Human

Re production
J-Iuman beings show sex~al r~prod uction and they have separa te sexes
•sexual). As we can identif y male and female from their physical
(Ulll . a Iso presen t. The secondary
I dimorp h"ism 1s
appearance means sexua
sexual characters of man and woma n are as fallows
Secondary Sexual Features in Man and Woma n

Character Man Woman

General build up More muscular Less muscular

Aggressiveness More marked Less marked
Hair growth
(i) Facial Beard , moustache present Absent
(ii) Axillary Present Present
(iii) Pubic Hair distribution more lateral Upward growth not so marked
and upwards towards umbilicus and is more horizonta l
(iv) Chest Present Absent
Mammary glands Undeveloped Well-developed
Pelvis Not broad More broad
Larynx More apparent Less apparent
-Yoice Low pitched High pi,~tc~hQCJ=-- - - - - -
~ athing Predominantly abdo!!JmJ..!!in~a:!!_l_ _ ~P~red~o~m~i::...:n:::.:an..:.:tl"Ly~th:..:..:o:.:..:ra~c......:..ic~---
~~MR..:__ _ _ _~H~i£~h~d~u~e~c~o~g~re~at~e~r~ac~t::_iv~ity~_.:.N::o:.t=so~hig:.h_as_com_.;..pa_red_to_m_a_n

Nlale Reproductive System · which can

The
b male has two visible sex organ s, th
e seen from the outside. The testes ar
Orga .
and n 1~ males, where as prosta te, se
Penis are the secon dary sexua l
 Urinary Bladder
Muscular structure that stores the urine Ureter
Vas Deterens Convey the unne frorn r.idneys to urinar:; bladder
Emeroes tram CiUOa ep1d1d)1m1s,leaves scortal sac and
eniWS aboor:11na ca, ·ty, ,hey are th·ck 2 in numbers
posress many ste1 eoc1' 1a. carr\ sperms from Seminal Vesicle
ep•didyr11s to eraculatory ducts. One pair of sac- ve s·r JC\Jre near the base of the bladder
produces all<'.a re secret or wr'cr for'"'1S 60% of semen '
Prostate Gland
S ngle arge g ano that surrounds the urethra, produces volume, its flu d ph ,s 7.4 co'"'ta ,,s fructose prostaglandins
1

m ky secret on w;th pH 6.5 which forms 25% of semen and clotting factors. Tne fruc:ose pro1ides energy to semen.
vo ume ts secrefon contains c"trc acrd, prostaglandins,
ar1c enzymes ~e am}1ase peosnogen, etc. Due to the Bulbourethral Gland
presence of citric acid semen 1s slightly acidic. Also called Cowper s g a!"1d sec'"etes a Kal1ne fluid
Prostag anons cause the uterus muscles to contract. called seminal p1asma Nh er s r·ch n fructose, calcium
Ejaculatory Duct and certain enzymes t a.so secretes mucus that helps
2 short tuoes eacn formeo by the union of duct from seminal in the lubrication of pei, s.
vesic e anc vas oeferens, •t passes through prostate gland
anc Joins t~e urethra composed of fibrous, muscular, Epididymis
columnar ep1the urr function to convey sperms. Long, narrow, coiled tubu1e lying a1ong the inner side of
the testis, it stores sperms . secretes fluid, which
Scrotum nourishes the sperms .
Poucr: o· deeply pigmented skin, contains testis, its
iemperature. s 2-2 5"C lower than the normal body
temperature which favours the production of sperms,
rerrn1ns connected to abdomen by inguinal canal. Testes
Primary sex organ,

Co,:rsa - Urethra produce sperms and male

Spongy Erectile sex steroids, suspended
Tissue
enis Provides common
3 cyl1ndncal
Male copulatory pathway for in the scrotum by the
organ, spermatic cords called
masses-2 dorsal sperms and urine,
conduct both urine
corpora covernosa
and semen. its opening gubernaculum, lined by
and 1 ventral corpus
ca~m~ spong1osum possesses 2 mesorchium, which
Urethra Corpus sphincters, its protects the testis.
spong1osum Prepuce Glans penis external opening is
Corpus spongiosum
TS of Penis Foresl-'Jn Nhich covers
enlargement at the
called urethral
the glans penis meatus.
end of penis
LS of Penis

Male reproductive system

The tcHtis lll transuerse ..;ection shows different <:ell types at various
stagc8. Nerve
Blood vessels

Vas defer ens

Epididymis.----l.~

Connective ---a...~ -""'1

tissue

Seminiferous
tubules

Testis ~___,_

Sertoli or Subtentacular Cells

Fou nd between germinal epithelium
cells_ singly and elongated, they provide
nourishment to developing spermatozoa
o~ s~erms, secrete Androgen
8 ' nd ing Proteins (ABPs) that concentrate
testosterone in seminiferous tubules.
Germinal Epithelium
Single layer, contains Serto
cells (at some places)
Leydig or Interstitial Cells and cuboidal epithelium
Endocrine portion of testisI
cells called male germ ce 11s
present in between the Spermatogonium Different
seminiferous tubules in Primary
the connective tissue, secrete cellular
Spermatocytes types in testis
and rogens (e.g., testosterone)
Secondary undergoing
Seminiferous Tubules Spermatocytes different
Highly coiled tubules Spermatids processes.
present in each testicular Spermatozoa
lobule contain a basement
membrane, Sertoli cells
and male germ cells at
different stages.

