T H E F I R S T I N T E R N AT I O N A L C O N F E R E N C E O N

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 2023

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1st International Conference on Curriculum

Development

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Copyright © National Curriculum Development Centre, Uganda, 2023

A product of the National Curriculum Development Centre for the Ministry of Education and Sports with support from the
Government of Uganda

National Curriculum Development Centre

P.O. Box 7002,

Kampala- Uganda

www.ncdc.co.ug

ISBN: 978-9970-675-11-1

All rights reserved: No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright holder

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Conference Partners

Nation Media Group

SIPRO
Educational Services

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Contents
Message from the Chairperson.............................................................................................v
Messsage from the Director..................................................................................................vi
Message from The Editor-in-Chief.......................................................................................vii
Editorial Board....................................................................................................................viii
Conference Orgarnising Committee..................................................................................viii
Keynote Speakers..................................................................................................................1
Theme and Sub-Themes.....................................................................................................39
Conference Papers..............................................................................................................40
Conference Highlights.......................................................................................................224

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Message from
The Chairperson, Governing Council,
NCDC
Dear colleagues and esteemed delegates,

It is with great pleasure that I congratulate the National Curriculum

Development Centre (NCDC) fraternity for having celebrated the
Centre’s 50th anniversary. Among the activities prepared for the
celebrations was the 1st International Conference on Curriculum
Development.

The conference theme, “Reconceptualising Curriculum in the 21st Century for Socioeconomic
Transformation,” is timely and critical for the development of education in Africa.

As we are all aware, a curriculum is at the centre of the teaching and learning process and has
been viewed by some scholars like De Coninck (2008)1, as being at the centre of daily life and the
responsibility of all stakeholders in the society as a whole.

As key stakeholders of education in our respective spheres of operation, your participation in this
discussion is very critical and timely considering that many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Africa
and the world at large, are rethinking the design of curricula, with a view of equipping learners
with the necessary skills and competencies to encounter the Volatile, Uncertain, Complex and
Ambiguous (VUCA) world we live in today. The sub-themes of this conference were well thought
through and took into consideration the complexities of the world today.

As Chairperson of the NCDC (Uganda) Governing Council, I am confident that this book of
conference proceedings will provide an excellent platform for the exchange of ideas, knowledge,
and experiences among scholars, policymakers, and practitioners in the field of education.
Together, we will critically examine and redefine the curriculum to meet the needs of the 21st
century and contribute to socio-economic transformation in Africa. It is expected that by the end
of the discussions and interactions, solutions to the challenges of the VUCA world will be realised.
These will give an insight into the kind of curricula we should design for future generations.

Congratulations to NCDC on this remarkable achievement.

For God and my country

Prof. George Ladaah Openjuru

Chairperson, NCDC (Uganda) Governing Council

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Message from
The Director, NCDC
Dear ladies and gentlemen,

It is with great pleasure and joy that we celebrated 50 years of

existence of the National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC),
Uganda.

As we celebrated our Golden Jubilee, the 1st International

Conference on Curriculum Development was held under the theme
“Reconceptualising Curriculum in the 21st Century for Socioeconomic
Transformation.” The focus of the conference was timely and
relevant, given the global challenges we face and emerging trends in the world today. It is important
to discuss how to align Uganda’s curriculum with the ever-changing education environment and
the labour market demands of the 21st century arising from the ICT revolution, the emerging
pandemics, climate change, gender, and innovations.

National Curriculum Development Centre appreciates all those who worked tirelessly towards
the development and production of the book of conference proceedings. The book of conference
proceedings includes the contributions of all those who presented during the conference. The
papers for presentation and the discussions were vital in shaping the ongoing efforts to transform
education in Uganda, Africa, and the globe.

As we move forward, NCDC is committed to the development of a 21st-century curriculum that is

responsive to the needs of our society. We recognise that the curriculum must be relevant, flexible,
and dynamic to meet the demands of the digital age. Our strategic direction is to create a curriculum
that promotes critical thinking, creativity, and innovation, and equips our young people with the
skills and competencies required for the future workforce.

Furthermore, we are committed to localising and decolonising the curriculum by ensuring that our
young people learn about our rich cultural heritage and values. We also recognise the significant role
of ICT in education and are exploring innovative ways to integrate technology into the curriculum.

Finally, we believe that stakeholders’ involvement is crucial to the success of curriculum

development and implementation. We are committed to engaging all stakeholders, including
teachers, parents, students, policymakers, and the private sector, in transforming the education
sector.

As key stakeholders, we are eager to learn from your experiences which will provide an opportunity
for us to explore better ways of reconceptualising the curriculum as we grapple with the need for
socio-economic transformation.

In conclusion, I would like to thank all authors for the papers that were presented which were
guided productive discussions and recommendations that will contribute to the transformation of
education in Uganda and Africa.

For God and my country.

Dr Grace K. Baguma - DIRECTOR NCDC

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Message from
The Editor-in-Chief
Dear distinguished delegates,

It is with great pleasure that I introduce this collection of papers from

the 1st International Conference on Curriculum matters held by the
National Curriculum Development Centre on 26th – 27th April 2023.

The participants in this conference have demonstrated their

commitment and scholarly rigour by offering insightful contributions
and research findings to the field of curriculum development and
education.

My sincere gratitude goes out to the management of NCDC, whose vision and leadership have been
crucial in shaping this publication. The quality of the papers in this volume is a testament to their
exacting attention to detail and dedication to academic excellence.

Additionally, I would like to express my gratitude to the editorial board members and reviewers
for their diligent efforts and commitment in examining the submissions and offering insightful
commentary to the authors. The outstanding quality and applicability of the papers included in
this collection have been guaranteed by their knowledge and perceptions.

Finally, I would like to thank every author whose work has helped to make this publication possible.
Your scholarship and research have been crucial to the development of our field, and I am sure that
both researchers and educators will find great value in this collection.

I hope that this publication will spur further research and cooperation in the field of curriculum
development and education. I also look forward to witnessing our community’s continued
expansion and influence.

