Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University)

College of Engineering, Pune

Department of E&TC Engineering

Sem-V
Sub: Microwave and Antenna Theory
UNIT 3 Microwave Sources and Active Devices

Prepared
1 by Shruti Oza
 Contents
• Construction and operation of Microwave Tubes:
1) Two cavity Klystron,
2) Reflex Klystron,
3) Travelling Wave Tube (TWT)
4) Magnetron.

• Construction and Operation of Active Microwave Devices:

1) Gunn Diode and RWH Theory,
2) Tunnel Diodes,
3) Schottky Diode,
4) PIN Diode,
5) Microwave Transistors.
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1. MICROWAVE TUBES

• Microwave Tubes:
• The conventional vacuum tubes are used as signal sources of low output power
at low MW frequencies. Ex- Triodes, Tetrodes and Pentodes.
• The most important MW Tubes are linear beam tubes (O-Type) .
• Types of Linear beam Tubes: 1. Two Cavity Klystron
2. Reflex Klystron
3. Helix- TWT
4. FWA-Forward Wave Amplifier.
5. BWA- Backward Wave Amplifier.

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Microwave Tube-Types

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Microwave Tubes- Two Cavity Klystron-Amplifier

• Klystrons are a special type of vacuum tubes that find applications as

Amplifiers and Oscillators at microwave frequencies.

• Its principle of operation is Velocity Modulation.

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Microwave Tubes- Two Cavity Klystron-Amplifier

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Operating Principle: Two Cavity Klystron-Amplifier
• Uses the principle of velocity modulation.
• Two-cavity klystron amplifier utilizes the kinetic energy of moving electron
beam for signal amplification.
• The variation in the velocity of electrons while moving inside the tube is
known as velocity modulation.
• This velocity modulation permits bunching of electrons while propagation.
So, the combined energy of bunched electrons is transferred at the output
thereby providing an amplified signal.

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Construction: Two Cavity Klystron-Amplifier

• It consists of 2 cavities namely the buncher cavity and catcher cavity.

• The RF signal to be amplified is provided at the buncher cavity.
• The electron gun comprises cathode, heating element and anode. The
electron beam is produced by the cathode by making use of a heating
element and the high positive potential at the anode provides the
required acceleration to the electron beam initially. The region between
two cavities is known as drift space.

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Construction: Two Cavity Klystron-Amplifier

• To allow focused propagation of electron beam inside the tube an

external electromagnetic winding is used that generates a longitudinal
magnetic field. This is done in order to prevent the spreading of the
beam inside the tube.
• The amplified RF signal is achieved at the catcher cavity.
• Also, a collector is present near the second cavity that collects the
electron bunch.

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Working-Two Cavity Klystron-Amplifier
• Initially, electrons are emitted from the electron gun and the anode
present in the structure provides the desired acceleration to the beam.
• In the absence of any RF input, the electron will tend to move with
their respective uniform velocities to reach the catcher cavity and gets
collected at the collector.
• But when external RF signal is applied at the input of the buncher
cavity then this causes the generation of a local electric field inside the
tube.
• This electric field causes the bunching of electrons as the field applies
acceleration and deceleration to the moving electron, according to the
polarity of the signal by which the field is generated.
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Case-1 Two Cavity Klystron-Amplifier
When the negative half of the RF signal
is provided as input to the buncher cavity
then the moving electrons experience a
repulsive force due to the presence of a
negative charge at the entering plate of
the buncher cavity.

or Due to the negative half of the input the generated field will be
in a direction opposite to the direction of the movement of
electrons. So, because of the opposition offered by the field, the
moving velocity of electrons gets reduced.
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Case-2 Two Cavity Klystron-Amplifier
when the positive half of the RF signal is
provided then the positive potential at the
first plate of the cavity applies attractive
force to the moving electrons. More simply,
for the positive half cycle of input, the
generated electric field will be in a direction
like the direction of electron movement.

This leads to an increase in the moving velocity of the electrons.

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 Contd..
• When we consider both the cases then the electrons that were emitted
earlier by the gun will be decelerated.

• While the electrons emitted later will be accelerated.

• Thus, all the electrons while moving with different velocities get bunched
in the drift space.

• This change in the velocity of electrons while moving due to RF input is

known as velocity modulation.

• Once the electron bunching is done then the catcher cavity present at
another end of the tube absorbs thebybeam
Prepared energy.
Shruti Oza
 Contd..

• It is to be noted that to find the position of the catcher

cavity transit time of the bunches must be considered.

• This is so because the catcher cavity must be present at a sufficient

distance from the buncher cavity so that bunching can be attained
in the drift space.

• Further, once the energy is transferred to the catcher cavity then

electrons (now with low energy) gets collected at the collector.
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Contd..

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Contd..
• The electron travelling inside the tube under the absence of
external fields acts as the bunching centre.

• Also, the electrons moving due to the influence of the positive half
cycle of the signal reaches faster.

• While the movement due to the negative half cycle is retarded.

Thus, the figure represents the bunching process at a certain point
and at a specific distance inside the tube.

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 Microwave Tubes- Two Cavity Klystron-Amplifier

• The characteristic of Two Cavity Klystron amplifier:

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Applications-Two Cavity Klystron-Amplifier

• Satellite communication,
• UHF TV transmitters as well as radar systems,
• Wideband high-power communication
• and troposphere scatter transmitters etc.

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 Reflex Klystron
• A Reflex Klystron is a specialized low-power vacuum tube used
to produce oscillations at microwave frequency.

