SPATIAL DATABASE

Spatial database is a database that is enhanced to store and access spatial data or data that
defines a geometric space. These data are often associated with geographic locations and
features, or constructed features like cities.
Data on spatial databases are stored as coordinates, points, lines, polygons and topology. Some
spatial databases handle more complex data like three-dimensional objects, topological coverage
and linear networks.

Common database systems use indexes for a faster and more efficient search and access of data.
This index, however, is not fit for spatial queries. Instead, spatial databases use something like a
unique index called a spatial index to speed up database performance.
Spatial indexing is very much required because a system should be able to retrieve data from a
large collection of objects without really searching the whole bunch. It should also support
relationships between connecting objects from different classes in a better manner than just
filtering.
Aside from the indexes, spatial databases also offer spatial data types in their data model and
query language. These databases require special kinds of data types to provide a fundamental
abstraction and model the structure of the geometric objects with their corresponding
relationships and operations in the spatial environment. Without these kind of data types, the
system would not be able to support the kind of modeling a spatial database offers.

A spatial database system may be defined as a database system that offers spatial data types in
its data model and query language, and supports spatial data types in its implementation,
providing at least spatial indexing and spatial join methods.
Spatial database systems offer the underlying database technology for geographic information
systems and other applications.
Characteristic for the technology is the capability to deal with large collections of relatively
simple geometric objects, for example, a set of 100 000 polygons. Several terms have been used
for database systems offering such support like pictorial, image, geometric, geographic, or
spatial database system. The terms “pictorial” and “image” database system arise from the fact
that the data to be managed are often initially captured in the form of digital raster images (e.g.
remote sensing by satellites, or computer tomography in medical applications).
We survey data modeling, querying, data structures and algorithms, and system architecture for
such systems.
Spatial database system is a full-fledged database system with additional capabilities for
handling spatial data. Therefore spatial indexing is mandatory. It should also support connecting
objects from different classes through some spatial relationship.
A spatial database therefore has the following characteristics:
(1) A spatial database system is a database system.
(2) It offers spatial data types (SDTs) in its data model and query language.
(3) It supports spatial data types in its implementation, providing at least spatial indexing
and efficient algorithms for spatial join.
Required functions of a spatial database are as follows.
 Consistency with little or no redundancy
 Maintenance of data quality including updating
 Self descriptive with metadata
 High performance by database management system with database language
 Security including access control
Spatial Database Design
A spatial database includes collections of information about the spatial location, relationship and
shape of topological geographic features and the data in the form of attributes.
The design of the spatial database is the formal process of analyzing facts about the real world
into a structured model.
Database design is characterized by the following phases:
 Requirement analysis,
 Logical design
 Physical design.
In other words, you basically need a plan, a design layout and then the data to complete the
process.
Having a solid well designed spatial database is the key to performing good Spatial Analysis.
The database can be complex and designed with expensive sophisticated software or can be
merely a simple well organized collection of data that can be utilized in a geographic form.
Three main categories of spatial modeling functions that can be applied to geographic features
within a GIS are:
i) Geometric models, such as calculating the Euclidean distance between features, generating
buffers, calculating areas and perimeters, and so on;
ii) Coincidence models, such as topological overlay;
iii) Adjacency models (path finding, redistricting, and allocation).
All three model categories support operations on spatial data such as points, lines, polygons, tins,
and grids. Functions are organized in a sequence of steps to derive the desired information for
analysis.
Almost all entities of geographic reality have at least a 3-dimensional spatial character, but not
all dimensions may be needed. E.g. a highway pavement actually has a depth which might be
important, but is not as important as the width, which is not as important as the length.
Representation should be based on the types of manipulations that might be undertaken. Map-
scale of the source document is important in constraining the level of detail represented in a
database. E.g. on a 1:100,000 map individual houses or fields are not visible
Steps in database design
1. Conceptual
a. software and hardware independent
b. describes and defines included entities
c. identifies how entities will be represented in the database
d. i.e. selection of spatial objects - points, lines, areas, raster cells
e. requires decisions about how real-world dimensionality and relationships will be
represented
f. these can be based on the processing that will be done on these objects
g. e.g. should a building be represented as an area or a point?
h. e.g. should highway segments be explicitly linked in the database?
2. Logical
a. software specific but hardware independent
b. sets out the logical structure of the database elements, determined by the data base
management system used by the software
3. Physical
a. both hardware and software specific
b. requires consideration of how files will be structured for access from the disk
Characteristics of a Good Database Design
In order that the GIS database provides the best service it should be:
i). Contemporaneous – the data should be updated regularly so as to yield information that
pertains to the same time-frame for all its measured variables
ii). Flexible and extensible so that additional datasets may be added as necessary for the
intended applications
iii). Positionally accurate – if for example the boundary between the residential and agricultural
land has changed, this may be incorporated with ease.
iv). Exactly compatible with other information that may be overlain with it
v). Internally accurate, portraying the nature of phenomena without error - requires clear
definitions of phenomena that are included
vi). Readily updated on a regular schedule
vii). Accessible to whoever needs it
Spatial Database Management
Many factors influence a successful Geographic Information System (GIS) implementation.
None however are more fundamental than having the right management strategies and software
to implement these.
The spatial database is the foundation by which all data is uniformly created and converted. But
maintaining the integrity and currency of the data is of fundamental importance.
As we move from newly created data to assimilation of all existing data, a properly designed
spatial database is insurance for end user success.
A good spatial database management software package should be able to:
1. Scale and rotate coordinate values for "best fit" projection overlays and changes.
2. Convert (interchange) between polygon and grid formats.
3. Permit rapid updating, allowing data changes with relative ease.
4. Allow for multiple users and multiple interactions between compatible data bases.
5. Retrieve, transform, and combine data elements efficiently.
6. Search, identify, and route a variety of different data items and score these values with
assigned weighted values, to facilitate proximity and routing analysis.
7. Perform statistical analysis, such as multivariate regression, correlations, etc.
8. Overlay one file variable onto another, i.e., map superpositioning.
9. Measure area, distance, and association between points and fields.
10. Model and simulate, and formulate predictive scenarios, in a fashion that allows for direct
interactions between the user group and the computer program