Dr Richard Irumba

Deputy Director – Research, Consultancy and Library Services/Editor-in-Chief

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Editorial Board
Name Organisation
Dr Richard Irumba (EiC) National Curriculum Development Centre
Dr Grace K. Baguma National Curriculum Development Centre
Dr Bernadette Nambi Karuhanga National Curriculum Development Centre
Prof. David Olem Busitema University
Dr Farooq Miiro Islamic University in Uganda
Prof. Jessica Aguti Busitema University
Dr Jonathan Mugenyi National Curriculum Development Centre
Prof. Joyce Bukirwa Rebecca Sessanga Muni University
Prof. Paul Muyinda Birevu Makerere University
Dr Kedrace Turyargyenda Educationist
Dr Hamis Mugendawala National Planning Authority, Uganda
Dr Gertrude Namubiru National Curriculum Development Centre
Prof. Mauda Kamatenesi Bishop Stuart University
Prof. George Ladah Openjuru Gulu University
Dr Deborah Magera National Curriculum Development Centre
Dr Robinah Nakabo Seruga Dean, School of Post-Graduate Studies and Research,
Uganda Martrys University Nkozi
Dr Innocent Masengo Makerere University
Dr Deogratius Kyanda Kanamwangyi Kampala International University
Dr David Kakeeto Victoria University

Conference Orgarnising Committee

Name Position
Dr Richard Irumba Chairperson
Dr Grace K. Baguma Technical Advisor
Dr Bernadette Nambi Karuhanga Technical Advisor
Dr Perpetua Arinaitwe Technical Advisor
Dr Deborah Magera Technical Advisor
Mr Christopher Muganga Technical Advisor
Mr Gregory Tweheyo Senior Editor
Dr Miiro Farooq Senior Editor
Ms Hannah Nambusi Editor
Ms Sarah Mirembe Kyankya Editor
Mr Sebastian Jalameso Editor
Ms Irene Nakayenga Editor
Mr Moses Tuhame ICT Systems
Mr Grace Nuwasasira Graphics
Ms Doris Namitala Finance
Mr Taddeo Bwambale Public Relations Officer
Mr Ahamadah Wakhweya Mobiliser
Ms Laura Kirungi Karamagi Marketing
Ms Florence Kabajwisa Secretariat
Mr Brandt Hermus Ssemwatika Secretariat

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Keynote Speakers

Introduction
This book is related to the 1st International Conference on Curriculum Development of the
National Curriculum Development Centre. The conference was held from 26th -27th April 2023 and
it was attended by a number of persons from all corners of Uganda and the world at large. The
Conference hosted 4 keynote speakers who presented on different topics that relate to curriculum
development and the 21st century. They include:

1. Dr Ahmad Kaweesa Sengendo: Localisation and Decolonisation of the curriculum in Africa.

2. Prof. Rosnani Hashim: Rethinking and reconceptualization of curriculum development for

the 21st century.

3. H.E. Sheikh Manssour Bin Mussallam: Global trends in Educational Reforms.

4. Prof. Muyinda Birevu: The ICT revolution in curriculum development and implementation.

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Keynote Speaker 1
Localisation and Decolonisation Of
The Curriculum In Africa
Ahmad Kaweesa Sengendo, PhD, Senior Lecturer
Assistant Secretary General Economic Affairs,
Organization of Islamic Cooperation
Miiro Farooq PhD Coordinator Centre for Wisdom Pedagogy,
Institute of Teacher Education Research

Abstract
As the World Bank (2006) noted, the welfare of a nation cannot be greater than the education of its
people. Education is a powerful tool for not only raising people from a lower social status to a higher
one, but also socio-economic transformation of nations and states. Modern civilization owes both
its origin and continued dominance of human affairs to advancements in education. The quality of
education received by citizens of any nation determines the level of socio-economic advancement of
that nation. Quality curriculum is one of the determinants of quality education. This paper examines
the central role Africa has played in the rise of the Western world at the disadvantage of Africa herself.
The paper urges that African societies were not allowed to evolve their potential naturally as their
own natural evolution was crudely and decisively disrupted by two historical events of slave trade and
colonialism. The introduction of Western education to African societies by the colonialists helped the
later to take control of the minds of the Africans. Even after independence, intellectual colonialization
continues to this day through the colonial type of education that still dominates Africa’s education
system. Despite Africa’s huge and unparalleled natural resources, large land size and a growing
population, African peoples remain the poorest on earth. This paradoxical situation is re-enforced by
the Africans themselves, especially the elites who are products of a flawed education system.

This paper will demonstrate that for Africa to get out of her current precarious
situation and occupy her rightful position on the world stage, there
is urgent need to overhaul the entire education system. This includes a reconceptualization of
the curriculum used at all the levels of the education system in Africa, with a view to localizing
and decolonizing the curriculum and the entire education system. Key terminologies are defined,
and suggestions on the key aspects a reconceptualized, localized and decolonized curriculum
could focus on are made. The paper concludes with an assertion that for any meaningful and
fundamental changes in the education system in Africa to happen, political will of the leaders of
Africa at all levels is required.

Key words: Localization, Decolonization, Curriculum

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1.0 Introduction
There is no debate about the importance of education in the socio-economic development
of any nation or state. One of the key indicator in countries that have been able to develop
themselves is high literacy rates. As the World Bank (2006) noted, “the welfare of a nation
cannot be greater than the education of its peoples”. In the 1960s, then President Kennedy
of the United States of America (USA) asserted that “the progress of our nation cannot be
faster than the progress of our education system”.

At any one time in human history, there is a key imperative which determines the path human
civilization takes. Societies that are able to master the imperative of the time advance and
survive better than those that are not able to do so. The graph1 below it clearly indicates
population growth over the last 12,000 years

Graph 1: The size of the world population over the last 12,000 years

Increased mastery of the key imperative means greater chances of survival and
multiplication. The above human population graph shows that since the invention of the
key medicines, human beings have been able to survive better and increase tremendously.

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Graph 2: World Population growth through history

(https://www.google.com/search?q=relation+between+key+innovations+and+hu-
man+populations+over+time+graph&tbm=isch&source=univ&fir=ET-)

Great human inventions such as the internal combustion engine, various medicines plus
technological advancements helped man to survive and multiply at a very fast rate since the
1850s. The key role played by education in this historical journey of mankind was the ability
to pass-over the new knowledge to many people as well as to share and cross-fertilise the
knowledge to come up with more advance knowledge. Key among the discoveries, was the
discovery of medicines, especially antibiotics, to treat various diseases. Mr BC Young has
given the following timeline in the discovery of antibiotics.

2.0 Historical perspective of Africa

Africa is the only continent that suffered two historical catastrophic events.
These were slave trade and colonialism. As a result of these two events, African
societies were not allowed to evolve naturally as the natural evolution of the
African societies was crudely and decisively interrupted and thrown off course.

2.1 Slave trade

For over four centuries, human traffickers and traders invaded Africa and shipped away
millions of the most healthy and able-boded young Africans to Europe and the Americas.
The methods used to capture these Africans, their treatment after capture and during
transportation of this human cargo were the most inhuman anyone can think of. The
conditions of the forced labour were some of the most despicable and wicked conditions
one human being should never ever subject to another human being.

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While the actual number of people shipped out of Africa as slaves may never be known,
historians indicate that at least 17 million people were shipped out of as slave from Africa
between 1500 and 1900 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa). Suffice it to note
that the population of Africa in 1500 was about 62 million.