TS of testis

~ernaie Reproductive System

consist
felllal . human
' 8 0 f ovaries which are the primary sex organs m
(oVid e. The secondary sex organs in human female are Fallopian tubes
llcts) ' u t erus, vagina and mammary glands.
 Uterus
Also called rnetrn/hystem/womb. hollo'N muscular structure lies
between urinary blacirler and rectum . It houses and nourish~s the
Uterine Fundus - - - -
dovoloping foetus.
Upper dome-shaped part of uterus above
the opening of oviducts. Ovarian Ligament
Ovary It attachc1s the o 1ar1 tc; the ut'3rus.
Paired, almond-shaped organs located in
female's pelvic cavity; it proauces ova and
reproductive hormones primary sex organs
Isthmus
Short rarron 4nick-
walled port10,.,
/.r~~~ Ampulla
J
Fallopian tubes or
Oviducts
Two hollow, muscular
Fimbriae
Fmger-like projections o+ oviducts W1oest and longest , tubes which convey the
part fe--t:, sat1on ;o la re•eased by ovary to
towaras the ovary. The) ~e p in the
collection of ova after ovuiation from
ovary to oviduct.
occurs !'Jere or;
lnfundibulum
J.J
:...i:en. . s by oeristals1s.
Fertil1sat on of ova
Dilated opening, occurs f:ere only.
Endometrium possesses f1mbr a
Inner glandular layer of the uterus, it undergoes cyclic
changes during menstrual cycle. Implantation of It is an interior narrowing of the uterine cavity.
blastocyst takes place here only. Cervix
Small tubular structure :n between the body uterus and
Myometrium vagina.
Middle thick layer of smooth muscle fibres of uterus. It
External OS
shows strong contractions during the delivery of baby. Small aperture on the rounded extremity of the vaginal
portion of the cervix
Perimetrium Vagina
Outer thick layer of uterus. 0istensible, tubular organ which extends from cervix to
outside, it possesses numerous muscles that alJow it to
Fornix expand during birth: tt serves as receptable for sperms
Superior portion of the vagina. during copulation.

Female reproductive system

 11"'
.,.
Early Antral Fo\lic\e
Primary Follicle Surrounded by more layers
Germ cells divide by also called secondary follicle,
mitosis to form primary large in size, antrum (fluid-filled
oocyte, smaller in size, cavity) begins to develop.
a large number degenerate
during puberty,
Germ Cell surrounded by single layer.
Theca Externa
Oogonia or egg mother
cells which are not formed Theeca lnterna
after birth. Membrane Granulosa
Follicular cells that surround
Corpus Albicans the zona pellucida.
Degenerated part of Cumulus Oophoricus
corpus lute rum, Follicullar cells surounding Graffian Follicle
white body ovarian follicle Mature follicle which
Zona Pellucida undergoes ovulation.
Ovarian Cortex Contains secondary
Homologous membrane
stroma Dense out oocute surrounded
covering the oocyte by several layers
Consists ot Medulla
cortex and Secondary Oocyte and a large follicular
rnedu\la antrum
Follicular Antrum
Tunica Albuginea Fluid filled cavity containing
Connective tissue liquor folliculi.
layer underlying
ovarian stroma Corpus Luteum Ovulation Ovulated Oocyte
Follicle containing lute,n It involves the release of Ovulation product which
(yellow pigment) formed secondary oocyte from further preceeds for fertilisation·
after ovulation, it secretes the ovary, occurs due to journey.
progesterone and relaxin rupturing of graffian follicle.
hormones.
TS of ovary
 Labia Majora
Long1tud1nal hp-hke _folds
on the sides of vestibule, Mons Pubis
contain set1aceous glands, Also called mans venens
homologous to male cus1on of fatty tissue, co~ered
scrotum by pubic hairs.