• Its principle of operation is velocity and current modulation.

• Klystrons are basically specialized tubes used as amplifiers and

oscillators at the microwave frequency range.

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 Need of Reflex Klystron
• To design an oscillator, positive feedback must be provided to the
input in a way to have a magnitude of loop gain as unity.

• So, if we design a klystron oscillator using a two-cavity klystron

then to have a change in oscillating frequency, the resonant
frequency of the two-cavities is also required to be changed.
Thereby leading to cause difficulty in generating oscillations.

• Thus, to overcome the disadvantage, a reflex klystron having a

single cavity was invented to have sustained oscillations at
microwave frequency.
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 Operating principle of Reflex Klystron
• It utilizes the phenomenon of velocity and current modulation to
produce oscillations.
• A reflex klystron consists of a single cavity that performs the
action of both buncher and catcher cavity.
• As to have oscillations, feedback is needed to be applied at the
input which is provided by the oscillator.
• While moving electrons undergoes velocity modulation and the
repeller applies repulsive forces on them.
• This leads to the formation of a bunch of electrons. Further, this
bunching will lead to cause, current modulation.
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▪ The structure consists of a cathode and focusing anode that combinedly acts
as an electron gun for the tube.
▪ The cathode emits the electron beam which is focused inside the tube by the
focusing anode. A positive potential is provided as input which sets up an
electric field inside the cavity.
▪ As it is a single cavity structure, thus single cavity act as buncher and catcher
cavity separately.
▪ At the time of forward movement of the electron beam, it acts as a buncher
cavity.
▪ While at the time of backward movement, it is a catcher cavity.

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• A repeller plate that causes backward movement of the electron beam is
present at the opposite end of the electron gun.
• The potential at the repeller is made extremely negative in order to permit
repulsion of like charges.
• Repulsion is necessary in order to build electrical oscillations, as output power
must be fed to the input.
• The velocity modulated electrons must have to travel a backward path in
order to provide feedback.

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Working of Reflex Klystron

• Initially when the electron beam is emitted by the electron gun, then the
early electrons, ee experience a very high potential.

• Due to this, a strong electric field gets generated inside the cavity gap,
leading to cause movement of electrons towards the repeller with a very
high velocity.
•

Due to high velocity, the electrons penetrate deeper into the region of the
repeller and thus require greater time to repel back towards the catcher
cavity.
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Contd..

• When the externally applied potential is almost 0, then the electron moves
with a uniform velocity with which it was emitted by the gun.

• These electrons are generally known as reference electrons er.

•

So, in this case, er will not penetrate deeply into the repeller surface and
gets repelled by the repeller in a lesser time than the early electron.

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Contd..

• The electron that is emitted by the gun after the reference electron
experiences a highly negative potential at the cavity.

• This electron is generally known as late electron el and moves with a very
low velocity inside the tube.

• The penetration level of the late electron into the repeller space is least thus
takes a minimal amount of time to get repelled back.

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Contd..

• It is to be noted that due to deep penetration in the repeller region,

ee will take more time than er while returning towards the catcher.

• This change in the velocity of moving electrons is known as velocity

modulation.

• Due to this velocity modulation, all the electrons get bunched while
returning towards the catcher cavity.

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Contd..

• So, in this way bunch of electrons reaches the catcher cavity.

• This bunching of electrons leads to cause, current modulation inside

the tube.

• Therefore, at the time of returning, the bunched electrons transfer the

maximal of their energy to the catcher cavity. Thereby leading to
cause oscillations inside the tube.

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Contd..

• Transit Time: Transit time is defined as the time taken by the electrons to
return to the cavity gap after getting repelled by the repeller.

• For sustained oscillations to take place, transit time is the most important
factor.

• Bunching Process: The figure shows the process of bunching on the

return journey of all the 3 categories of electrons i.e., ee, er, and el:

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Contd..

• Here the x-axis represents the time,

• and the y-axis shows the distance traveled by the electrons inside the
tube.
• The bunching takes place at the time of the return journey of electrons.

• Thus, it is represented in the figure that though ee, er and el, are
approaching the repeller with different velocities, yet while returning all
of them are bunched at a respective time.

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 Applications

• As reflex klystrons are oscillators thus find applications in

local oscillators receivers, radar receivers, radio receivers.

• Also utilized as signal sources in microwave generators

and pump oscillators of parametric amplifiers.

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 Travelling Wave Tube (TWT)

• A travelling wave tube is a high-power amplifier used for

the amplification of microwave signals up to a wide range.

• It is a special type of vacuum tube that offers an operating

frequency ranging between 300 MHz to 50 GHz.

• Travelling wave tubes are non-resonant structures that offer

continuous interaction of applied RF field with the electron beam
over the entire length of the tube. Due to this reason, it provides
wider operating bandwidth.

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 Basic Concepts
• An elongated vacuum tube that allows the movement of electron beam inside
it by the action of applied RF input.

• The movement of an electron inside the tube permits the amplification of

applied RF input. As it offers amplification to a wide range of frequency thus is
considered more advantageous for microwave applications than other tubes.

• It offers average power gain of around 60 dB. The output power lies in the
range of few watts to several megawatts.

• Two types : one is helix type and the other is coupled cavity.

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 Construction (Helix type-TWT)
• It consists of an electron gun and a slow-wave structure. The electron gun
produces a narrow beam of the electron. A focusing plate is used that
focuses the electron beam inside the tube.