Figure 1: Western and Eastern Slave Trave

Western and Eastern Slave trade routes

Figure 2 Slave Trade from Africa to the Americas (1650 – 1860)

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“Evidence suggests that Africa’s slave trade played an important part in the shaping of the continent not
only in terms of economic outcomes, but cultural and social outcomes as well.” (Understanding the
long-run effects of Africa’s slave trades by Nathan Nunn, 27 Feb 2017).

2.2 Colonialism
Africa was colonized, mostly by European powers, for about 100 years. Later neo-colonialist
emerged after independence. One can actually say, without any fear of contradiction,
that even after African countries gained their political independence, most remained
economically, educationally and socially colonized. Even politically, the influence of the
former colonial masters is not hard to noticed to the present day.

Figure 3: Map of the partition of Africa

During the colonial times, Africa’s resources were looted and taken to build the modern day former
colonial states. After independence, the plunder continued with the “consent” of the Africans.
The present-day socio-economic relationship of Africa was laid during the colonial era. Africa, for
example continues to be a source of cheap raw materials, whose prices are determined by those
who buy them.

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3.0 Current State of Africa

Africa is large continent with relatively few people. The map below shows the size of Africa
as compared to other big countries.Figure 4: Current State of Africa

Africa’s population:

1. 228 million people in 1950 (9% of world population)

2. 1.4 billion people in 2022 (17% of world population)

3. 2.5 billion people in 2050 (25.6% of world population)

4. Africa has a young population – 60% below 24 years with a median age of 19 years.

5. Africa is not over populated because it is a big continent – 30.37 million Km².

3.1 Africa’s Natural Resources

Africa is the richest continent on planet earth in terms of natural resources, yet it continues
to be the poorest! This diabolic contraction finds its roots in colonialism.

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4.0 Why does Africa still matter and is the new frontier again?
Africa has:

 10% of the global oil output;

 90% of the world’s platinum supply;

 90% of the world’s cobalt supply;

 50% of world’s gold supply;

 68% of the world’s manganese;

 35% of the world’s uranium;

 75% of the world’s coltan; and

 54 Votes in the UN General Assembly.

5.0 Africa’s Debt Burden

Amidst her huge natural resources, Africa continues to borrow beyond her capacity to pay
from those who take her resources.

According to the African Development Bank Group Report entitled “African Economic Outlook 2021:
Africa’s growth prospects bullish despite COVID-19 constraints and debt burden”, indicated that
the average debt to-GDP ratio had stabilized around 60 percent of GDP. Further, according to the
Economist Intelligence report released on 27th May 2022, the “stock of total external debt held in
Africa—debt accrued by public- and private-sector entities and owed to foreign lenders—surpassed
US$1trn and related annual servicing costs broke through the US$100bn threshold for the first time
ever in 2021” (emphasis mine).

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20 countries with the highest debt-to-GDP ratio in Africa

According to an article in the Business Insider Africa published on March 21, 2022 12:40 pm by
Emmanuel Abara Benson, the following countries of Africa have the highest debt-to-GDP ratio:

1. Eritrea: The national debt in this Horn of Africa country stands at 175.1% of the GDP.

2. Cabo Verde: This island nation has a debt-to-GDP ratio of 160.7%.

3. Mozambique: Mozambique has a debt-to-GDP ratio of 133.6%.

4. Angola: This Southern African country has a debt-to-GDP ratio of 103.7%.

5. Mauritius: This island country’s gross debt stands at 101% of its GDP.

6. Zambia: Zambia’s gross national debt also stands at 101% of its GDP.

7. Republic of Congo: This country in Central Africa has a debt-to-GDP ratio of 85.4%.

8. Ghana: Ghana›s debt to GDP ratio currently stands at 83.5%.

9. The Gambia: In this country, the debt-to-GDP ratio is at 82.3%.

10. Seychelles: This island country has a debt-to-GDP ratio of 81.9%.

11. Guinea-Bissau: This country’s debt-to-GDP ratio currently stands at 79.1%.

12. Rwanda: Rwanda›s debt-to-GDP is at 74.8%.

13. Burundi: The Eastern African country has a debt-to-GDP ratio of 72.4%.

14. Gabon: In Gabon, the debt-to-GDP ratio is 72.1%.

15. Senegal: This Francophone West African country has a debt-to-GDP ratio of 71.9%.

16. Sierra-Leone: The Anglophone West African country has a debt-to-GDP ratio of 71.1%.

17. Namibia: This country has a debt-to-GDP ratio of 69.9%.

18. Kenya: Kenya’s debt-to-GDP ratio is 69.7%.

19. South Africa: This country has a debt-to-GDP ratio of 68.8%.

20. South Sudan: South Sudan has a debt-to-GDP ratio of 64.4%.

Uganda: about 53.1% (The Independent, Dec 29 2022, Daily Monitor, 7 March 2023) – USD
20.99 billion
The bottom line is that Africa’s continued status quo as exporters of raw materials, borrower,
aid recipient, and generally underdeveloped, is critical to global economy and prosperity. Much
of the developed world cannot sustain their development and consumption levels if Africa was
to start processing its products and export value-added products – in which case most Africa
countries would have no need of borrowing, would also pay back all debts, and would have
excess income well beyond their recurrent budgetary needs.

Is Africa about to take that route of exporting value-added goods? Definitely NO! Those who
benefit from Africa’s current status, will not allow Africa to get out of it without a big fight. For
them, Africa’s reawakening is an existential threat to those who benefit from Africa’s slumber.

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The question is: how sustainable is this model? My personal view is that it is not sustainable
in the long-run. As recent events indicate, the world is going through another “cold-to-warm”
war. There are new global re-alignments taking place and Africa has not been out of it. China
is one of the biggest financiers of many development projects in Africa. China for the first time
in history has opened up a military base in Africa. France is reorganizing its military operations
in Africa having withdrawn from Mali and Burkina Faso recently, USA has 29 known military
facilities in 15 African countries, and Britain also has military facilities in some African countries,
etc. The map of foreign military bases in Africa tells the story of Africa’s strategic encirclement.

Source: Institute of Security Studies article “Will countries heed the AU Peace and Security
Council’s concerns about foreign military bases on the continent?” by Andrews Atta-Asamoah,
27 Aug 2019.

Source: Institute of Security Studies - Top of Form

The new realignments can only mean more scramble for Africa’s resources. According to
Boston University Global Development Policy Center, GCI POLICY BRIEF 012 • 04/2022,
“estimates Chinese financiers signed 1,188 loan commitments worth $160 billion with 49 African
governments, their state-owned enterprises and five regional multilateral organizations between
2000 and 2020”. Some economists have pointed out that China does not only offer loans but
has also a deliberate policy of investing in Africa – which is a good development as Africa need
investors. India, Turkey and some Middle East countries are also gaining ground in Africa. If
these new comers come in with new economic paradigm – of a win-win approach, they could
help change the fortunes of Africa. A win-win approach is what one would recommend to all of
Africa’s development partners because ultimately, it is the only sustainable model given the
new realities that are emerging, both globally and in Africa herself.

