APPLICATION NOTE
The Bird BNA Series
Vector Network Analyzer Basics
www.birdrf.com APP NOTE 1
Vector Network Analyzer Basics
A vector network analyzer (VNA) is an extremely sophisticated instrument capable of characterizing impedance of
electrical networks with measurements offering magnitude and phase details that enable thorough behavioral
insights. The device under test (DUT) often tends to be used in radio frequency (RF) applications that involve
understanding the response of things such as individual components, cables, antennas, filters, amplifiers, and much
more. In all cases, it is the job of the VNA to compare its source signal to measurements of reflected and transmitted
signals, yielding impedance and scattering parameter (S-parameter) data to inform the user of a device’s power-
handling capabilities.
This application note will provide cursory insight on topics necessary to get you started in understanding the vector
network analyzer. We will start with a review of the foundational terminology applied during the use of a VNA and
other RF-related topics. We then offer an overview of the hardware ecosystem that makes up the VNA architecture.
Finally, we provide an understanding of S-parameters.
VNA Measurement Concepts and The goal of an RF system is to achieve transferring the
maximum amount of power. To quantify this,
Common Terminology measurements of the incident, reflected and
transmitted signals are necessary. Further, once these
The operation of a VNA is regularly analogized with values are known, different ratio-based
how light responds when sent through a lens. The measurements can be quantified for the device or
incident light (shown in Figure 1) is the source or system, examples of which are illustrated in Figure 2,
reference which starts off at its full potential. While it with definitions for each provided in the text that
may be desired to have the entirety of the source pass follows.
through the lens, we understand that there may be
attributes of the lens that cause it to increase or
diminish the intensity of the incident as well as
imperfections that may distort or skew the signal. We
refer to the resultant signal after its pass through the
lens as the transmitted signal.
Figure 2: VNA measurement summary with respect to the device
under test using measurement information from incident,
reflected, and transmitted signals.
Figure 1: General concept of light response as it passes through a
lens. • Return Loss – “Also known as reflection loss; a
measure of the fraction of available power that is
not delivered by a source to a load.” [1]
Additionally, we can understand that when the • Reflection Coefficients – “A parameter that
incident strikes the lens there will inevitably be some describes how much of an electromagnetic wave
of it which does not pass but bounces back in the is reflected by an impedance discontinuity in the
direction of the origin. This is referred to as the transmission medium.” [2]
reflected signal.
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• Impedance – “The effective resistance of an the fundamental components and the role that each
electric circuit or component to alternating play.
current, arising from the combined effects of
ohmic resistance and reactance.” [3] Because we want to observe how our device responds
to a known stimulus, the network analyzer relies upon
• Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) – “The ratio of the a signal source (Figure 3) to perform repetitive
maximum amplitude of the total voltage to the frequency sweeps over the range of interest using a
minimum amplitude of that voltage.” [4] Also controlled power level.
referred to as voltage standing wave ratio or
VSWR and often referred to as “match”.
• Insertion Loss – “A measure of the amount of loss Figure 3: Symbol for an RF signal
in power or signal strength that occurs when a source.
device, such as a filter or an amplifier, is inserted
into a transmission line or circuit.” [5]
• Gain – In general, similar to the definition of The source can also be configured for power sweeps
insertion loss with the exception that the amount using a known frequency or set of frequencies when
of power increases through the device in the performing gain compression point testing of an
circuit. amplifier.
• Transmission Coefficients – “The ratio of the Some multi-port network analyzer topologies may use
transmitted particle current and the incident a single source to drive all ports. In such cases,
particle current, and will depend on the incident switches help simplify the design and limit cost. Figure
energy.” [6] 4 provides examples of different switches you might
encounter in any type of circuit.
• Phase – “The position of a wave at a point in time
on a waveform cycle and lies somewhere
between 0 and 360 degrees.” [7]
• Electrical Length – “A dimensionless parameter
equal to the physical length of an electrical
conductor such as a cable or wire, divided by the
wavelength of alternating current at a given
frequency traveling through the conductor.” [8]
• Electrical Delay – The time it takes for an
electrical signal to pass through a DUT.
• Group Delay – “The negative derivative of the Figure 4: Different switch form factors – A) single pole, single
phase response, so a distortion [-]less system has throw (SPST), B) single pole, double throw (SPDT), C) double pole,
a constant, positive group delay.” [9] single throw (DPST, and D) double pole, double throw (DPDT).