• A positive potential is provided to the coil (helix) with respect to the

cathode terminal. While the collector is more positive than the coil (helix).
In order to restrict beam spreading inside the tube, a dc magnetic field is
applied between the travelling path by the help of magnets.
• The signal which is needed to be amplified is provided at one of the ends of
the helix, present adjacent to the electron gun. While the amplified signal is
achieved at the opposite end of the helix.

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 Contd..
• The attenuator is present along both the sides of the travelling wave tube.
This is so because travelling wave amplifiers are high gain devices, so in
case of poor load matching conditions, oscillations get build up inside the
tube due to reflection.
• In order to restrict the generation of oscillations inside the tube
attenuators are used.
• It is to be noteworthy that a slow-wave structure is considered here, the
reason is to maintain continuous interaction between the travelling wave
and electron beam.

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 Need of Slow Structure
• A slow-wave structure is used that causes a reduction in the phase velocity of
the RF wave inside the TWT.
• The slow-wave structures can be of different types like a single helix, double
helix, zigzag line, corrugated, coupled-cavity or ring bar type etc.
• A single helix slow-wave structure is formed by wounding a wire of element
like tungsten and molybdenum in the form of a coil. The helical shape of the
structure slows the velocity of the wave travelling along its axis to a fraction of
about one-tenth of c.
• This is so because due to the helical shape of the structure, the wave travels a
much larger distance than the distance travelled by the beam inside the tube.
So, in this way, the speed of wave propagation depends on the number of
turns or diameter of the turns.
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 Working
• The applied RF signal produces an electric field inside the tube. Due to the applied
positive half, the moving electron beam experiences accelerative force. However, the
negative half of the input applies a de-accelerative force on the moving electrons.

• This is defined as velocity modulation because the electrons of the beam are
experiencing different velocity inside the tube. However, the slowly travelling wave
inside the tube exhibits continuous interaction with the electron beam.

• Due to the continuous interaction, the electrons moving with high velocity transfer their
energy to the wave inside the tube and thus slow down. So, with the rise in the
amplitude of the wave, the velocity of electrons reduces, and this causes bunching of
electrons inside the tube.

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 Contd..
• The growing amplitude of the wave resultantly causes more bunching of electrons
while reaching the end from the beginning. Thereby causing further amplification of
the RF wave inside the tube.

• Forward progression of the field along the axis of the tube gives rise to amplification
of the RF wave. Thus, at the end of the tube an amplified signal is achieved.
• The positive potential provided at the other end causes collection of electron bunch
at the collector.
• The magnetic field inside the tube restricts the spreading of the beam as the
electrons possess repulsive nature.
• However, as the TWT is a bidirectional device. Therefore, the reflected signal causes
oscillations inside the tube. But the presence of attenuators reduces the generation
of oscillations due to reflected back-wave.
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 Applications

• Travelling wave tubes are highly used in continuous wave

radar systems.

• These amplifying tubes also find application in broadband

receivers for RF amplification.

• TWT’s are also used to get high power output in satellite

transponders
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 Magnetron

• A magnetron is a device that generates high power

electromagnetic wave.
• It is basically considered as a self-excited microwave
oscillator.
• It is also known as a crossed-field device. The reason behind
calling it so is that the electric and magnetic field produced
inside the tube are mutually perpendicular to each other
thus the two crosses each other.

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 Operating Principle
• A magnetron is basically a vacuum tube of high power having
multiple cavities.

• It is also known as cavity magnetron because of the presence of

anode in the resonant cavity of the tube.

• The operating principle of a magnetron is such that when

electrons interact with electric and magnetic field in the cavity
then high-power oscillations get generated.

• Magnetrons are majorly used in RADAR as being the only high-

power source of RF signal as a power oscillator despite a power
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 Construction
• A cylindrical magnetron has a cylindrical cathode of a certain length and
radius present at the centre around which a cylindrical anode is present.
• The cavities are present at the circumference of the anode at equal spacing.
• The area existing between anode and cathode of the tube is known
as interaction space/region. It is to be noted here that there exists a phase
difference of 180⁰ between adjacent cavities. Therefore, cavities will transfer
their excitation from one cavity to another with a phase shift of 180⁰.
• If one plate is positive, then automatically its adjacent plate will be negative.
The edges and cavities show180⁰ phase apart relationship.
• The electric and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other. The magnetic
field is generated by using a permanent magnet.

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 Working
• The excitation to the cathode of the magnetron is provided by a
dc supply which causes the emergence of electrons from it.

• The working of magnetron under two categories are ~

1) Without applying the RF input to the anode and
2) With the application of RF input.

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When RF input is not present

• The electron emerging from

the cathode radially moves
towards the anode

• The moving electron does not

experience the effect of the
magnetic field and moves in a
straight path

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 Contd..
• The electron emerging from the
cathode will slightly deviate from its
straight path. This will cause a curvy
motion of the electron from
cathode to anode

• This motion of the electron is the

result of the action of electric as
well as magnetic force over it.

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 Contd..
• When the magnetic field is further
increased then electrons emerging
from the cathode gets highly
deflected by the magnetic field.
And graze along the surface of the
cathode.

• This causes the anode current to

be 0. The value of the magnetic
field that causes the anode
current to become 0 is known as
the critical magnetic field.

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 • If the magnetic field is increased
Contd.. beyond the critical magnetic field,
then the electron will bounce
back to the cathode itself without
reaching the anode.