6.0 The Importance of Education

It is generally agreed (or understood) that education is a key to socio-economic development.
Many individuals and nations that have attained good quality of education have also been
able to advance themselves in most spheres of human endeavours. Education indicators
tend to predict the human development indicators.

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“An investment in knowledge pays the greatest interest”,(Franklin, 2009)

Nelson Mandela asserted that “Education is the great engine of personal development. It is through
education that the daughter of a peasant can become a doctor, that the son of a mineworker can
become the head of the mine, that a child of farm workers can become the president of a great
nation. It is what we make of what we have, not what we are given, that separates one person
from the other”

On his part, George Eastman opined that “The progress of the world depends almost entirely
upon education.”

The benefits of education can only be realised if is of the right quality and relevance.
Miseducation can have catastrophic consequences for society. Some scholars even question
whether education can truly drive socioeconomic transformation. They point to the fact that
many bureaucrats who embezzle billions of dollars annually in Africa are “well” educated, often
holding master’s or doctorate degrees. A famous quote by the late Robert Mugambe, former
President of Zimbabwe, serves as a rude reminder of the corruption among Africa’s elites: “If
you see a guard guarding a government building during working hours, tell him that the
thieves are already inside”.

7.0 What is education?

There are many definitions of the term education. Some of those that interest me include
the following:

• “Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learnt in
school.” Albert Einstein.

• The implications here are that education should not be memorizing and
remembering facts or everything one has learnt in school. Education should
focus on moulding an individual into the best possible version of him/herself as
human being. The concept of a Humanversity as propounded by some scholars,
is in line with Eistein’s definition of education. “The ideal of a Humaniversity
… is grounded in a commitment to humanity, knowledge, moderation and
above all wisdom”, (Dlouhá, 2014; Kovačić Supervisor & Varbanova, 2015).

• Einstein’s definition if well understood and followed, must inevitably lead us to

question what really guides our education systems and educational institutions.
We need to interrogate our own understanding of our education institutions
and what they ought to be doing. One inevitable outcome of such a review
must be the fact that the education institutions are a product of history, and
these necessities a rethink of the narrative and values of these institutions.

• The definition also reminds us of what one scholar who said that the failures
of the 21st Century will be those who “cannot learn, unlearn and relearn”. With
the ever-increasing knowledge implosion and explosion, the ability to forget
what one has learned, and still be able to teach oneself the realities of life and
how to successfully navigate through them, would be a great accomplishment.

• This definition is in tandem with Dr John G. Hibben who said that: “Education is the
ability to meet life’s situations.”

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• It is also in agreement with John Dewey who said that “Education is not preparation
for life, education is life itself.”

• This definition also calls upon curriculum designers, implementers, and evaluators
to provide not only for the learners’ Intelligent Quotient (IQ) needs, but also for their
Social Quotient (SQ) and Emotional Quotient (EQ) needs. We will come back to this later.

• The definition also is not in favour of standardised summative evaluation of the

Uganda National Examination Board (UNEB) type. The common type of evaluation we
have is based on the learner recalling information and then apply it or used to analyse
or synthesize given knowledge portions. On the other hand, the definition is asking
us to evaluate the learner after he has forgotten whatever he had learnt is school.
Clearly, this calls for a different type of evaluation which also requires different tools.

i) “Education is the progressive discovery of our own ignorance”. Dr (Mrs) Urmila Sharma

• This definition is very intriguing. It points out that the key step to start learning,
is to admit that one is ignorant – an acceptance that there are lots of things
one does not know. This self-admission creates the desire, appetite, thirst
or hunger for knowledge and learning. Learners who are thirsty or hungry
for knowledge are the best to teach. Their reward is not necessarily good
marks or grades, but the new knowledge acquired – more like the excitement
of a baby after it has learnt how to stand, walk and run around the house.

• In this situation, the learner takes responsibility for his/her learning because s/he
has the self-drive or intrinsic motivation. This type of learner would hid the advice
of Roy T. Bennet who said that: “Let the improvement of yourself keep you so busy
that you have no time to criticize others.”

• The learner also can easily evaluate his or her progress based on the amount of his own
ignorance s/he is able to discover across time. This fits in well with John Holt’s view that
“learning is not a product of teaching – but rather a product of the learners’ activities”.

• In this definition, the purpose of education then becomes to turn the

ignorance one is not aware of, into the ignorance of which one is aware.

• The definition agrees with Socrates who said that “To know is to know that you
know nothing. That is the true meaning of knowledge”.

8.0 Curriculum: a key ingredient of the education system

Every education system follows a certain curriculum designed to achieve certain learning
outcomes.

8.1 What is curriculum?

There are various definitions of what curriculum is, the types of curricular and purpose of
the curriculum. Here are some of them:

i) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia “ In education, curriculum … is broadly

defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process.[1]
[2]
The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view
of the student›s experiences in terms of the educator›s or school›s instructional goals.

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ii) A curriculum may incorporate the planned interaction of pupils with instructional
content, materials, resources, and processes for evaluating the attainment of educational
objectives.”

iii) The term curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or
in a specific course or program. The Glossary of Education Reform

9.0 Why we must reconceptualise the curriculum

Whereas education is supposed to have helped African countries to advance their socio-
economic development, we all know that this has not been the case. At independence,
almost all African countries inherited the colonial system of education of their respective
colonisers. Over half a century after independence, many African countries are either worse
off than they were at independence, or have not made much socio-economic progress.
Yes, all countries have more educated citizens and professionals than they had at the time
of independence, but these have not been able to deliver to all their fellow citizens the
promised fruits of education.

Suffice it to add, the colonial type of education that still exists in most of Africa, was designed
to produce clerks and functionaries who would get jobs immediately after completing
the required education standard. It was never designed to produce creative or innovative
graduates who could help the African countries to benefit maximally from the enormous
natural resources that the Creator bestowed upon them. To this day, our education system
does very little if anything to develop the thinking skills of the learners.

In short, intellectual colonization and enslavement still exists in most of Africa’s education
system. The curricular are designed the same way the were designed by the colonial
masters. Any attempt at educational reform is either initiated by “development partners”
from the Western capitals or at least the exercise itself is very closely midwifed by “experts”
from the same capitals. I am yet to learn of a curriculum reform endeavour that is truly
initiated, managed and concluded by the Africans themselves.

Our current curriculum is Euro-centric and the evaluation is very much based on western
models of evaluation. To this day, one can sit Cambridge University examination for his/her
“O” or “A” level certificate, and it will be recognized throughout the British Commonwealth
at least. The ranking of universities, assessment of “impact factor”, and other quality
indicators are based on yardsticks that are alien to Africa – forcing our institutions to play a
game in which the rules of the game are set by the opponents.