These types of system observations are achieved by
the hardware elements that compose the VNA as Measurements are made by way of signal separation
highlighted in the next section. hardware to help minimize the invasiveness of placing
sensors in the immediate path of the incident,
reflected, or transmitted signals. This can be achieved
by using directional couplers or directional bridges,
the latter of which is not a focus for this writing. From
VNA Building Blocks and Figure 5A, we can see how the incident signal might
Architectures enter port 1 of a directional coupler then exit port 2.
Port 3 yields a resultant signal that is typically on the
Before looking at the vector network analyzer
architecture as a whole, it is important to understand
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www.birdrf.com APP NOTE 3
order of 10 to 20 dB less than that of the incident and such as down-conversion and filtering then passing
used by the VNA for its measurements. along the outcomes for analysis. Results and
calculations (either from standard S-parameters or
data comparison) can be evaluated through an
integrated display or accessed using an available
In many cases, the output on port 3 of the directional input/output (IO) or communications protocol,
coupler is buffered by some resistance or attenuation. popular choices being USB and LAN.
Figure 5: A) Symbol for directional coupler with the coupled
signal being -20 dB relative to the incoming signal. B) Symbol for
directional coupler with the addition of attenuation per the
resistance symbol.
In these cases, the symbol for the device will be
modified to appear as in Figure 5B.
Since even a single port network analyzer will need to Figure 7: Example of a 2-port network analyzer architecture.
be able to measure the incident in reflected signals, it
is common to find multiple coupling devices within a While the diagram captures the basic working
network analyzer topology. While coupling devices are principles of either a scalar or vector network
optimal choices for sampling signals, they will carry analyzer, it is important to understand the distinction
some level of insertion loss and have an effect on the between the two. The function of a scalar network
overall directivity of the system. Similar can be said of analyzer is to provide magnitude information only,
any switches or mixers. Much of this though, can ignoring any information about phase. This may make
eventually be compensated for by factory and for a good choice where simple gain/loss, return loss,
measurement calibrations. and VSWR measurements are of primary interest, for
instance, in manufacturing. However, the vector
As alluded to in the previous paragraph, a portion of network analyzer is the optimal choice in a research
the network analyzer circuitry is dedicated to mixers and development setting where phase information is
and a tunable local oscillator (LO) – see Figure 6 – that critical for not just some of the more informative
helps resolve higher frequencies to a lower measurements (i.e. impedance or group delay) but
intermediate frequency (IF), then used to define a also used for system corrections applied through the
signal passband through a downconverter. Some process of calibration.
diagrams may opt to bypass showing the passband in
favor of implying that the functionality gets addressed The evolution of network analyzers has seen a shift
by the analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) and digital from standalone units with embedded operating
signal processing (DSP) stages. systems and integrated displays to more disaggregate
solutions that leverage the power and flexibility of
personal computers. Modern VNAs, particularly those
with a modular USB or PXI form factor, are designed
to integrate seamlessly with PCs, becoming an
extension of the computer itself. This arrangement
aids the user in the possible transition from the design
phase in their lab to creating automated setups that
can be deployed in production. Furthermore, with no
Figure 6: Symbols for A) mixer, B) local (IF) oscillator, and
residual data retained post-power down, these VNAs
C) passband or low pass filter. ensure that sensitive setup and measurement
information remains with the user's PC. This translates
to the ease of sharing VNA hardware with the
Figure 7 shows all the components assembled confidence that each user can retain their unique
representing a typical 2-port vector network analyzer configurations without much concern for loss or over-
construction. The ADC and DSP blocks handle tasks writing.
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S-parameters Conclusion
Simply put, the job of the VNA hardware is to capture In summary, VNAs are more than just test equipment;
scattering parameter, or S-parameter, data – by they are the gatekeepers of quality and performance
measuring magnitude and phase of incident, reflected, in the RF domain. Their importance extends through
and transmitted signals – then use it to inform the every stage of the product lifecycle, from conception
operator on the device performance through and design to manufacturing and field deployment.
measurements such as those referenced in Figure 2. Understanding how to leverage the capabilities of a
To get full appreciation of all S-parameter VNA can unlock new possibilities in engineering,
measurements, it is important to understand that, leading to innovations that continue to push the
while we see the incident passing in one direction in boundaries of what is possible in electronics and
Figure 2, the incident could also originate on the communications technology.
opposing side of the lens and provide information
from another perspective. Figure 8 shows the full set S-parameters are the key metrics VNAs use to gauge a
of S-parameters that can be gained from a 2-port test device's performance. S11 and S22 are reflective
configuration. parameters, telling us how much signal is reflected
back from the input and output, respectively—critical
for understanding how well the device absorbs and
transfers power. On the other hand, S21 and S12 are
transmission parameters, revealing the efficiency of
signal transfer through the device from one port to
another. S21 usually takes center stage by indicating
signal gain or loss, while S12 provides insight into
signal isolation, particularly important in complex RF
systems.