Labia Minora Small erectile organ, contains

Smaller and thinner t11an .labia numerous nerve endings, highly
maior a, enclose vestibule sensitive, homologous to male
homologous to male penis, glans penis.
urethra.

l.l!i\W~----;:--r--,-Urethral Orifice
Vaginal Orifice--;----,.--~~ Small opening of urethra below
Opening of vagina through clitoris through which urine is
which menstrual flows out excreted. Also called urinary
and into which penis is meatus
inserted, partially covered
by hymen in virgin women.
Bartholin's
Gland Opening
Fourchette Also called greater vestibu1ar
Formed by the fusion glands lying on the sides of
of labia m1nora posteriorly, vaginal orifice, homologous
contain sebaceous glands. to male's cowper's gland
Perineum
Anus
Area which extends
Opening of rectum from fourchett to anus.
to outside through
which faecal material
is expelled out.

External genitalia of female

Gametogenesis .
.
It involves the formation of male and female reproductive re 11.::;. . ' i·e.,
sperms and ova under the influence of hormones. f'
. an d that o
Process of formation of sperms is called spermatogenes1s
ova is called oogenesis.

Spermatogenesis
The formation of sperms occurs in of the
tf:;sti..,. 8perms are formed from
the aeminiferous tubules . the
present in
periphc~ry of tubules, known as
 ® Spermatogonium
(Stem ce)
M1tos1s ----L @ Conta ns 46 s ng e stranded
o •s sp rma ogo a l -- ~ unrephcated chromosomes
p od ces a co stant supp~
ot new ce s need to @
produce sperms

Growth-----~
Some spermatogorna Primary Spermatocytes
actively grow by
obta rnng nourishment
from the Serto
1
@/ ,
/ Contain 46 double-stranded
replicated chromosomes .
cells and become
primary spermatocytes
Meiosis-1--------
r\
Pnmary spermatocytes
u~~ergo me1ot1c-l
d1v1s1on (reduct,onal)
@@~
0 0
Secondary Spermatocytes
Contain 23 double-stranded
to form 2 haploid chromosomes .
secondary spermatocytes . ~

Meiosis-II----- f +
Secondary spermatocytes
undergo sec?nd
maturation d1v1s1on
0 @)-@)
@) 0 .0 0
(equivalent to mitosis) I I I I Spermatids
to form 4 haploid t t t t Contain 23 single-stranded
spematids .
chromosomes.

Spermiogenesis
It isthe t .
ranSformat1on of spermatids
differe to spermatozoa(sperms) by
ntiation. During this process
nu ceus
I c d ,
. on enses and cytoplasm
. . tail. forms
is ehmin.ated wh1p-hke
centnole · Th'1s process is also ...

known as spermateleosis

Spermatozoa
Contain 23 single-stranded
unreplicated chromosomes.

Spermiation
Sperm heads become embedded in the
Sertoli cells and are finally released from
the seminiferous tubules.
Stages in spermatogenesis
 Structure of Sperm (Spermatozoan)
The t,pernis a1:e. n1icrosc~~ic and n1otile celJs. They remain alive and
retain tl~eir ab1hty to fert1hse th~~ ovun1 fro1n 24 to 48 hours after being
entered 111 the fen1alr- reproductive tract.

Formed of Golgi bodies.

contains hyal11ronidase,
proteolytic enzymes.

Head _ __,
Contains small anterior
acrosome and large Proximal Centriole
posterior nucleus. Plays a role in the first
cleavage of the zygote .

.....___ ___,f+f--- Distal Centriole

Neck
Very short, present Gives rise to the
between head and middle axial filament of the sperm.
p ece contains proximal
and distal centrioles.

Middle Piece Mitochondrial Spiral

Canta 'ls mitochondrial spiral Mitochondria coiled around axial
and ring centriole (annulus) . filament, provides energy for
sperm movement

Ring Centriole
Presents at the end middle
piece, its function is not known

Tail
Very long, contains axial filament
by a thin layer ot cytoplasm h I surrounded
• 8 ps the sperm to swim.

Human sperm
 onal control of Male Reproductive System
HOTl11 tl inaintenance and. dfunctions
m·oW 1, l of male
. reproductive organs
'f11P der the control of stero1 1orn1oneR~n1a1nly testosterone. These
t,·

nrc un
hormones. 111 turn are controlled by negative feedback mechanisms.

__.--t Stimulates
Hypothalamus
--------►
Inhibits GnRH
GnRH released from
Anterior Pituitary// +, hypothalamus stimulates anterior
I ( I pituitary to release FSH and LH
J1 (ICSH in males). ICSH acts upon
r·-- -➔ I interstitial cells to secrete
I 1
I

'
I testosterone and FSH acts upon

l 1
I

I the Sertoli cells Both FSH and

1
testosterone promote
ICSH t spermatogenesis ,n

Onhibin\
FSH
\ ITestoiterone I seminiferous tubules.