The existing curricular are more theoretical and offer little skills. That is why we graduate
agriculturalists who buy everything they eat, and electrical engineers who cannot wire their
own houses and have to hire semi-illiterate and self-made electricians (Kamyufus) to wire
their houses. Africa’s roads are built by experts from abroad at exorbitant costs, and the
bulk of the research is funded from abroad.

Experts are now talking of a new emerging danger called “Food Colonialism” which is
likely to create the most catastrophic dependence danger worse than slave trade and
colonialism. With the bulk of research funded from abroad, genetically modified foods are
almost replacing our traditional indigenous varieties especially among cereals.

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Already in some countries one has to buy maize seeds at every planting season plus
fertilisers. This is because the indigenous varieties have all been wiped out and replaced
by genetically modified varieties, most of which have an exterminator gene imbedded in
them. The exterminator gene makes them give good yields only once or few times at best.
Some researchers have indicated that in at least one country in Southern Africa, to plant
one hectare of maize a farmer needs US$ 245 to buy seeds and fertilizer. This amount is
well too far off for most rural farmers, resulting in serious food shortages. So, one of my
recommendations is that as we endeavour to localize the curriculum, we should ensure
that there is a critical mass of people, especially the rural farmers, who have knowledge
of preserving the genetic resources of our foodstuffs.

Another reason why we must reconceive the curriculum is that the Euro-centric curriculum
marginalized our cultures and values. Since knowledge in not value-free, many critical
African values were replaced by Western values. In the case of Uganda where even do not
have a national language, our situation is not enviable. We have a situation where studying
English Language is compulsory from kindergarten to doctorate level, and yet studying
Agriculture is optional. That is why the late President Mugambe mused that we can speak
good English but we have no food. In a continent that is endowed with a lot of tribes and
cultures, for our education system not to provide for a mechanism of appreciating and
loving them, is a prescription for constant internal antagonistic contradictions – which are
not uncommon as of now.

The current education system creates a sense of entitlement from society rather than one
of responsibility to society. I guess that is why stories of medicines and other consumables
like gloves are stolen from hospitals by some health workers, some teachers cheat exams for
their learners, sex for marks scandals are prevalent, some civil servants siphoning billions
of shillings every year, and many other unbelievable scandals in our societies. Corruption
has almost become systemic hampering infrastructure development and service delivery in
spite of high literacy rates and massification of higher education in Africa.

Unemployed graduates at all levels of our education system are increasing every year. This
is because the current system trains job seekers and not job creators. There is a great skills
mismatch between what the labour market, especially in the private sector, needs and what
our graduates have.

With a growing population, huge debt burden, and an economy that is not generating
sufficient jobs for the youth, staying the course of our current curriculum and indeed the
entire education system, is risking the future of our nations.

10.0 What is localization of the curriculum?

We must never lose sight of the fact that a good education is supposed to help solve the
challenges communities and nations encounter. In other words, the curriculum is supposed
to address the local needs of the people it serves. In this context, localizing the curriculum
refers to the process of ensuring that the learning resources, activities and teaching
processes are designed in such a way that they are relevant to the learners in the location
where the learning is taking place. In this case one could say that it means “Africanising”
the curriculum. In other words, can the curriculum help to address Africa’s challenges? Can
we teach in such a way that the learners quickly derive meaning and relevancy from their
learning experiences through use of local examples, researches and materials?

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To me localization of curriculum should endeavour to bring indigenous knowledge into our

curriculum and classrooms. Africa had and still has a wealth of indigenous knowledge on a
variety of subjects that needs to be preserved and enhanced.

With the exceptions of Thailand, Singapore and to some extent Malaysia, I am not aware
of any other developed country that conducts its education in a foreign language. The
development of African languages and their integration into the socio-economic activities
of our countries should have happened 50 years ago. In the case of Uganda, localization
of the curriculum should include incorporation and development of an agreed national
language.

The figure below shows the elements considered in the Localization of the Curriculum
according to Maria Mercedes Arzadon, of the University of Philippines. It emphasizes the
local context as the key consideration when localizing the curriculum.

11.0 What is decolonisation of the curriculum?

As already stated, the current curriculum in most African countries is more or less the same
the colonial masters left behind. This was and still is based on Western models of education.
Both in history and at present times, Europe and Africa have had different developmental
paths although both have influenced each other. While Africa’s contribute to the development
of Europe has been largely positive, the same cannot be said of Europe.

“In education, decolonisation involves acknowledging and critically examining the influence
of colonial legacies on education systems as a whole, and its various sub-components such
as knowledge and the curriculum. There is a consensus that decolonisation is by definition an
iterative and ongoing process.” Martin Johnson and Melissa Mouthaan (2021) in Runnymede
Trust.

On her part, Education activist Sofia Akel, of London Metropolitan University, said that
decolonising the curriculum is usually “understood as the process in which we rethink, reframe
and reconstruct the curricula and research that preserve the Europe-centred, colonial lens. It
should not be mistaken for ‘diversification,’ as diversity can still exist within this western bias.
Decolonisation goes further and deeper in challenging the institutional hierarchy and monopoly
on knowledge, moving out of a western framework.”

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While explaining the effects of the colonial system of education to the colonized, S.M. Muhamed
Idris (2012) pointed out the fact it resulted in a social reengineering of the colonized societies.
He explained that:
“The result of this social reengineering was that it produced a local elite with colonized minds,
crippled imagination and lacking in creativity and originality. It was a caricature of them, their
confidence, self-esteem and dignity. Their life-style, tastes, and values were far removed from
those of the ordinary masses and closer to their colonial masters. They were, as Macaulay would
have put it, a class of persons Indians, Malays, Chinese, Africans in blood and colour, but English
in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect.

When the colonialists folded their flags and left, power passed into the hands of the members
of this class. They took charge of the institutions – the civil service, judiciary, police, universities,
etc. – created by colonialism to serve its interests, and continued to operate them without
dismantling their philosophical and ideological underpinnings.

Our universities are the purveyors of the imperialist world-view and ideology. They play the role
of perpetuating Western hegemony through their education models that are so destructive to
our own culture, language, way of life, knowledge systems and dignity.”

As a way forward, he proposes that “to achieve true liberation and recover our authentic
selves, we need to purge the West that within us.” The West that is within us, was baptised “the
Columbus within”, by Claude Alvares and others.

12.0 What elements should be in the reconceptualised, localized and decolonised

curriculum?
12.1 Afrocentric curriculum
If our education system must avoid to produce the Columbus within, we must craft an
Afrocentric curriculum for all our educational institutions. In this regard, B. Mukasa Lutu
(2012) would advise that such a curriculum “must draw their inspiration from the rich African
heritage embedded in the African peoples’ cultures and philosophies as well as their institutions
which they have created over the centuries, and add on new experiences that take into account
the demands of their contemporary situation.”