• The reaching of the emitted

electrons from the cathode back
to it is known as back heating. To
avoid this the electric supply
provided to the cathode must be
cut-off after oscillations have
been set up in the tube
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When the RF field is present
• The oscillations are set up in the
interaction space of the magnetron. So,
when an electron is emitted from the
cathode to anode then it transfers its
energy in order to oscillate.

• Such electrons are called favoured

electrons. In this condition, the electrons
will have a low velocity and thus will take a
considerably high amount of time to reach
from cathode to anode.
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 Contd..
• The emitted electron from the
cathode while travelling takes
energy from the oscillations
thereby resultantly increasing its
velocity.

• So, despite reaching the anode,

the electrons will bounce back
to the cathode and these
electrons are known
as unfavored electrons.

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Contd.. When the RF input is further increased then
the electron emitted while travelling
increases its velocity in order to catch up the
electron emitted earlier with comparatively
lower velocity.

So, all those electrons that do not take

energy from the oscillations for their
movement are known as favoured electrons.
These favoured electrons form electron
bunch or electron cloud and reaches anode
from the cathode.

The formation of electron bunch inside the

tube is known as phase focusing effect.
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 Contd..
Due to this, the orbit of the electron gets confined into spokes. These
spokes rotate according to some fractional value of electron emitted
by the cathode until it reaches anode while delivering their energy to
oscillations.
However, the electrons released from the region of cathode between
spokes, will take the energy of the field and get back to the cathode
very quickly. But this energy is very small in comparison to the energy
delivered to the oscillations.
The movement of these favoured electrons inside the tube enhances
the field existing between the gaps in the cavity. This leads to
sustained oscillations inside the magnetron thereby providing high
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 Frequency Pushing and Pulling
• The variation in the oscillating frequency of the magnetron give rise to the
term frequency pushing and pulling.

• When the voltage applied at the anode of the magnetron is varied then this causes
the variation in the velocity of the electrons moving from cathode to anode. This
resultantly changes the frequency of oscillations.
• When the resonant frequency of the magnetron shows variation due to the change
in the anode voltage then it is known as frequency pushing.

• The change in resonant frequency is sometimes a result of the change in the load
impedance of the magnetron. The load impedance varies when the change is purely
resistive or reactive. This frequency variation is known as frequency pulling. A
steady power supply can provide a reduction in this frequency variation.
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 Advantages
• Magnetrons are a highly efficient device used for generation of the
high-power microwave signal.

• The use of magnetrons in radar can produce radar system of better

quality for tracking purpose.

• It is usually small in size thus less bulky.

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 Limitations
• It is quite expensive.

• Despite producing a wide range of frequency, there exists a

drawback in controllability of the generated frequency.

• It offers average power of around 1 to 2 kilowatts.

• Magnetrons are quite noisy.

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 Applications
• A major application of magnetron is present in a pulsed radar
system in order to produce a high-power microwave signal.

• Magnetrons are also used in heating appliances likes microwave

ovens to produce fixed frequency oscillations.

• Tunable magnetrons find their applications in sweep oscillators.

This mode of operation of the magnetron is also known as π mode.
This is so because a proper phase shift of 180⁰ is maintained between
two adjacent plates. Also, it is to be noted that oscillations are only
built-up in π mode
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Gunn Diode
• A Gunn diode is a semiconductor
device formed by only N-type
material.

• It is also termed as a transferred

electron device. As in n-type material,
electrons acts as majority carriers, and
these are transferred from one valley
to another.

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Contd..
• It is a two terminal device made up of semiconductor material
like GaAs, InP etc. These materials exhibit the property of producing
microwave oscillations.
• Gunn effect is the basis of working of Gunn diode. It was discovered by a
physicist J B Gunn in 1963.
• A Gunn diode does not contain a p-n junction, yet it is termed as diode
due to the two terminals of the externally applied dc voltage.
• It possesses negative resistance characteristic due to which these are
widely used in high-frequency applications.
• Gunn diodes have the ability to generate continuous power in the range
of several milliwatts, and frequency nearly 1 to 200 GHz holding
efficiency about 5 to 15%.
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 Gunn Effect
• In semiconductor materials like GaAs, the electrons are present in
high mass low-velocity state and low mass but a high-velocity state.
By the application of sufficient electric field, these low mass high-
velocity state electrons are forced towards the high mass state.

• At this state, electrons form a cluster and thus moves at a uniform

rate. Thus, causing a flow of current in the form of a series of
pulses. This effect is denoted as Gunn Effect.

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 • A lightly doped n-type semiconductor layer is
present between two heavily doped n-type
material.
• The middle portion is termed as an active layer.
The thickness of this region is around a few
microns to several hundred microns.
• The arrangement of Gunn diode is formed by
growing an epitaxial n-type layer over an n+
substrate. The 2 highly doped regions provide
better conductivity to the device.
• The whole structure is mounted on a conducting
base that acts as a heat sink for the heat
produced during operation.
• Also, the other terminal is formed by connecting
a gold film over the top surface of the structure.
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 Operation of Gunn Diode
• When a voltage is applied to the device, then this external potential appears
across the active layer thereby causing the flow of electrons present in that
region. This flow of majority carriers causes the current to flow across the
active region of the device.
• Once the current pulse starts traversing inside the active region, the
potential at that region falls. Due to which no further formation of the
current pulse occurs.
• But once the previously created current pulse reaches the other end of the
active region then the potential again rises leading to the generation of
another current pulse.
• Thus, the frequency of operation of the device depends on the time taken by
the pulse to travel to another end, resultantly on the rate of pulse
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Contd.. • Unlike a normal junction diode, a Gunn diode
consists of 3 energy bands namely, valence band,
conduction band and an extra band above the
conduction band.
• When a certain voltage is applied to the device
then electrons in the valence band starts moving
towards the conduction band thereby allowing the
flow of current.
• When the voltage further increases then instead of
allowing a large flow of current the electrons in the
conduction band move towards the energy band
present above the conduction band.