Figure 8: Visual concept of how S-parameters are defined
through source and measurement signals.
These measurements are made possible by a network
analyzer's internal hardware, which includes signal
sources for frequency sweeps, directional couplers for
S11 and S22 are all about reflections. S11 tells you signal separation, and mixers for frequency resolution.
how much of the signal that you send into your device Calibration plays a vital role in offsetting any insertion
bounces back, which is crucial because too much loss from these internal components, ensuring
bounce-back means the device is not absorbing the accuracy in measurements. Today's VNAs often
signal properly, affecting performance. S22 does the interface with PCs, enhancing the transferability of
same, but it looks at the signal coming out of the data and settings across different development and
device. Either case is in reference to a characteristic production stages. This setup also heightens security
impedance, Z0, to which the input and/or output is as all sensitive information resides on the PC, adhering
intended to match at certain frequencies for to existing security protocols. Whether it's for
maximum power transfer conditions. Measuring S11 reflection, transmission, impedance, or delay
and S22 is like checking both the front door and back measurements, VNAs serve as critical tools in
door of a house to make sure they are properly sealed assessing and ensuring device and system efficacy.
against poor weather conditions.
For more information about Vector Network
S21 and S12 deal with transmission - how much signal Analyzers, please visit https://birdrf.com.
goes through the device from one port to the other.
S21 measures the signal that goes from the input to
the output, giving you an idea of the efficiency of the
signal transfer. On the flip side, S12 measures the
signal that makes it through the device the opposite
way, from the output back to the input. While S21 is
usually the star of the show, as it tells us about signal
gain or loss, S12 can be just as important, especially
when isolating signals is a key concern.
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www.birdrf.com APP NOTE 5
References [8] Author unlisted. “Electrical Length”, Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_length#:~:text
[1] Michael Steer, “Microwave Network Analysis” in =In%20electrical%20engineering%2C%20electrical%20
Fundamentals of Microwave and RF Design, Third length,frequency%20traveling%20through%20the%20
Edition, NC State University, 2019. doi: conductor. (accessed Apr. 1, 2024)
https//doi.org/10.5149/9781469656892 Steer, ch 7,
sec. 7.4, pp. 116. [9] Martin D. Stoehr, “Radio Specifications and
Operational Terms” in RF Basics, Analog Devices, 2012.
[2] Author unlisted. “Understanding Reflection pp. 28.
Coefficient”, electronics notes.
https://www.electronics-
notes.com/articles/antennas-propagation/vswr-
return-loss/reflection-coefficient.php (accessed Mar.
28, 2024).
[3] Author unlisted. “Impedance meaning”, Oxford
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(accessed Mar. 28, 2024).
[4] Michael Steer, “Microwave Network Analysis” in
Fundamentals of Microwave and RF Design, Third
Edition, NC State University, 2019. doi:
https//doi.org/10.5149/9781469656892 Steer, ch 3,
sec. 3.3.6, pp. 60.
[5] Author unlisted. “Introduction to Insertion Loss”,
HardwareBee. https://hardwarebee.com/insertion-
loss/ (accessed Mar. 28, 2024).
[6] Author unlisted. “Transmission Coefficient”,
ScienceDirect.
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ransmission-
coefficient#:~:text=The%20transmission%20coefficien
t%20is%20defined,depend%20on%20the%20incident
%20energy. (accessed Mar. 28, 2024).
[7] Dirk Aubram. “What is an RF Phase Shifter?”,
Impulse Technologies, Inc. https://impulse-
tech.com/2023/12/what-is-an-rf-phase-
shifter/#:~:text=An%20RF%20Phase%20Shifter%20is,b
etween%200%20and%20360%20degrees. (accessed
Mar. 28, 2024).
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