We need a curriculum that restores our self-worth and self-esteem as Africans – so that we
love ourselves absolutely with no need of being affirmed by others. Our young people should
stop bleaching themselves and be proud of the amount melanin in their skins. We need to
rediscover our cultural values, be proud of our traditional dresses, foods, art, and above all,
our world-view. We need to redefine the purpose of life based on our world-view.

Bogere Seezi in article published in the Monitor newspaper of April 19, 2021 advised that:
“Education on the continent [of Africa] needs to help people learn about who they are, what
resources they have, and how they can use the resources available to them for their human
development. It is such an education that starts from self-awareness, and self-appreciation that
can release creative juices that can respond to the needs of the continent.”

12.2 Solve Africa’s challenges

The reconceived curriculum must enable its graduates to solve Africa’s socio-economic
development challenges. This include ability to secure, harness and preserve our resources
for the common good of all our peoples. In this context, the curriculum should be flexible
enough to allow different communities focus on curriculum aspects that enable them to
meet their developmental needs.

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This should enable a Karamajong or Masai boy/girl who plans to stay in his home area and
improve the quality and management of the local cattle herds to focus on those curriculum
parts that help him to acquire the relevant knowledge and skills that s/he needs.

12.3 Focus on all the four dimensions of man

The current curriculum focuses mainly on two dimensions of humankind: the body and the.
The new curriculum should focus on the other two dimensions of humankind: the heart and
the soul.
Throughout history, Africans have always had a spiritual connection to a Supreme Being.
African values have always been based on an inner-self that controls what the mind and the
body do – the heart. The heart is the moral campus that guides behaviours, attitudes, and
character formation. Enduring African values of ‘Obuntu” were cultivated through the brain
to the heart and soul and released through the body as behaviours and character.

Knowledge is not value-free. The current curriculum, in many subtle ways, inculcates European
values to the Africans. We need to purge them out and replace them with African values hinged
in African philosophies of life. We need to have graduates who understand that not to steal
or misuse public funds is in their own personal interests. We want them to have hearts full of
empathy, love and respect of others and public properties. They should be self-accountable and
with a firm a belief in the ultimate accountability to their Creator – Katonda, Ruhanga, Imana or
Allah.

12.4 Local languages

We think, learn and dream in a language. The more mastery of the language we use to think
or learn, the easier it is to accomplish the tasks before us. The belief that when one cannot
speak the coloniser’s language one is illiterate, is an absurd colonial hungover that is still
being reinforced by our education systems. We actually now have many educated young
Africans who have no mastery of any language – they cannot speak their mother tongue and
their English is horrible! How can such people even have any meaningful dreams to pursue?
Such a situation produces graduates who, at best are semi-illiterate, and at worst educated
fools lacking the capacity to positively impact their communities.

12.5 Cater for the demands of a Knowledge Society

The 21st century witnessed the emergency of a knowledge society running knowledge
economies. The new curriculum must prepare its recipients to be capable of overcoming the
challenges of living and working in a knowledge society. Creativity and innovativeness are the
key drivers of a knowledge society. Therefore, the curriculum should provide opportunities
for learners to learn to be creative and innovative.

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12.6 Cater for the Information Age

It is estimated that the available information and knowledge doubles every six months. This
is driven by unparalleled knowledge implosion and explosion plus unprecedented advances
in science and technology (S&T) as well as research and development (R&D).

With the increasing access to the internet and world-wide-web, any curriculum that forces
learners to spend a lot of time learning things at the knowledge and comprehension levels
is total waste of learners’ time and brain power. Definitions, years when Europeans saw the
rivers, lakes, and mountains of Africa, plus a lot other concepts learns spent time in class
being taught, can easily (and more accurately) be given by Uncle Google. There is no need
any more to spend lots of time on such curriculum content. Of course, we have to provide for
the rural poor kids who do not have smart phones or internet connectivity. One would rather
spend that time helping rural kids to learn how to identify and treat sick local chicken using
locally available herbs.

12.7 Avoid outdated and useless curriculum content

Learning time, resources and efforts should be spent on content that is beneficial to the
learners given their African setting. What is the value of spending time teaching learners how
human being evolved from monkeys millions of years ago? In the first place, it is not true at
all those human beings evolved from monkeys. If it is true, how come some monkeys have
refused to become human beings and chose to remain monkeys? But where is a monkey that
is actually about to become a human being? Even Charles Darwin himself abandoned his own
Theory of Evolution before he died. Secondly, no matter what the origin was, the important
thing is that we are now here. What we do with ourselves to better ourselves and the world is
the important assignment we have before us –and that is what the curriculum should focus
on, rather than when we started to walk on two legs instead of four.

12.8 Have a good balance of skills and theoretical knowledge

One scholar said that an idea not put into practice, can never grow bigger than the brain cell
it occupies. Ultimately it is what we do, rather than what we say, that finally makes the critical
difference as we struggle to build our careers and economies. In this context, it is important
to have a curriculum that enable learners to develop an organic relationship with their
environment. It is this organic relationship with the environment and local circumstances
that will enable learners to appreciate the natural resources they have and how to harness
and benefit from them in a sustainable manner. Such learners will not look at going back to
their villages to engage in agriculture as failure.

The curriculum should graduate producers and not consumers of things – producers of
knowledge, goods and services. For that to happen they need to have knowledge, skills
and the right attitude. I must emphasise that knowledge, skills and attitudes is not a one-
size-fit-all. In fact, the greatest injustice in life is treat two unequal people equally. Hence, the
curriculum should have sufficient latitude for both the teachers and learners to choose what
is most appropriate for them.

For this to be achieved, the appropriate curriculum cannot be made by technocrats sited in our
capital cities, with advice of the so-called experts who fly-in from abroad with preconceived
or neocolonial notions of what is good for the Africans. The local communities must have
a significant (not cosmetic) input when developing such a curriculum. Localisation of the
curriculum should mean having a curriculum that helps to solve household challenges. How
else can this be achieved besides allowing the household owners to define their needs, hopes
and aspirations for themselves and their neighbourhoods?

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12.9 Move from the 3Rs to 7Rs

The colonial education emphasised the 3Rs of reading, writing, and arithmetic because that
was what was actually needed for people to become clerks and typical civil servants under
European masters. The challenges of living and working in a globalised and knowledge-driven
21st century requires us to have more skills so that we are able to build bridges and become
global citizens and workers. In other words, as we endeavour to localise the curriculum, we
must not be oblivious of the fact that we live in shared world with others who are not like us,
because we are not like them, but have some common interests, opportunities and challenges
to handle together for mutual benefits.

The other 4Rs are religion, relations, recreation and responsibility. Let us briefly examine
each of them.