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 Contd..
• Due to this the effect is known as the transferred electron effect. This is
so because electrons are transferred from conduction band to a higher
energy state.
• At this state as the electrons are less mobile hence current decreases
with the increase in voltage. Thereby, giving rise to a negative resistance
phenomenon where current decreases with the increase in voltage.
• After a certain point of time when the applied voltage increases further
then the electrons in the higher energy state gains sufficient energy and
moves back to the lower energy state. Thus, further the current flowing
through the device increase with the increase in the applied external
potential.
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 Contd..
• Initially, with the increase in the applied voltage, the current
through the device also increases.

• However, a point is reached when on increasing the voltage the

current through the device starts decreasing. The point of
maximum current is known as the peak point.

• The region on the curve that shows the decrease in current with
an increase in voltage is known as the negative resistance region
of the curve.
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Contd..
Advantages of Gunn Diode
• The manufacturing cost of Gunn diode is low.
• Gunn diodes are highly reliable.
• It exhibits comparatively low operating voltage than normal diodes.
• Its installation in circuits is easy.
Disadvantages of Gunn Diode
• These are less stable.
• The efficiency of Gunn diodes is very low.
Sometimes noise effects are more in case of Gunn diodes

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RWH Theory or Two-valley Theory
of Gunn Diode
• The Gunn diode, which is made of n-doped semiconductor material
(e.g. GaAs or InP), is characterized by having two valleys in their
conduction bands with different mobility.

• The two-valley model is also called the Ridley–Watkins–Hilsum (RWH)

theory.

• There are two regions in the conduction band of the N-type GaAs.
These conduction band regions are known as an upper valley and lower
valley.
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 Key points of GaAS
• In N-type GaAs, the valence band is filled with electrons, and the conduction band is partly
filled.
• The forbidden energy gap betwn the valence band and the conduction band is about 1.43 eV.
• Electrons in the lower valley (n1) exhibit a small effective mass (m1) and very high mobility, μ1.
• Electrons in the upper valley (n2) exhibit a large effective mass (m2) and very low mobility, μ2.
• The two valleys are separated by a small energy gap, ΔE, of approximately 0.36 eV. At a low
electric field, electrons remain in the lower valley and material behaves ohmically. When the
electric field reaches a certain threshold value Eth, the electrons will be swept from the lower
valley to the upper valley. If the rate of transfer of electrons from the lower to the upper valley
is very high, the current will decrease with an increase in voltage.

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 Typical Characteristics
• CW power = 25 mW to 250 mW X band (5 – 15 GHz)
• 100 mW at 18-26.5 GHz
• 40 mW at 26.5-40 GHz
• Pulsed Power = 5W (5-12 GHz)
• Efficiency = 2–12%
• Frequency Tuning: The frequency of Gunn oscillator can be
changed by mechanical tuning and electronic tuning.

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 Applications of Gunn Diode
• Radar transmitters as a low power oscillator
• (e.g. CW Doppler Radar, Police Radar).
• Gunn diode oscillators with pulse signals are used in transponders in industry
telemetry systems and for air traffic control.
• Broadband linear amplifier.
• Sequential logic circuits and fast combinational circuits.
• Microwave receivers as low and medium power oscillator.
• Parametric amplifier as pump sources.
• Oscillators and Amplifiers, in ultrasonic detectors.
• Tachometers and in the radio communication system.
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 Tunnel Diode
• A heavily doped two-terminal semiconductor device through which
electric current flows because of tunneling of electrons is known as
Tunnel Diode.
• It possesses the negative resistance characteristic in which current
decreases even when the applied voltage is increased.
• Tunneling basically denotes the penetration of electrons through the
depletion region.
• As highly doped diode has a thin depletion region. It works on the
principle of Quantum mechanical tunneling.
• As tunnel diodes show fast switching characteristics thus it finds
extensive applications in the field of the microwave.
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Contd..

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 Contd..
• The concentration of doped impurity in a tunnel diode is thousand
times more as compared to any normal diode.

• This is done to have thin depletion region, that is the basis of

tunneling effect.

• This diode was invented by Dr Leo Esaki in 1957. Hence it is also

known as Esaki Diode.

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Working principle of Tunnel Diode

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Contd..
• In a zero biased condition, the highly doped diode is not provided
with any input voltage.
• In no biased condition, an overlapping is noticed between the
conduction band of n region and valence band of p region. This
overlapping causes the two bands to appear at the almost same
energy level.
• As the depletion width is very small thus, without any applied
potential, due to temperature variation, electrons from n side
tunnels to p side.
Similarly, holes from p side tunnels to n side.
As the tunneling is equal for both the carriers thus no current is
noticed
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Contd..

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 Contd..
• When a certain forward voltage is applied to the diode, no any
current will flow due to this applied potential. As this forward
voltage is less than the barrier potential of the depletion region, a
small current flows through the device. This is so, because the
electrons in the conduction band of n region will penetrate over
thin depletion region and reaches valence band of p region.