\ ~~ - 0 :')_
C~.:::.,"-.. /r-=;-\,
9 Interstitial Cells
Negative Feedback Control
The secretion of GnRH and
ICSH is controlled by the
testosterone in a negative
li0 tar et tissues feedback loop. D'IP .n th e
Testosterone - ~ 9 testosterone level ,n the.blood
.--~-------------
I

'
I Sertoli Cell increases the production of
'

,,,,.,,,.,.,-
- Seminiferous Tubule GnRH and ICSH where, as I
when the testosterorie eve
becomes normal GnR~ release
/
subsides , as does ICSH e\e
Similarly, FSH secret.on s t
controlled by inh1bin by nega.
feedback loop When the exces!5
v:
FSH level is detected in b ood,
Spermatogenesis Sertoli cells secrete rnh1b1n which
in turn inh1b1ts the release of
FSH from anterior p1tu1tary.

praduotlve system
Hormonal control of male re
Oogenesis
It 1 thE process of forn1ation of a mature female gamete (ovumJ,
0 u111ng 111 the prin1ary fen1alc gonads, i.e., ovaries.
\ Meiotic Events / Ovarian Events
Before Birth
~ Nucleus
~ Oogornum Follicle Cells
Cytoplasm
M1tos1s-- ,1

@ Primary
Oocyte
GroW1h - - t

Ovary Inactive Primary Oocyte

during Childhood (arrested in
prophase) Growing
Follie es

Each month from

Meiosis- I puberty to menopause@ Primary Oocyte
primary oocytes begin
to grow
Q (still in
pro phase-I)

l
Meiosis-I Cell Division 0 • Antral Fol,,c,es

i
First Polar body Q Secondary oocyte
(arreseted in
metaphase-11)
I.
Meiosis-II
Polar bodies
usually do not
divide
_
~e
Meiosis-II completed
(when sperm cell
Ovulated
Tertiary
Follicles
contacts plasma
membrane)

Polar bodies
0 Second
(polar body Polar Body
degenerates)
 --=--w-vw V t t

nnonal Control of Female Reproductive System

HO . d ft .
growth. maintenance an 1nctions of the feinale reproductive
'fhc are under the hormonal control as described below
. .
organs
11RH is secreted by the hypothala1nus
wh1ch stimulates the anterior
Gb of pituitary gland to secrete LH and FSH. FSH stimulates the
lo e . £ 11· I d 1 .
wth of the ovarian o 1c_ es an a so increases the development of
~/oocyte within the follicle to complete the meiosis-f to form
~~:ondary oocyte. FSH also stimulates the formation of oestrogens. LH
•~irnulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone. Rising level of
~rogesterone inhibits the release of GnRH, which in turn, inhibits the
production of FSH, LH and progesterone.
Hypothalamus

! GnRH

Anterior Lobe of
Positive Feed Back :.===;.; Negative Feedback
1

Pituitary Gland

l LH/FSH

s
!
Oestrogen
Progesterone

1
B
Hormonal control of fema Ie rep roductive system

lhe Menstrual Cycle . f natomical and

W
0 d a series o a
h ~en of r eproductive age un ergoe 8n as the menstrual cycle.
p Ys1ological changes each month know · n structure
'I'hese changes occur in three areas-h 0 rmone levels, ovaria
Uterin e st ructure.
cl.lltl days Ovulation
011 t 8 1.tself every 28 . 1
average th e menstrual cycle repea • • t of the 28 day eye e,
'
. lla1ly occurs
lls approximately at t h e m1dpom ·
i.e at d ·
, ·, ay 14. ~ may vary 1n
~: average length of menstrual cycle
lfh~l'ent or even in the same women.
Phases of the Follicular phase Ovulation
ovarian cycle Luteal phase

Gonadotropic
hormone
levels
FSH

Ovarian
cycle 00(~(1
Primary 'y ¥
©). @l rS\
~
<V Corpus Corpus
follicle Theca Antrum luteum corpus
Ovulation formation .
luteum albicans
Progesterone
Ova·ian Oestrogen
hormone (surge at 12-13 day)
levels
lnhibin

Uterine
cycle

Phases of the Follicular or

uterine cycle Menses Luteal or secretory phase
Proliferative phase

Basal booy36 ·7--------------------L-----

: ·-------- ------ ----
: -- -------~-
· · '\
Lernperature : :
r~c; 36.4 ~ ~~~~ -:, ----- - -l ___________ --------- ------------- -------
I
: I
I
D/.fS 28/0 I I I I
7 14 21 28/0

The menstrual cycle

Menopause
It 18
.
t the complete cessation of the
)et.ween the age of 40-50. All the cycle, which occurs
d~gen::rated o:r ovulated, decline Uf; ka the ovary gets
~e~retions occur. lt r It . and vaginal
irr1t bT esu s in
a l ity and depression. It otla such as
fertilisation
. tlie first step in hu1nan deve]opn1Pnt wht'n-- uni·on f sperm and
It 1s · . . ., o
Cc urs to fonn a d1plo1d zygote.
ova o ·
It occurs in the an1pullary-istl11nic junction of' the oviduct
~ Copulation ~
For nv1tion of "-,
zygote

(
Secondary me1ot1c division
of egg 1s completed Sperm discharges
rnto vagina

\ Sperm encounters
with secondary
Travels into
the oviducts
J
oocyte or egg

Although many millions of sperms are deposited in the vagina, only a

tmy fraction makes it into the oviducts. The rest are killed by the
acidic secretions of the vagina or fail to find their way into the cervix.