Religion: As earlier stated, Africans have always had a religion of some form. The concept
of a Supreme Being was well known by most African societies long before the Muslims and
Christians arrived in Africa. One African politician once said that when the Europeans came to
Africa, they gave us the Bible and took our land. During the colonial era, religion was also used
as a tool to divide African communities along religious divides.
In recent times, religion has also become commercialised and some extremists have hijacked
religion and used it for wrong ends. Nonetheless, religion remains a great tool to enhance
peace, harmony, and development if properly taught and practiced. There cannot be a truly
good Christian or Muslim, who is not a good citizen. One of the best ways to stop fanatics
and opportunist to hijack religion and use it for wrong ends, is to bring it back into the centre
of our education system and accord it sufficient importance. The idea of a secular state is
one of the colonial tools used to subdue revolutionary ideas against injustices meted upon
the colonized communities. People were expected and taught to suffer peacefully hitting
their heads against church walls seeking for divine courage to help them endure the pain
and not to annoy their tormentors. Even then, the motto of the most secular state, the USA,
is “In God we Trust”. That of Uganda, which is a secular state, is “For God and my Country”. All
meetings start with a prayer, meaning that the role of the Almighty in scheme of our lives is a
well-recognised fact. What is now required is to give the teaching of true religious beliefs the
attention and importance it deserves so that we have better citizens. The current dilemma
is that people start a meeting with a prayer, lie throughout the meeting, and end it with
an even a bigger prayer!

Relations: The importance of good relations has always been recognized in most education
systems. It is usually termed socialisation. However, with increasing individualized behaviours,
suicide rates, broken families and marriages, unholy practices such as homosexuality, etc,
there is need to have effective social skills. The curriculum should therefore provide for
activities that develop the Social Quotient (SQ) as well as the Emotional Quotient (EQ) of
learners.

In a globalised world, having well developed SQ and EQ skills can be more important than
just a good Intelligent Quotient (IQ). While a good IQ will help one to get a job after passing
the exams, one needs good SQ and EQ to keep the job. A good character is built by a good EQ,
while a good SQ will enable one to have such important social skills like being a team player
that are becoming increasing very important for employers.

The family has always been the foundation of the African societies. The African family typically
is composed of a man, woman (wife), children, relatives and neighbours. We need to maintain
this family configuration for our survival as a great people. The increasing divorce and single
parent families among the elites and middle class group in Africa is worrying.

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The infiltration of homosexual behaviours in our schools is a serious existential threat to not
only the African values but also the psycho-social well-being of our society. We are now a
continent and a people at the greatest of all risks. The curriculum must address this most
dangerous attack on our most important natural resource – our children.

Recreation: Schools have what they call extra or co-curricular activities. One the activities
done under this heading is games and sport. This is a small component of recreation. With
the internet and social media plus urbanisation, recreation is taking on a new importance.
It is not unusual to find kids spending many hours a day watching pornography and other
filthy materials and videos on the internet in their bedrooms. The effects of such activities
on the mental health of the children can be devastating. If we are to raise generations of
physically, mentally and emotionally stable citizens, we have to provide appropriate
recreational curriculum and facilities. We also need to train or retool the teachers to be able
to provide appropriate guidance, counselling, and training to the learners.

Responsibility: As earlier stated, the current educations system produces graduates who
feel entitled to a privileged good treatment by society. They feel society owes them – a
good job that is well paying, unquestionable respect, and a good life even at the expense of
others. Most of them have no sense of responsibility, especially to the common good. When
entrusted with public assets, if they do not steal them, they treat them as personal assets or
simply do not take good care of them. We hear of public officers who refuse to handle over
government vehicles when dropped from their positions.

Personal responsibility is equally important. So many people cannot even manage

themselves. Some drink themselves to stupidity, other spend all the monthly salary the same
day s/he gets it and then resorts to begging from friends for the rest of the month. Others
have sold every asset the clan had to put the money to useless cravings. Our curriculum has
to help young people learn to be responsible to themselves and society.

12.10 Celebrate diversity

Africa is a very diverse continent with diverse peoples and culture. This diversity needs
to be appreciated and celebrated as a great asset. The curriculum must help learners
to appreciate that diversity is the rule of nature, and that it is diversity that creates the
viability and continuity of life itself. Eight billion human beings on earth, but no two people
are identical – even identical twins are not identical. No two zebras have the same colour
partners.

The curriculum has to help the learners and all involved to appreciate diversity, build
synergies across cultural, tribal, racial, religious, and other divides. God knew what He was
doing when he ensured that we are all different. We just have to build on our collective
problem-solving abilities to overcome our development challenges. Collective intelligence
that harnesses the diverse qualities of everyone can be a powerful tool for crafting a better
future for ourselves and humanity at large.

The bottom line is that when all our various variabilities are distilled, they all crystalise
into a physiognomy of distinctive collectivity called human beings. However, there is a big
difference between human being and being human. It is on the latter that our curriculum
endeavours must focus.

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12.11 Open minded individuals

In order to be able to celebrate diversity, work smoothly in diverse environments, and learn
effectively from all and sundry, one needs an open mind. Tolerating and accommodating
views contrary to one’s own requires an open mind. With so much information out there,
we all must have the self-discipline and humility to know that we could be wrong and
others could be right. An open mind, buttressed with a good SQ and EQ, should be able
help us tame our egos, humble ourselves and afford us a chance to listen to others, and in
the worst of circumstances, politely agree to disagree, but still have a cup of tea together in
the evening. If we were able to achieve this, we would make the world a better place.

12.12 Appropriate evaluation

A good curriculum must be easy to evaluate. Proper evaluation is critical to determine
whether or not the objectives and goals of the curriculum have been achieved. The current
standardized summative evaluation common in our education systems is not the best.
Standardised examinations do not drive-up academic standards. They only drive-up stress
and help to widen the gap between the haves and the have-nots. With UPE and USE covering
every sub-county in Uganda, access to education has significantly increased pushing up the
literacy rates. This is good but it is not the end of the story.

Most rural schools either completely lack most of the basic facilities or have poor facilities.
Many do not have enough qualified teachers either. On the other hand, urban schools where
the children of the rich study from have very good facilities and attract the best teachers.
In such as situation, when you administer the same standard examination to both groups
of learners, what exactly are you evaluating? Such an exam is only useful to discriminate
against the have nots, but at the same time get them to blame themselves for their failure,
as the sons and daughters of the rich walk to government universities on full government
scholarships because they “allegedly passed” with flying colours.

As far as my genetics knowledge informs me, the genes that code for intelligence are not
influenced by the size of the bank account and/or list of assets the parents have. There
are many brilliant and highly gifted kids in rural areas who only need a chance to succeed
in life. The lack of facilities in rural schools denies such kids a fair chance to succeed and
effectively contribute to the building of their nations. As we wait and pray for better facilities
to reach the rural schools, the curriculum should have a mechanism of identifying talented
kids early enough so that appropriate arrangements can be made for them to excel. I have
seen one good example in Malaysia we could discuss at an appropriate opportunity.

