ISC Physics Project
Topic: Dark Matter and Dark Energy
Acknowledgement
I extend my sincere gratitude to my Physics teacher for support and invaluable guidance
throughout the completion of this project. I am also grateful to my school library for providing
access to excellent scientific books and journals, which aided my research. My heartfelt thanks
to my family and friends for their encouragement. Lastly, I wish to acknowledge the contributions
of authors and researchers in the field of cosmology, whose published works made this
exploration possible.
Index
1. Introduction
2. Project Background
3. What is Dark Matter?
4. Properties and Theories of Dark Matter
5. Evidence for Dark Matter
6. What is Dark Energy?
7. Properties and Theories of Dark Energy
8. Evidence for Dark Energy
9. The Role in the Universe
10. Dark Matter and Dark Energy in Modern Cosmology
11. Detection and Challenges
12. Future Research and Prospects
13. Applications and Implications
14. Conclusion
15. Bibliography
1. Introduction
The universe is astonishing in both its vastness and mystery. Despite significant advancements,
scientists have found that around 95% of the universe is made up of something we cannot see
or touch directly. These components are called dark matter and dark energy. Dark matter is an
invisible form of mass that holds galaxies together, while dark energy is a mysterious pressure
that is causing the universe to grow at an ever-faster rate. Ordinary matter, which makes up
stars, planets, and humans, is only a small fraction—about 5% of everything that exists.
Exploring what dark matter and dark energy are, and why they are so important, opens the door
to some of the deepest mysteries in physics and cosmology.
2. Project Background
Our understanding of the universe has evolved greatly due to technological progress and new
discoveries. Early astronomers believed all celestial phenomena could be explained by what they
could observe with visible light. However, with the development of telescopes and detectors
sensitive to other types of radiation, scientists noticed peculiarities such as the unexpected
rotation speeds of galaxies. This could not be explained by visible matter alone, suggesting
another form of invisible matter—dark matter. Later, when scientists observed distant
supernovae, they found that the universe’s expansion was speeding up, contradicting the
expectation that gravity would cause it to slow down. This led to the notion of dark energy. The
study of these invisible components now forms a crucial part of astrophysics.
3. What is Dark Matter?
Dark matter is an unknown type of matter that does not emit, absorb, or reflect light, making it
invisible to telescopes. Yet, its gravitational effects can be observed on galaxies and galactic
clusters. Dark matter was first proposed by Fritz Zwicky in 1933, who noticed that galaxies
moved as if they had much more mass than was visible. Today, scientists estimate that dark
matter makes up roughly 27% of the universe. It is “dark” because it neither emits nor interacts
with electromagnetic radiation like light. The actual particles making up dark matter remain
undetected, but they must have mass, as they exert gravitational force and help keep galaxies
from flying apart.
4. Properties and Theories of Dark Matter
Dark matter interacts with other matter primarily through gravity and possibly through weak
nuclear forces. It does not interact electromagnetically, making it nearly impossible to detect
directly. There are various theories about what dark matter could be:
WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles): Hypothetical particles that have mass and
interact via weak nuclear force.
Axions: Tiny, lightweight particles postulated to solve certain problems in particle physics.
MACHOs (Massive Compact Halo Objects): These include non-luminous objects like brown
dwarfs or black holes.
Despite years of searching, none have been confirmed as the dark matter particle. Computer
simulations show that dark matter forms “halos” around galaxies, acting as a cosmic scaffold for
visible matter.
[Image 1: Diagram explaining galaxy rotation curves and the need for dark matter halos]
5. Evidence for Dark Matter
Several lines of evidence support the existence of dark matter:
Galaxy Rotation Curves: The outer fringes of galaxies rotate faster than can be explained
by visible matter; only an unseen mass can account for this.
Gravitational Lensing: The bending of light by massive clusters is stronger than visible
mass would allow, indicating extra mass from dark matter.
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB): Subtle fluctuations in the CMB signal the presence
of dark matter in the early universe.
Large-Scale Structure Formation: The distribution and structure of galaxies and clusters in
the universe fit only when dark matter is included.
6. What is Dark Energy?
While dark matter pulls things together, dark energy has the opposite effect. It is a mysterious
form of energy permeating all of space, causing the universe’s expansion to accelerate. In the
late 1990s, astronomers found that distant Type Ia supernovae were fainter than expected,
suggesting that the rate of expansion of the universe was increasing over time. Dark energy
comprises about 68% of the universe. The most widely accepted explanation is the
cosmological constant (Λ), first proposed by Einstein—a constant energy density filling space.
Some think dark energy could be a dynamic field evolving over time.
[Image 2: Illustration of universe expansion under the influence of dark energy]
7. Properties and Theories of Dark Energy
Key properties:
Uniformly fills the universe.
Exerts negative pressure, which causes “repulsive gravity.”
Dominates at cosmic scales, becoming more influential as the universe expands.