• The velocity of punching of these electrons is somewhat similar to

the velocity of light. Hence, this punching generates a forward
current through the device.
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Contd..

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Contd..

• When the applied forward voltage is increased further. So, in this

case, a large current starts to flow through the device. The
electrons that have sufficient energy moves across the junction.
But those which has less energy will also penetrate the junction
due to thin depletion width.

• In this case, more electrons tunnel through the junction to reach p

region. This is so because now, the conduction band of n region is
parallel with the valence band of p region. Thus, the highest
(peak) current is achieved in this condition.
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Contd..

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Contd..
• If the forward potential applied to the device is increased further.
Then the conduction band and valence band shows some
overlapping. This causes a small current to flow through the
device. However, here with the increased potential current
through the device now starts decreasing.

• After this, the applied potential is increased further. But now this
applied voltage will cause the current through the device to reach
nearly zero. As the conduction and valence are no longer forming
an overlap connection. But the applied potential will now
overcome the barrier potential of the depletion region. So, current
as in case of the normal diode will flow through the tunnel diode
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Characteristics

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Contd..
• The origin of the graph shows the zero biased condition of the tunnel diode.
Where no any input voltage is provided and so no current is noticed in the
device.
• As the input voltage is increased, the current is noticed to flow through the
device. This current increases with the increase in the voltage applied and a
peak of forward current is reached. This is clearly represented by point x in
the above figure.
• After reaching the maximum value, the current now starts decreasing. This
region of the decrease in current in the graph is specifically termed as
a negative resistance region. After this region valley point is achieved which
shows the decrement of the current nearly up to zero.
• As the potential has increased the device now starts behaving as normal
junction diode. Thus, the current begins to increase from this point.
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 Key Terms
1) Tunneling current:

It is the current flowing through the device due to the punching of

electrons across the junction. The thin depletion width allows some
free electrons to tunnel the junction rather than jumping over it. This
penetration of electrons generates a current known as Tunneling
current.

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Contd…

2) Negative resistance characteristics:

The negative resistance characteristic is the special ability of tunnel

diode in which current represents fall even when the voltage
provided to it rises.

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Contd..
3) Valley current: When tunneling reaches its minimum value with
the increase in forward potential. Then the lowest value of tunneling
current is the valley point of the device.

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 Advantages
• It is a low power consuming device.
• It is not expensive.
• A tunnel diode is easy to operate and provides high-speed
operation

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 Disadvantages
• The abrupt change in load current with applied voltage is
sometimes treated as its drawback.

• Proper isolation between input and output is not maintained as it

is a two terminal device.

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 Applications
• It is widely used in microwave and high-frequency applications
because of its fast response.

• It can be also used as amplifiers and in oscillator circuits.

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 Schottky Diode

• A Schottky diode is a 2-terminal metal-semiconductor device that is formed

by diffusing an n-type semiconductor over a metal. Both metal and n-type
semiconductor have electrons as their majority carriers, as almost negligible
holes are present in a metal.
• As in Schottky diode, only majority charge carrier i.e., electrons are
responsible for conduction. Hence it is a unipolar device.
• Its other names are Schottky barrier diode or hot carrier diode. The reason
why these diodes are called so, is that the majority carriers (electrons) drift
from n region to the metallic region with very high energy.
• Thus termed as hot carriers and as conduction is due to these hot carriers so
the device is known as a hot-carrier diode.
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Contd..

Metal forms the connection as

anode
Semiconductor region forms
the connection as a cathode

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Contd..

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 Contd..
• The constructional structure of a Schottky diode shows variation from
that of the normal pn junction diode. A p-n junction diode is formed
by merging a p-type semiconductor material with an n-type
semiconductor material thereby forming a p-n junction diode.

• However, for constructing a Schottky diode, an n-type semiconductor

material is merged with a metal, to have a metal-semiconductor
junction

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 Contd..
• Metal is combined with an n-type semiconductor material to form a hot carrier
diode. The metal used for fabrication of Schottky diode can be gold, tungsten,
platinum, silver etc.
• On the other side of the metal-semiconductor junction, an n-type
semiconductor material is present. Usually, silicon is used as the n-type
semiconductor material however, germanium is also used.
• The absence of p-type material with an n-type semiconductor material
eliminates the possibility of the presence of a depletion region.
Hence preventing the stored charges at the junction.
• In case of a Schottky diode, the junction is comparatively more uniform, and
the device possesses high ruggedness than a point contact diode.
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Contd..

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 Contd..
• When a metallic region and n-type material forms a connection then the
majority charge carriers i.e., electrons move rapidly from the n region to the
metallic region. Thereby generating a heavy flow of majority carriers.
• The kinetic energy of these injected carriers is high as compared to the
electrons in the metallic region. Thus, these are commonly known as hot
carriers.
• Due to the movement of majority charge carriers from n-type material to
metal, a region is generated in the n side near the junction which is depleted
(free) of charge carriers. This region is nothing but acts as a surface
barrier for further conduction.

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Contd..

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 Contd..
• A forward voltage is applied to the device by connecting the positive terminal
of the battery with the metal and negative terminal of the battery with the n-
type material.
• Due to the repulsion from the negative terminal of the battery, the electrons
present in the n side move towards the metal side by overcoming the surface
barrier. This causes a major flow of electrons across the metal side.
• However, the barrier potential in case of a Schottky diode is very less than
that of a p-n junction diode in forward as well as reverse biased condition.
• Therefore, considerably high conduction is noticed in case of a Schottky diode
at same applied voltage than a p-n junction diode. But this is undesirable in
reverse biased condition of Schottky diode as the breakdown is achieved
earlier than the p-n junction device.
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Contd..