Steps of Fertilisation Process

These are as follows
Sperm Capacitation
It is the process, in which the sperm acquires the capacity to fertilise
th e egg by the secretions of the fem ale genital tract.
It involves the removal of coating s'ubstances present on tht'\ t1urfoce of
sperms, so that the receptor sites on acroson1e are expost:'\d and sperm
becorn ·
e active to penetrate the egg.
It takes about 5 to 6 hours.
A.cros 0
me Reaction
• 1s (sperm Iysins) contained in
Itth invo1Ves t h e release of various chem1ca
e aer 080
A. me of capacitated sperm. h
croso
ditt
h • 1..
rne reaction occurs in three step• W ICn are
carried out by t ree.
,,erent
(i) }{ sperm lysins as follows the follicle
Yaluronidase acts on the
Cells.
 (n) Corona penetr ating enzyn1 e dissolve s the corona radiata
(radiati ng <.;rown) cPlls that surroun d th<.\ fen1ale gamete.
(iii) Zona lysin s (acrosin ) digc:)st.s th<' zona pe11uci da (the ckar
zonP), H l'leHr gPl-ljkp layer immedi ately surroun djng theo<,cy te.

The Block to Polyspermy

Poly:-qw nny is t.he entry of 1norc than one spenn into the oocyt,.;.
To p1·Pvt\nt polyspe nny and to ensure 111onospermy (entry of one sp,~rm
in to oocyte), followin g events occur
(i) Fast block to polysp ermy Rapid depolar isation of the egg's
plaR1na membra ne as soon as first sperm contrac ts the plasma
tnc.\mbrane.
(ii) Slow block to polysp ermy (cortical reaction ) Just after the
penetra tion of sperm into egg, cortical granule s (present
beneath the plasma membra ne of egg) fuse with the plasma
membra ne and release cortica l enzyme s.
These enzyme s harden the zona pellucid a and convert s it into
the fertilis ation envelop e hence, blocking other sperm from
reaching the oocyte.

Sperm

E
Cells of the rn
corona radiate
Sperm acrosome
/ Zona
/j,\ pellucida

Periv1telline space
Zona pellucida
Extracellular space
Ooc;te plasma _
membrane
Fertilisation envelope
Cortical granules ~
Ocyte cytoplasm / - Sperm nucleus is
engulfed by oocyte
('
uperm plasrria membrane
fuses with i,lasma membrane
o1 oocyte

Series of events . .
occurring in developm ent ~
Z} gote Formation
8} 11n contact with the plasma n1e111bra11e of the oocyte triggers the
econd 1nejotic div:ision and converts the secondary oocyte to ovum,
which rapidly converts into zygote after the entry of the sperm
nucleus.
Zygote contains 46 chro1nosomes. one set from each parent.

Pre .. Em bryonic Development

It involves all the changes that occur from fertilisation to the time just
after an embryo implants in the uterine \¥all.
This process starts with cleavage.
Cleavage
It is a series of rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote which converts the
zygote into a multicellular structure (blastocyst or blastulaJ. The
pattern of cleavage in human is holoblastic.
Significance of Cleavage
(i) Distribution of the cytoplasn1 amongst the blastomeres and
(ii) Restoration of the cell size and nucleocytoplasmic ratio.
Detailed events occurring in pre-embryonic development are shown
below
Egg is activated, i.e.
metabolism in the zygote Rapid cellular division converts .
and protein synthesis the zygote into a solid ball
increases of cell s called moru la
(a) 2-cell stage 4
(b) -cell stage (c) a-cell stage Morula is nourished by the
Zona pellucida e •
•
d M oru Ia secretions produced by uterine
P d • • • 0 tubes and enters the uterus ;n
0
,r 6'J about 3 to 4 days after ovulat, on
() cyst (early) Accumu 1at, on of fl uid 1n .
morula converts ,t to blastocyst
Fert111sat1on (hollow space of cells)
Blastocyst remains unattached
in uterus for 2 to 3 days.
pellucida begins
to degenerate
u
Ovu at1on (f) Blastocyst {late)
Ov Inner cell mass
Endorn • wtuch will become the
lrnpla emblyo

