CHAPTER 1: ELECTRICITY
Electricity is a form of energy.
It is defined as energy acquired by the charged particles by virtue of their motion.
Charged particles are protons, electrons and ions.
Electric charge (Q)
Electric charge is the property associated with charged particles such as protons,
electrons and ions.
Electric charge is denoted by the letter ‘Q’.
The two types of charges are:
1. Positive charge (due to electron deficiency)
2. Negative charge (due to excess of electrons)
Its SI unit is coulomb (denoted by C).
1 Coulomb Charge = Charge present on 6 x 1018 electrons
Charge present on 1 electron = -1.6 x 10-19 C
Charge present on 1 proton = +1.6 x 10-19 C
Calculate the number of electrons in 1 coulomb of charge.
Electric current (I)
The electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through any cross section
of a conductor.
SI unit of electric current is ampere (A)
1 ampere of electric current is defined as one coulomb of charges flowing through a
conductor in one second.
Small quantities of current are expressed in
milliampere =1 mA = 10–3 A
microampere = 1A = 10–6 A
Conventional flow of electric energy
The electric current flows from a region of higher potential to a region of lower
potential. That is in a direction opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
Ammeter: An instrument used to measure electric current in a circuit is called ammeter.
Ammeter has low resistance and it is always connected in series in a circuit.
Galvanometer: Galvanometer is a device which is used to detect the presence of
electric current.
Exercise: A current of 0.5 A is drawn by a filament of an electric bulb for 10 minutes. Find
the amount of electric charge that flows through the circuit.
Solution : We are given, I = 0.5 A , t = 10 min or 10 x 60 = 600 s.
Q=Ixt
= 0.5 A x 600 s
= 300 C
Potential difference (V)
The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is defined as the amount of
work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to the other point.
It is generally known as ‘Voltage’
S.I unit of potential difference is volt (V).
1 volt: When 1 joule of work is done in carrying one coulomb charge then potential difference is
called 1 volt.
Voltmeter: It is a device used to measure the potential difference. It has a high
resistance and is always connected in parallel to the circuit.
How much work is done in moving a charge of 2C across two points having a p.d of 12V?
V = 12V
Q = 2C
W=?
V = W/Q
W=VxQ
W = 12 x 2
W = 24 J
How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a 6V battery?
Q = 1C
V=6V
E=W=?
V = W/Q
W=VxQ
W=6x1
W=6J
Electric circuit:
A closed and continuous path along which an
electric current flows is called as electric circuit.
Open circuit: An electric circuit through which no
current flows is called an open circuit.
Closed circuit: An electric circuit through which current flows continuously is called an
closed circuit.
Symbols of some commonly used components in circuit:
Circuit diagram:
A diagram showing the arrangement of various
components in an electric circuit with the help of their
symbols is known as circuit diagram.
Ohm’s law:
At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends. (I V)
V = IR (R
R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and
is called its resistance.)
resistance.
Formulas
Ohm’s law circuit diagram
V-I graph for Ohm’s law
Examples of Ohmic devices
A wire, incandescent light bulb, electric stove heating element or a resistor.
Examples of Non - ohmic devices
Electronic appliances like music players, computers, telephones, etc.
V-I graph
Resistance (R):
It is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.
SI unit of resistance is ohm
hm ( Ω )
If the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is 1 V and the current
through it is 1 A, then the resistance R, of the conductor is 1 Ω.
Cause of resistance
When free electrons drift inside a conductor, they
frequently collide with its positive ions or atoms.
The motion of electrons is opposed during the
collisions.
1 ohm: If the potential difference across the two
ends of a conductor is 1 V and the current
through it is 1 A, then the resistance R, of the
conductor is 1 Ω.
It is obvious that the current through a resistor
is inversely proportional to its resistance. If the resistance is doubled the current
gets halved.
A component used to regulate current without changing the voltage source is called
variable resistance. In an electric circuit, a device called rheostat is often used to
change the resistance in the circuit.
Rheostat: A device used to change the magnitude of the
current by changing the length of the resistance wire
inserted in the circuit.