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Contd..
• With the applied reverse voltage, the surface barrier increases, due to this
the conduction through the device stops.
• However, as a greater number of electrons are present in the metal region
than the n-type material, then due to an applied reverse voltage, a very
small amount of current flows through the device. This is known as leakage
current.
• On increasing the reverse voltage, the current through it also increases. But
after a certain voltage, the increase in applied potential will destroy the
surface barrier thereby damaging the diode.
• It is noteworthy in the case of Schottky diodes, that the almost negligible
presence of holes in the metal decreases the reverse recovery time of the
diode Prepared by Shruti Oza
Contd…
• Due to the unipolar nature of the device a comparatively smaller
barrier potential exists between the two regions. Thus, it can switch off
faster than p-n junction device. Resultantly reducing the reverse
recovery time.

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Contd..

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 Contd..
• The x-axis shows the applied voltage and the y-axis represents the
current flowing through the device. It exhibits barrier potential
nearly 0.2 to 0.25 V while it is 0.7 V in case of silicon p-n junction
diode.

• Also, the reverse breakdown voltage in case of Schottky diode is very

less than that of a p-n junction diode.

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 Advantages of Schottky Diode

• It possesses low forward turn-on voltage.

• The junction capacitance offered by Schottky diode is low.
• It possesses fast reverse recovery time trr.
• Schottky diodes are highly efficient and are used in high-frequency
applications.

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 Disadvantages of Schottky Diode

• The reverse breakdown voltage is less in case of Schottky diode.

• It is an expensive device.

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 Applications of Schottky Diode

• These are widely used in high-frequency switching and

rectification applications.

• Schottky diodes are also used in the detector, logic circuits and in
digital computers etc.

• It also finds its applications in clipper and clamper circuits

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 PIN Diode
• A PIN diode is an advancement of normal PN junction diode. It is a 3-layer
device in which an intrinsic layer i.e., undoped semiconductor is
sandwiched between P and N regions. Thus, making it a PIN diode.
• The presence of intrinsic region exhibits high resistance property. Due to
this, the magnitude of the electric field also becomes large. This resultantly
increases the electron and hole pair generation in the region. Hence, it
allows the operation of the weak input signal.
• It is a type of photodetector that has the ability to change light energy into
its electrical form due to the presence of intrinsic region. Along with
providing high resistance a PIN diode also possesses a lower value of
capacitance.
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 Contd..
• As with the insertion of intrinsic region, the distance between p
and n region increases.

• The capacitance and distance are inversely proportional. Thus,

with the increase in the distance the capacitance decreases.

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Contd..

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Contd..

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 Contd..
• A PIN diode is a 3-layer device composed of p region, n region and
intrinsic region.
• P region is formed by doping trivalent impurity to the
semiconductor.
• And the n region is formed when the pentavalent impurity is
doped to the semiconductor material.
• The region of an intrinsic semiconductor is nothing but the
undoped semiconductor material.

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 Contd..
• A PIN diode is formed by two methods, i.e., either by planar
structure or mesa structure.
• In case of the mesa structure, the layers of semiconductor which
are previously doped are developed (grown) on the intrinsic
region. Thereby generating a PIN diode.
• In the case of planar structure, a narrow (thin) epitaxial layer is
imposed on the intrinsic region in order to form a P+ region.
Similarly, N+ region is also created on another side of the
substrate. The intrinsic region offers very high resistivity of the
order of 0.1 Ω-m.
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Contd..
• A PIN diode is almost like a normal
PN junction diode however the only
variation is the presence of intrinsic
region. This region is nothing but
serves as the depletion region
between P and N regions.

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 Contd..
• When no any external potential is provided to the diode, the
carriers diffuse across the junction because of the concentration
gradient. Thus, forming a depletion region at NI junction.

• However, the thickness is greater on the i region as compared to

n region. This is so because the doping level of N region is very
much higher than I region. As we already assume that the intrinsic
region is undoped semiconductor material

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 Contd..

• In case a forward voltage is provided to the diode, the charge carriers from
p and n region are injected into the intrinsic region. This is so because
applied forward potential reduces the depletion width. Due to this, the
resistance offered by the device in no biased condition starts decreasing
because of forward biasing. So, as the forward voltage is increased, the
greater number of charge carriers gets injected into the intrinsic region.
• Thereby, producing a large current through the device and resultantly
decreasing the resistance. Hence, it is said that in a forward biased
condition PIN diode behaves as a variable resistance device.

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 Contd..
• Now, as the reverse bias voltage is applied to the device. The
depletion width starts increasing. As the reverse voltage is
increased, the width of the depletion region increases as far as
whole mobile carriers swept away from the intrinsic region. This
voltage is known as swept out voltage. Usually, its value is -2V.
• The device functions as a capacitor in a reverse biased condition.
Here P and N region serve as the two parallel plates of the
capacitor. In case of high reverse bias, a thin depletion region is
noticed in the p region.

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 Characteristics of PIN diode
• Low Capacitance: A PIN diode offers a lower value of capacitance due to
the larger distance between p and n region. When only a small reverse
potential is applied, the depletion region gets totally depleted. As the
depletion region gets depleted, the capacitance will now do not show
variation with the applied potential. Due to the presence of a small
amount of charge in the intrinsic region.