Development
lmplantaUon
It is the attachn1ent of blasto cyst to the uterin e Jjning and digesting its
,vay into the thickened layer of uterin e cavity using enzymes released
by the cells of blastocyst.
It occurs 6 to 7 days after fertilisation.
The process involves
(a) Cells of tropho blast contac t the endom etrium , if it is proper ly
primed by oestro gen and proges terone , cells of uterin e cavity at
the contac t point enlarg e and thicke n. Blasto cyst usually
implan ts high on the back wall of the uterus .
(b) Tropho blast cells release enzym es, digest a hole in the thicke ned
· endom etrial lining and blasto cyst bores its way into deeper
tissue of uterin e cavity. During this proces s, blasto cyst feeds on
nutrien ts release d from the cells it digests .
(c) By day 14, the uterin e endom etrium grows over the blastoc yst,
enclosi ng it comple tely. Endom etrial cells produc e certain
prostag landin s which stimul ate the develo pment of uterine
blood vessels . Soon after that, placen ta develo ps.
Implan tation fails to occur in the following conditi ons
(i) If endom etrium is not proper ly primed by oestrog en and
proges terone.
(ii) If endom etrium is not ready or is 'unhea lthy' becaus e of the
presen ce of an IUD, use of a "morni ng after pill.. or an
endom etrial infection.
(iii) If the cells of blastoc yst contain certain genetic mutati ons.
Uni~p la~~d blastocysts are absorb ed (phagocytised) by the cells of
utenne hn1ng and are expelle d during menstr uation.

Embryonic Deve lopm ent

It involve s the transfor m_ation of the blastocyst into the astrula by the
process ca1led gastru lat1on The formati'on of th · g I
. . ·
mark s the h<.!g1nru ng of Pmhryo nic develop ment. e pnmar y germ ayers
Gastru lation involvP s the cell movem •-.,_ Jled mpbO l(eDew.:C
movem ents which help the embryo to II
• J , -....

aha d
morpho logy. TheRc~ movem ents result in
layers namely ectode rm, mesod enn •ree
'{lff/!f'! pe an
prm
 {(
11
ts occ cu, u,5 u u, t;1( 5 t11,,v, .rv,Lu , m.uewprneni
, are shown below

. .. ~i-.--- Inner cell mass

.. .
Epiblast

. .. Hypoblast

- ~ + - - Blastococl

~,:,:,. :I-- fropllolllasl

Cells of i11nN cell mass differentiate Hypoblast contains columnar cells and
mto 2 la\ ers around 8 days after epiblast contains cuboidal cells. Together
fertilisation. These 2 layers are these two layers form the embryonic disc
hypoblast (primitive endoderm) and
epiblast (p1irnitive ectoderm).
Amniogenic cells
~:.:-==3~~- Amniotic cavity

Epiblast L+-1,>--Enoderrn
ce so
yo SC
.___--IJ--Hypoblast

Blastocoel
A space called amniotic cavity
The cells of trophoblast g ve se t
appears in between epiblast and
mass of extraembryonic mesoderm
trophoblast containing amniotic fluid.
It is differentiated into cute
Cavitis roof is lined by amniogenic somatopleuric and inner splanchnopleunc
cells derived from trophoblast and its
mesoderm.
base is formed by epiblast.

~~c----- Trophoblast
-a.a~-- Arnniot1c cavity

,Itu1j1I16;.~t.--- Ep1blast
Hypoblast

.....,..--,.~ Pr1maryyolk ac
.,.,,___~ End

, - ~ ~ [xt,,aan·1bfViOOIC

Yolk sat 15 derived from

Cf
II (primary yolk sac)
trJ tlw
CfJel appearance of
rne: {for med by oute
srna11 erm), the yolk
er {secondary yolk
 · a
s rise to th"',; org ans 1n
· rs of
1 lw prim ary germ laye · give. . ·
the emb ryo
process called org ano gen esis .
r8 are as fallows
\ ario us organs deri ued from different germ laye
End Products of Embryonic Germ Layers

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Epidermis Dermis Lining of the digestive

system

Hair, nails, sweat glands All muscles of the body Lining of the respiratory
system

Brain and spinal cord Cartilage Urethra and urinary

bladder

Cranial and spinal neNes Bone Gall bladder

Blood Liver and pancreas

Retina, lens, and cornea
of eye
Inner ear All other connective tissues Thyroid gland
Blood vessels Parathyroid gland
Epithelium of nose,
mouth, and anus
---
Reproductive organs and Thymus
Enamel of teeth
kidneys

mbranes)
Role of Extraembryonic Membranes (Foetal Me
branes called foetal
The growing foetus develops 4 associated mem
ch are specialised to
membranes or extraembyonic mem bra nes whi
perform different functions.
Chorion Amnion
Complete ly surro unds Contains amniotic fluid which
the embryo, protects it,
prevents desiccation of the .
takes part in the forma tion
embryo and acts as a protective
of placenta. Foetal
cushion that absorbs shocks.
Membranes

