about 9-12 where as that of inner core is 15.
German scientist, Alfred Wegener
(1880 – 1930)
http://www.resilience.org/stories/2012-01-24/centennial-alfred-wegeners-continental-drift-theory-start-earth-systems-science
Continental Drift Theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_drift#/media/File:P
angea_animation_03.gif
Continental Drift Theory
Mya = Million Years Ago
Plate tectonics
The theory of plate tectonics,
presented in early 1960s, explains that
the lithosphere is broken into seven
large (and several smaller) segments
called plates, that glide over the
mantle, the rocky inner layer above
the core
Plate tectonics
Tectonic plate map of the world
Plate velocity of approx. 2-10 cm/year
Convection Currents
This theory requires a source that can generate
tremendous force is acting on the plates. The
widely accepted explanation is based on the force
offered by convection currents created by
thermo-mechanical behavior of the earth’s
subsurface. The variation of mantle density
with temperature produces an unstable
equilibrium. The colder and denser upper layer
sinks under the action of gravity to the warmer
bottom layer which is less dense. The lesser dense
material rises upwards and the colder material as
it sinks gets heated up and becomes less dense.
These convection currents create shear stresses at
the bottom of the plates which drags them along
the surface of earth
Map of distribution of earthquake
epicentres around the world
Movement of Plate Boundaries
Four Type of Plate Boundaries
Spreading ridges / Divergent boundaries.
Convergent boundaries.
Subduction boundaries
Collision Boundaries
Transform boundaries.
Plate boundary zones
Spreading ridges / Divergent
boundaries
Convergent boundaries
Subduction boundaries
Convergent boundaries
Subduction boundaries
Convergent boundaries
Collision boundaries
Transform boundaries
Typical Profile of Transform Plate boundaries
FAULTS
The term fault is used to describe a discontinuity within
rock mass, along which movement had happened
in the past. Plate boundary is also a type of fault.
Lineaments are mappable linear surface features and may
reflect subsurface phenomena. A lineament could be a fault,
a joint or any other linear geological phenomena. Most
faults produce repeated displacements over geologic time.
Movement along a fault may be gradual or
sometimes sudden thus, generating an earthquake.
DIP AND STRIKE
STRIKE: The strike is the direction of a horizontal line on the surface of the fault.
DIP: The dip is the angle of fault plane with horizontal AND IS measured in a
vertical plane at right angles to the strike of the fault.
FAULTS
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
As the plate try to move relative to each other,
strain energy gets built up along the boundaries.
When the stress build-up reaches the ultimate
strength of rock, rock fractures and releases the
accumulated strain energy. This may or may-
not result in an earthquake.
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
NATURE OF FAILURE
The nature of failure dictates the effect of the fracture. If
the material is very ductile and weak, hardly any strain
energy could be stored in the plates due to their
movement. But if the material is strong and brittle, the
stress built up and subsequent sudden rupture releases the
energy stored in the form of stress waves and heat. The
propagation of these elastic stress waves causes the
vibratory motion associated with earthquakes.
Earthquake Basic Terminology
or
Hypocenter
Earthquake Basic Terminology
Focus / Hypocenter: is the region on the fault, where rupture initiates.
Epicenter: is the location on the earth surface vertically above the focus.
Anti-Center: is the point on earth’s surface diametrically opposite to the
epicenter.
Epicentral Distance : is the distance from epicenter to any place of
interest.
Focal depth: is the depth of the focus from the epicenter.
Earthquakes are sometime classified into shallow focus, intermediate
focus and deep focus earthquakes based on its focal depth. Most of the
damaging earthquakes are shallow focus earthquakes.
Co-Seismal line: An imaginary line which joins the points at which the
earthquake waves have arrived at the earth’s surface at the same time.
Iso-Seismal line: A line or map joining points of equal seismic intensity
produced by an earthquake.
In homogeneous grounds with plain surfaces, the Iso-Seismals
and Co-Seismals coincide (which is rare).
Earthquake
Earthquake is the vibration of earth’s surface caused by waves
coming from a source of disturbance inside the earth. Most earthquakes
of engineering significance are of tectonic origin and is caused by slip
along geological faults.
Earthquake Effects - Ground Shaking
Northridge, CA 1994
Earthquake Effects - Ground Shaking
Northridge, CA 1994
Earthquake Effects - Ground Shaking
Loma Prieta, CA 1989
KGO-TV News ABC-7
Earthquake Effects - Ground Shaking
Kobe, Japan 1995
Earthquake Effects - Ground Shaking
Kobe, Japan 1995
Earthquake Effects - Surface Faulting
Landers, CA 1992
Earthquake Effects - Liquefaction
Source: National Geophysical Data Center
Niigata, Japan 1964
Earthquake Effects - Landslides
Source: National Geophysical Data Center
Turnagain Heights, Alaska,1964 (upper left inset);
Santa Cruz Mtns, California , 1989
Earthquake Effects - Fires
Loma Prieta, CA 1989
KGO-TV News ABC-7
Earthquake Effects - Tsunamis
1957 Aleutian Tsunami
Photograph Credit: Henry Helbush. Source: National Geophysical Data Center
Earthquake characteristics depend on
1. Stress drop during the slip
2. Total fault displacement
3. Size of slipped area
4. Roughness of the slipping process
5. Fault shape( Normal fault, Reverse fault, Strike slip fault)
6. Proximity of the slipped area to the ground surface
7. Soil condition
Earthquake Waves