• High breakdown voltage: Due to the presence of intrinsic region, PIN

diode exhibits a higher value of breakdown voltage. This is so because a
higher voltage is required in order to destroy the thick depletion region

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 Contd..
• Sensitive to photodetection: The depletion region is responsible for
generating energy when radiation falls on its surface. The existence of
an intrinsic region enhances the area for radiation absorption. Hence,
these are widely used as photodetectors.
• Storage of carriers: This is the important characteristic of PIN diode. The
intrinsic region enhances the area for storage of carriers. The stored
charge in the depletion region is responsible for the amount of current
flowing through the circuit. When forward biasing is provided to the
device, then, in this case, the device exhibits variable resistance
characteristics. As the resistance varies with the supplied input voltage.
Hence, it does not produce distortion or rectification
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 Applications of PIN Diode
• As a Photodetector: A PIN diode can change the absorbed light into electrical
energy. The placement of intrinsic region between the p and n region increases the
region for radiation absorption. With the increased radiation absorption region, the
efficiency of the device to produce electrical energy also increases. Thus, it can be
used as a photodiode.
• As a radio frequency switch: The intrinsic region isolates the p and n region of the
diode due to which capacitance decreases. The capacitance of the device should
almost negligible in order to operate it as a switch.
• As a voltage rectifier: PIN diode is able to bear high reverse voltage due to the
intrinsic layer. This leads to an increase in the breakdown voltage of the diode.
Hence, due to this, the device allows the rectification of high input voltage.
• PIN diode possesses a faster response time. Due to this, these are widely used in
microwave applications
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 Key Terms related to PIN Diode
• Swept-out voltage: It is that reverse applied voltage at which the
charge carriers get completely swept away from the depletion
region. Its value is somewhat -2V.

• Response time: It is the time taken by the device to show change

from one state to another. Or we can say, the time taken by the
device to change from conducting to non-conducting state or vice-
versa.

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 Microwave Transistors:
• There is a need to develop special transistors to tolerate the
microwave frequencies.

• Hence for microwave applications, silicon n-p-n transistors that

can provide adequate powers at microwave frequencies have
been developed.

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Cross-sectional view

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Construction of Microwave Transistors

• An epitaxial n layer is grown

over a low resistivity n+
silicon substrate above the
epitaxial layer a p region is
diffused forming the base
and n+ layer is diffused over
the p region to form the
emitter.

• The silicon substrate acts as

the collector.
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Contd..

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Contd..
• The microwave bipolar transistors are active three terminal devices
which are commonly used for amplification process and switching
phenomena.
• The three regions of the transistor are emitter, base, and collector.
• The emitter region forms the input of the device, and the collector
region forms the output of the device.
• The emitter region of the transistor is heavily doped and has moderate
area of cross section.
• The base of the transistor is thin and lightly doped to reduce the
recombination rate.
• The collector region of the transistor is large and moderately doped.

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 Contd..
• The charge carriers from the emitter are supplied to the collector
through the base.

• When the charge carriers from the emitter reach the base some of
them recombine with the charge carriers in the base.

• The remaining charge carriers are directed towards the collector

constituting the collector current or output current.

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 Contd..
• An n type epitaxial layer is grown on n+ substrate that constitutes
the collector.

• On this n region, a SiO2 layer is grown thermally.

• A p-base and heavily doped n-emitters are diffused into the base.
Openings are made in Oxide for Ohmic contacts.

• Connections are made in parallel.

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Contd..

Such transistors
have a surface
geometry
categorized as
either
interdigitated,
overlay, or matrix

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 Contd..
• Small signal transistors employ interdigitated surface geometry.
Interdigitated structure is suitable for small signal applications in
the L, S, and C bands.

• The matrix geometry is sometimes called mesh or emitter grid.

• Overlay and Matrix structures are useful as power devices in the

UHF and VHF regions.

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 Operation
• In a microwave transistor, initially the emitter-base and collector-
base junctions are reverse biased.

• On the application of a microwave signal, the emitter-base

junction becomes forward biased. If a p-n-p transistor is
considered, the application of positive peak of signal, forward
biases the emitter-base junction, making the holes to drift to the
thin negative base. The holes further accelerate to the negative
terminal of the bias voltage between the collector and the base
terminals. A load connected at the collector, receives a current
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 Contd..
• The microwave bipolar transistor is a non-linear device, which is mostly
silicon n-p-n type operating up to ‘5 GHz’.

• For high frequency applications, the NPN structure is preferred because

the electron mobility is higher than hole mobility.

• Diffusion and ion implantation are the common methods used for
transistor fabrication.

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 Modes of operation
1. Normal Mode: In this mode, the emitter base junction of the npn
transistor is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse
biased. Most transistor amplifiers is operated in normal mode.

2. Saturation Mode: When both the emitter base junction and

collector base junction are forward biased, the transistor is in
saturation mode with low resistance and acts like a short circuit.

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 Contd..
3. Cut Off Mode: When both the junctions are reverse biased, the
Tr is operated in Cut Off mode. The Tr acts like an open circuit. Both
the saturation and cut off modes are used when transistor acts as a
switch.

4. Inverted Active Mode: In this mode, the emitter base junction is

reverse biased and collector base junction is forward biased.

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 Contd..
• Microwave transistors have limitations on frequency and power.

• These limitations can be due to maximum velocity of carriers,

maximum electric field and maximum current.

• The four basic equations for the power frequency limitation are~
Voltage Freq, Current Freq, Power Freq and Power Gain Freq

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