Allantois Volk Sac

Small and non-functional Non-functional in humans
in humans except for except it functions as the site
furnishing blood to the of early blood cell formation.
placenta.
foetal Development
\okes the continued organ development and growth and changes
}tlll . I b . . h . h
1n
bodv~
proportions.
..
t egins 1n t e e1g t week of pregnancy and ends
during partuntion.
Gestation Period and Parturition
Gestation period is the time period during which the foetus remains in
the uterus. In humans, this period is about 280 days (38-40 weeks).
Parturition is the process of giving birth to a baby. It begins with mild
uterine contractions. During labour pains. contractions increase in
strength and frequency until the baby is born.
Following factors play a major role in parturition
(i) Increased level of hormone oxytocin from the foetus and the .
mother.
(ii) Increase in oxytocin receptors by oestrogen.
(iii) Blocking of calming influence of the progesterone by oestrogen.
(iv) Expansion of cervix by hormone relaxin.
The stepwise approach with oxytocin feed back mechanism in birth is as
follows
Step 1. Baby moves further into mother's vagina.
Step 2. Receptors in cervix get excited.
Step 3. Impulses sent to hypothalamus.
Step 4. Hypothalamus sends impulses to posterior pituitary.
St ep 5. Posterior pituitary releases stored oxytocin to blood which
stimulates mother's uterine muscles to contract.
St ep 6. Uterine contractions become more vigrous (labour pains).
The cyclic mechanism continues until the birth of the baby.
sta9 es of Childbirth
Chu ·
expulsion and
1 dbirth consists of three stages namely, dilation,
P acental stages.
 U 11b1 1cal cord
Placenta Rectum Partially d lated
cervix

\ Dilation stage \ \ Expulsion stage I IPlacental stage I

Uterine contractions push the foetal Foetus 1s expelled through Placenta is expelled by
hr1ad lower in the uterus and cause the cervix and vagina. uterine contractions
the relaxin softened cervix to dilate usually within 15 mIns
after childbirth.

Placenta
It is the intimate connection between the foetus and the uterine wall of
the mother.
It develops from chorion.
Chorionic villi are the number of finger-like projections which
develop from the outer surface of chorion and penetrate the uterine
walls to form placenta.
The foetal part of placenta is chorion and the maternal part is
decidua basalis.
Types of Placenta
The placenta can be classified into different types ~n the following basis
(i) Nature of Contact
th
Ond e b~sis of nature of contact, placenta is of two types indeciduate
an dec1duate.
(a)
lndeciduate placent Ch . . . .
wi·th uterus they hav a1 orion1c vilh are simple ' lie in contact
th t" ' . e oose contact, and there is no fusion. At
e irne of birth, uterus is t d
Cetaceans Sir . L no amaged, e.g., Ungulates,
(b ' enians, emurs etc
) Deciduate place ' .
the uterine villi T nta Th~ a~lantochorio
birth th t · . hey are intimately fus
, e u erus is d d
Rodentia Ch· amage and blee1a.:·ma
, iroptera, etc.
 Ois\nbut1on of VIiii
th basis of villi distributwn, placenta is of five types as follows
0
Diffused
V1 are d stnbuted uniformly on the
blastocyst surface except at extreme
ends e.g, Pig, horse CTndecrduate type).
Cotyledonary Zonary
Vt a e arranged in groups, Villi are in the farm of transverse
each g•oup s ca led cotyledon ~---J,-- bands or zones and penetrate
which f ts into the caruncles in the uterus wall , e.g., cat, dog,
(maternal contact sites) of uterus, ental l bear, elephant, carnivores.
e g., sheep, cow deer e Bas· (deciduate type) .
(mdeciduate type) Distrib

Intermediate Discoidal
Rare type shows free v1lh on Villi are present as disc on the entire
cotyledons mdec1duate surface of blastocyst when embryo
type e.g., camel, giraffe. grows, 1t moves away from the uterus
hence, it looks like a disc, deciduate type,
e g., rat , bat, rabbit

(iii) Histology
Placenta is classified into 5 types on the basis of number of layers
present between the foetus and uter us.
The six layers in between foetal and maternal parts are (i)
endotheliu1n of mother blood vessel, (ii) maternal syndesmose
connective tissue, (iii) maternal epithelium, (iv) chorion of foetus, (v)
foetus syndesmose connective tissue, (vi) endothelium of foetal blood
vessel.
The five placental types are as follows
Epithelio-chorial
Contains all the six layers,
foetal chorion is in contact
with uterus epithelium,
e.g., pig, horse, lemurs.

Syndesmose-chorial
Hemoendothelial Allantochorionic villi pierce into
Foetus floats in uterus and chorion comes in
the mother' s blood , contact with syndesmose of uterus,
e. g , rat, rabbit, etc.
e.g., sheep, cow.