Factors on which the resistance
sistance of a conductor depends
depends:
(i) Directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
(ii) Inversely proportional to the area of cross
cross-section.
(iii) Directly proportional to the temperature.
(iv) Depends on nature of the material.
Derivation of Resistivity
R 𝛼 Length (R 𝛼 𝑙) ……(i)
R 𝛼 1/Area of cross section of conductor (𝑅
( 𝛼 1/A)…(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii) we get
R 𝛼 𝑙/A
R = ρ 𝑙 /A where constant “ρ” is the specific resistance of the conductor or resistivity
ρ=RA/𝑙
Specific Resistance/Resistivity
Resistivity ():
Specific resistance is the resistance of a conductor of unit length and unit area of
cross section.
if l = 1 m and A = 1 m2 then R=ρ
It is denoted by the symbol “ρ” (rho)
Its S.I. unit is ohm-metre (Ωm
Ωm)
It depends on material of the conductor and temperature of the conductor. (ρ α T)
It does not depend on length and area of cross section of the conductor.
Also known as Resistivity.
Range of resistivity of metals and alloys is 10–8 to 10–6 Ωm.
Range of resistivity of insulators is 1012 to 1017 Ωm.
Resistivity of alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals.
Alloys do not oxidize (burn) readily at high temperature, so they are commonly used
in electrical heating devices.
Copper and aluminium are used for electrical transmission lines as they have low
resistivity.
Q1. A wire of resistivity is stretched to three times its length. What will be its new
resistivity?
Ans: Resistivity remains unchanged as it does not depend on length. It depends on
nature of material of the wire.
Q2. Why do we use copper and aluminium wires for transmission of electric current?
Ans: Copper and aluminium have low resistivity or high conductivity.
Q3. Why are coils of electric toasters and electric irons made of an alloy rather
than a pure metal?
Ans: Alloys have higher resistivity than that of their constituent metals.
Alloys do not oxidize (or burn) readily at high temperature.
COMBINATION OF RESISTORS IN A CIRCUIT
Resistances in series:
When two or more resistances are connected end to
end they are said to be connected in series.
In a series combination of resistors the current is
the same in every part of the circuit or the same
current through each resistor.
The potential difference V is equal to the sum of
potential differences V1, V2, and V3.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 ----------- (1)
On applying Ohm’s law to the three resistors
separately, we further have
V1 = I R1, V2 = I R2, and V3 = I R3 ----------- (2)
Substituting the values of equation (2) in equation (1), we get
I R = I R1 + I R2 + I R3
Rs = R1 +R2 + R3
When several resistors are joined in series, the resistance of the combination Rs equals
the sum of their individual resistances, R1, R2, R3, and is thus greater than any
individual resistance.
Resistances in parallel:
When two or more resistances are connected across
two points so that each one of them is parallel to
each other, they are said to be connected in parallel.
The total current I, is equal to the sum of the
separate currents through each branch of the
combination.
I = I1 + I2 + I3 ----------- (1)
Voltage (V) across each resistance will be same.
Let RP be the equivalent resistance of the parallel
combination of resistors.
Hence, 𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅𝑃
On applying Ohm’s law to each resistor, we have
----------- (2)
Substituting the values of equation (2) in equation (1), we get
The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in parallel is
equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
Disadvantages of series connection
The appliances connected in series need currents of widely different values to operate
properly.
In a series circuit the current remains the same through each electrical gadget.
In a series circuit, if one component fails, the circuit is broken and none of the
components work.
Advantages of parallel connection
A parallel circuit divides the current through the electrical gadgets. This is helpful
particularly when each gadget has different resistance and requires different current
to operate properly.
The total resistance in a parallel circuit is least.
When one component fails the circuits will not breaks and other components works.
Heating effect of electric current
The effect of electric current due to which heat is produced in a wire when current is
passed through it is called heating effect of current or Joule’s heating.