Theories:
Cosmological Constant (Λ): A fixed energy density associated with empty space.
Quintessence: A hypothesized evolving energy field that could explain dark energy’s
effects.
Phantom Energy: An even more speculative idea suggesting energy with even more
negative pressure than cosmological constant.
The real nature of dark energy remains unknown, making it one of the biggest puzzles in modern
physics.
8. Evidence for Dark Energy
The main evidence for dark energy comes from three sources:
Supernova Observations: Type Ia supernovae appear dimmer and farther away than
anticipated if the expansion rate was constant or slowing, indicating acceleration.
Cosmic Microwave Background: Patterns observed in the CMB point toward the existence
of an extra energy component not accounted for by matter alone.
Large-Scale Structure: Observations of galactic clusters and how they have evolved over
time are consistent only if dark energy is present.
[Image 3: Hubble diagram showing supernovae supporting accelerated expansion]
9. The Role in the Universe
Dark matter and dark energy together compose about 95% of the universe, with ordinary matter
making up only 5%. Dark matter acts as “cosmic glue,” holding galaxies and clusters together.
Its gravity suppresses the expansion locally but does not emit light. Conversely, dark energy
drives an accelerated expansion of the universe, stretching space itself, which will eventually
cause galaxies to move apart so rapidly that distant galaxies will no longer be visible from Earth.
Both play essential roles in shaping the universe’s architecture and its ultimate fate.
10. Dark Matter and Dark Energy in Modern Cosmology
The standard model of cosmology, known as the ΛCDM model (Lambda Cold Dark Matter),
incorporates both dark matter and dark energy. According to this model:
About 5% of the universe is ordinary, visible matter
Around 27% is cold dark matter
Approximately 68% is dark energy
The ΛCDM model elegantly fits observational data like the CMB, large-scale structure, and
supernova distances, providing a framework for understanding the universe’s history and
destiny.
[Image 4: Pie chart of universe composition: ordinary matter, dark matter, dark energy]
11. Detection and Challenges
Dark Matter Detection:
Direct Detection: Using sensitive underground detectors to attempt to capture collisions
between dark matter particles (e.g., WIMPs) and normal atoms.
Indirect Detection: Searching for unusual signals like gamma rays, possibly caused by dark
matter particles annihilating or decaying.
Collider Experiments: High-energy collisions (like at the LHC) might produce dark matter,
observed as missing energy or momentum.
Challenges: The chief difficulties are that dark matter rarely (if ever) interacts with observable
matter, and background noise hampers detection. Dark energy’s detection is even more
challenging, as it does not clump, cannot be detected in laboratories, and is inferred only from
large-scale astronomical surveys.
12. Future Research and Prospects
Cutting-edge research includes:
Dark matter: Ever-larger and more sensitive detectors (e.g., LUX-ZEPLIN, Xenon1T) and
searching for new types of weakly interacting particles.
Dark energy: Space missions (e.g., Euclid, Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope)
measuring cosmic acceleration with more accuracy.
Theoretical work: Exploring possible extensions to the standard model of particle physics,
and new concepts in gravity and quantum mechanics.
[Image 5: Artistic rendering of a next-generation dark matter detector]
13. Applications and Implications
Understanding dark matter and dark energy is largely fundamental science but has profound
implications:
Discovering new types of particles or forces may revolutionize physics.
Technology developed for detectors often finds uses in medical imaging and computing.
Shedding light on the fate of the cosmos forces humanity to reconsider our place in the
universe and the ultimate limits of scientific knowledge.
14. Conclusion
Dark matter and dark energy are among the most profound mysteries in science. Even though
we cannot see or touch them, they have a dominating influence on the cosmos. Solving their
mysteries could unlock new realms of physics, reshape our understanding of the universe’s
origins, structure, and fate, and inspire future generations of scientists.
15. Bibliography
(Use only books, journals, and academic articles; do not include websites)
Hawking, S. (2001). The Universe in a Nutshell. Bantam Press.
Peebles, P. J. E. (1993). Principles of Physical Cosmology. Princeton University Press.
Carroll, S. M. (2010). From Eternity to Here: The Quest for the Ultimate Theory of Time.
Dutton Adult.
Freedman, R. A., & Kaufmann, W. J. (2014). Universe (10th Ed.). W. H. Freeman.
Yadav, J. (2025). "Unraveling the Mysteries of the Cosmos: A Comprehensive Review of
Dark Matter and Dark Energy." International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), Vol. 14,
Issue 5.
Suggestions for images:
1. Diagram of galaxy rotation curves (dark matter evidence)
2. Visual showing universe expansion from big bang to present (dark energy effect)
3. Hubble diagram of supernova distances
4. Pie chart of universe composition
5. Conceptual illustration/drawing of a dark matter detector
(Insert labeled diagrams and figures at appropriate sections as indicated. Each image should
have a caption and be clear for Class 12 level understanding.)