Endothello-chorial
Chana Hemochorial Chorion of foetus is in contact
n ot foetus in the blood with the endothelium of uterus,
m of mother's uterus ,
e g . Pbooi ._ , dog, other carnivores.
0
· ' man , primates, etc.
 ;,-:,,,-J,.,, 11 ta ,s dcciduote and hcniochorial type and it produ e
lz rmoncs whose functions are as follows
Hormones Produced by the Placenta

1-- ormone Function

Human Cl Jnomc Maintains corpus luteum during pregnancy,

Gonadotropin (hCG) stimulates secretion of testosterone by developing
testes in XY embl)os

Oestrogen (also secreted by

---
Stimulates grow1h of myometrium, increasing uterine
corpus luteum during strength for parturition (childbirth).
pregnancy) Helps prepare mammary glands for lactation .
Progesterone (also secreted
-----
Suppresses uterine contractions to provide quiet
by corpus luteum during environment for foetus.
pregnancy)
Promotes the formation of cervical mucous plug to
prevent uterine contam ination.
Helps prepare mammary glands for !lactation .
Human chorionic Helps prepare mammary glands for lactation .
somatomammotropin
Believed to reduce materna l utilisation of glucose so
that greater quantities of glucose can be shunted to
the foetus.
Relaxin (also secreted by
Softens cervix in preparation of cervical dilation at
corpus luteum during parturition.
pregnancy)
Loosens connective tissue between pelvic ·bones in
the preparation for parturition.

Other functions performed by placenta are listed below

(i) Nutrition It help t O s 1 ..
th s upp Y a11 the nutritive elements from
.. e maternal blood to pass into the foetus.
(u) Excretion The foetal e
blood through p1acenta. xcretory products diffuse into maternal
(iii) Barrier Placenta serves .
only necessary material to as a~ efficient barrier and allows
. )
(iv St orage Pl pass into foetal blood
·
acenta stores glycogen, fat, etc.
 summary or Human Pregnancy from Fertilisatio t
. h
8 1rt
no
of the Baby

Week 1 Week 2

Fert111sat1on, cleavage
~---
The three basic layers of the
~- Week 3
Woman will not have a
to form a blastocyst embryo develop, namely period . This may be the first
4_5 dnys aftcr ectoderm, mesoderm and sign that she is pregnant
fertilisation. More endoderm. No research
Beginning of the backbone.
u,an 100 cells allowed on human embryos
Neural tube develops, the
Implantation 6 9 beyond this stage.
beginning of the brain and
days after spinal cord (first organs).
fertilisation . Embryo about 2 mm long.
-----
Week4 Weeks Week6
Heart, blood vessels, Brain developing. 'Limb Eyes and ears start to form.
blood and gut start buds', sma11 swelIings wh ich
forming. Umbilical are the beginnings of the
cord developing. arms and legs. Heart is a
Embryo about 5 mm large tube and starts to beat,
iong. pumping blood . This can be
seen on an ultrasound scan.
Embryo about 8 mm long.

Week 7 By Week 12 By Week 20

---
All major internal Foetus fully formed, with all Hair beginn ing to grow,
organs developing. organs, muscles, bones, toes including eyebrows and
Face forming. Eyes and fingers. Sex organs eyelashes. Fingerprints
have some colour. well-developed. Foetus is developed . Finger nails and
Mouth and tongue. moving. For the rest of the toe nails growing. Firm hand
Beginnings of hands gestation period, it is mainly grips. Between 16 and 20
2nd feet. Foetus is weeks baby usually
growing in size. Foetus is
l 7 mm long. 56 mm long from head to felt moving for first time.
bottom . Pregnancy may Baby is 160 mm long from
___ begin to show. head to bottom.
-----
Week 24 By Week 26 By Week 28
---~--
Eyelids open Legal Has a good chance of Baby moving vigorously.
lrn··
it for abortion in survival, if born prematurely. Res~nds to touch and loud
rnoi;:t .
" circumstances. noises Swallowing amniotic
fluid and urinating

By Week 30 40 Weeks (9 months)

lJsua11 •
dow Y lying head Birth
Bab; i;eady for birth.
head t 240 mm from
0 bottom .
Lectat1on
1
r du t 1on and release of milk after birth by w ornan 1 I
lactation. The first milk ,vhich comes out from the n1other
ma1nmary glands just after childbirth is known as colostrun1.
Colostrum is rich in proteins and energy along with antibodies that
provide passive immunity for the new born infant. 11i]k synthesis is
stimulated by pituitary horn1one, prolactin.
The release of milk is stimulated by a rise in the level of oxytocin when
the baby begins to nourish. Nlilk contains inhi bitory pep tides. which
accu1nulate and inhibit milk production. if the breasts are not fully
empt ied.
The Lactating Breast
Th e glandulm· units enlarge con siderably under the influence of
progesterone and pro]actin . T\1j}k is expelled by contraction of
muscle-like cell s surrmmcEng th e glandular units. Ducts drain the
milk to the nippl e.