Amount of heat produced in a conductor through which electricity flows
Consider a conductor AB connected to a cell. Let V be
the p.d. applied across the ends of a conductor. Hence,
work (W) is done in carrying unit positive charge (Q)
from one point to another point of the conductor.
WKT V = W/Q
W = V x Q……(1)
I = Q/t or Q = I x t
W=VxIxt
H = VIt
By Ohm’s law, V = IR
H = IR x I t
H = I2Rt
By Ohm’s law, I = V/R
H=VxVxt
R
H=V xt 2
R
Joule’s law of heating.
The heat produced in a resistor is
(i) directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance (I2),
(ii) directly proportional to resistance for a given current (R), and
(iii) directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resistor (t).
Formula of Joule’s law of heating: H = I2Rt
Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current
The flowing of current through conductor produce heat. We are using this heat due to
flow of current in our daily life as in electric iron, electric bulb, electric fuse, electric
heater and more. Heating effect of electric current are below
(i) Electric iron: In an iron, Mica as an insulator is used which is a bad conductor of
electricity but a good conductor of heat. Its melting point is very high, hence it does not
melt at very high temperature. Due to the flow of current through the coil it becomes
heated and the heat transferred to the metal part through mica. Finally the metal part
becomes heated. Iron is used with the heating effect of an electric current.
(ii) Electric bulb: In an electric bulb, a thick metallic wire made of tungsten metal is used.
The melting point and resistivity of tungsten are very high. It does not burn readily at a
high temperature. When the current flows through the tungsten wire or filament it
becomes heated and emit of light.
The glass bulb is filled with neutral gases or inactive gases to increase the life of the
tungsten filament.
(iii) Electric heater: In an electric heater, a material like nichrome is used as coil which
has very high resistance and high melting point. Flowing electric current through the coil
it becomes heated. Due to high resistance the coil becomes red color and heats the water.
(iv) Electric fuse: It protects circuits and appliances by stopping the flow of any unduly
high electric current. The fuse is placed in series with the device. It consists of a piece of
wire made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting point, for example aluminium,
copper, iron, lead etc. If a current larger than the specified value flows through the
circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks
the circuit. The fuse wire is usually encased in a cartridge of porcelain or similar material
with metal ends. The fuses used for domestic purposes are rated as 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, 10A,
etc. For an electric iron which consumes 1 kW electric power when operated at 220 V, a
current of (1000/220) A, that is, 4.54 A will flow in the circuit. In this case, a 5A fuse
must be used.
Electric Power
It is the electrical work done per unit time. S.I. unit of power is watt.
P=W=E
t t
If W = 1 joule, t = 1 second then Power = 1 joule = 1watt
1 second
One watt: When one joule of work is done per second, then the power is 1 watt
Different formulae for power
P = W/t
WKT By Joule’s law of heating,
W=VxIxt
P = VIt
t
Therefore, P = V x I
By Ohm’s law, V = IR
P = IR x I
P = I2R
By Ohm’s law, I = V/R
P=VxV
R
P = V2
R
Therefore, P = VI = I2R = V2
R
Electric Energy
It is the total work done by a current in an electric circuit.
WKT P = E
t
therefore, E = P x t
The electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance is given by
the product of its power rating and the time for which it is used.
Unit of Electrical consumed is watt-hour(Wh)
If P = 1 watt, t = 1 hr, then E = 1 watt x 1 hr = 1 watt-hour.
One watt-hour: It is the amount of electrical energy consumed
when an electrical appliance of 1 watt power is used for an hour.
Commercial unit of Electrical energy
Commercial unit of Electrical energy is kilowatt-hour(KWh)
One Kilowatt-hour: It is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an
electrical appliance having a power rating of 1 kilowatt is used in 1 hour.
1 kilowatt-hour = 36,00,000 joules or 3.6 x 106 J
Relation between kwh and joule(J)
1kWh = 1kilo-watt x 1 hr
= 1000 watt x 3600 sec
= 1000 J x 3600 sec
1 sec
= 1000 J x 3600
= 36,00,000 J
= 36 x 105 J
= 3.6 x 106 J