13.0 Other factors that enable effective implementation of a curriculum

13.1 Quality and well-motivated teachers
“Teachers are NOT common people and common people are not teachers.
Please do not choose to become a teacher until you are worth it.” (OECD, 2010)

Teacher training needs to be looked at again. The curriculum used in teacher training
institutions needs to be localized and decolonized as well.

The teaching profession needs to be made more attractive so that it attracts some of the
brilliant learners to it. Currently, most people go into the teaching profession as last resort
after failing to gain admission into the “juicy” programmes. Consequently, while we have
many excellent and great teachers in our schools, but we also have a significant number of
mediocre teachers.

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The effectiveness such mediocre teachers is further undermined by lack of basic facilities
and regular in-service capacity building programmes. In such a situation, many brilliant
learners fail to make it through – not because they have a learning problem, but because
there is a teaching problem.

We need to borrow a leaf from Germany and some Scandinavian countries where teachers
are the best paid civil servants. This will attract some of best brains into the teaching
profession. Then we can now talk of have creativity and innovativeness in our classrooms.
The recent Government of Uganda decision to increase the salaries of science teachers up
to Shs 4 million is a very commendable policy. We pray that the arts teachers will also join
the same scales soon to avoid a disruptive salary differential in the school system. The
Government can even go further and abolish the PAYE tax on the teachers’ salaries or reduce
it to a small percentage. Pakistan between 2000 and 2008 increased teachers’ salaries very
significantly, and reduced the tax on teachers’ salaries to a maximum of 10% with a high
thresh-hold. Within that paid, Pakistan experienced a brain gain instead of a brain drain.

Teachers’ other conditions of service also need to improve. In the past, rural schools used
to have staff houses at the school which enabled government to post there good teachers
from other regions of the country. This needs to be revived.

The number of teachers need to be improved to cope with the increasing number of
learners. To be able to implement effectively the reconceived curriculum as outlined herein,
the teacher: student ratio must be good enough to allow more individualised attention to
learners.

13.2 Basic facilities: infrastructure

Effective curriculum implementation is only possible if the minimum basic facilities and
infrastructure are available. This requires good money and this money ought to be found.
Most of the African countries are spending less on education as compared to other sectors. I
think they need to take another look at this. Quality education is not cheap. The consolation
is that if we empty our coffers into the heads of our children, the future will be better for all
of us. Japan and Malaysia are good examples to bench-mark on this.

13.3 Appropriate Textbooks and other learning materials

For so long we have depended too much on textbooks written by others. We need to develop
capacity to write all our textbooks used to implement the localized and decolonized
curriculum. Text books, like other written materials, are not values-free. They can be used
to promote the values and notions we want to achieve from the curriculum, besides the
content.

13.4 Enabling policies/regulatory frameworks

Curriculum reviews, implementation and evaluation are significantly enhanced if enabling
policies and regulatory frameworks are in place. Such policies should be reviewed regularly
to ensure that they are in tandem with the changing realities facing the education system.

13.5 Continuous improvements

Even the best-written and thought-through curriculum will always have room for
improvement. Change in policies, local and global environment may necessitate certain
changes in the curriculum. Hence regular and effective monitoring of the curriculum
implementation in vital. The involvement of all stakeholders in the monitoring is crucial.
Also important is having a competent team of monitors, researchers, evaluators, and other
experts.

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Continuous upskilling and upgrading of all key implementers of the curriculum is

necessary. Opportunities have to made available, especially for teachers, to continue to
grow professionally.

13.6 Sufficient funding

The bottom line is that there is no cheap quality education. No matter how good a given
country’s curriculum might be, without the resources to implement it effectively, grow the
economy so that it generates sufficient numbers of jobs for the graduates of the curriculum,
invest in cutting-edge research and development (R&D) to guarantee sustainability, the
good curriculum degenerates to a paper tiger unable to catch the slowest of antelopes.

African governments must be willing to provided sufficient funds to the education sector.
Funding education by using foreign funds is never a good idea for any society – because
there is no free lunch.

13.7 The bottom line: Need for Political Will

At the end of the day, every decision is a political decision. Africa’s dilemma when it comes
to crucial issues that can determine the fate of the Africans is that for every solution there
is a problem. This is because of the interference from other forces who would not like to see
Africa develop.

The struggle for the intellectual liberation of Africa must be championed by the political
leaders at all levels. It is a more difficult liberation struggle than that of political colonization
because most the Africans may not even realise that there is a problem that needs to be
addressed.

It is the politicians who control the budgetary allocations of the national cake. With their
support, the education sector can get sufficient resources to reinvigorate itself and serve
the countries better.

14.0 Conclusion
The absurdity of our education system was summarized by the late Robert Mugabe who he
is quoted to have said that:

“African Education System has surprising outcomes. The smartest students pass with 1st Class
and get admitted to Medical& Engineering schools. The 2nd Class students get MBAs and LLBs
to manage the First-Class students. The 3rd Class students enter politics, and rule both 1st
and 2nd Class students. The failures join the army and control politicians who, if they are not
happy with, they kick or kill them. … Best of all those who did not attend any school, become
prophets & witch doctors, and everybody follows them.”

Africa, the cradle of mankind, is a big, rich, diverse and strategic continent on the global
scene. Her level of underdevelopment is astonishing given its enormous natural resources.
Both slave trade and colonialism disrupted Africa’s natural evolution into a developed and
self-propelling continent. The attainment of independence, over 50 years ago for most
countries, has not helped to develop Africa. This is mainly because colonialism has never
totally left. While political colonialism was said to have ended, intellectual colonialism
stayed and continues to determine the fate of the African peoples. Overhaul of the entire
education system is required if Africa is to realise her full potential and play her rightful
role on the world stage. To this end, we can begin with localizing and decolonizing the
curriculum offered in our schools.

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Reference
Dlouhá, J. (2014). Higher Education in the World 5. Envigogika (Vol. 9). https://doi.
org/10.14712/18023061.444

Franklin, B. (2009). Benjamin Franklin, Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania,
1747, excerpts, 1–7.

Kovačić Supervisor, N., & Varbanova, L. (2015). UNESCO Chair in Cultural Policy and Management
The Impact of Corporate Social Responsibility on Sustainable Cultural Communities, (September),
1–364.

OECD. (2010). Educating Teachers for Diversity. Organisation for economic co-operation and
development (Vol. 5). Retrieved from http://hdl.voced.edu.au/10707/5025

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Keynote Speaker 2
Rethinking and reconceptualization
of curriculum development for the
21st Century
Prof. Rosnani Hashim,
Founder of KIKMAH Pedagogy, IE Consultancy, Malaysia

Introduction
It is most appropriate to begin with a brief overview of education and the problems that beset the
curriculum of most educational institutions today. This will then provide the proper context for the
discussion on the rethinking and the reconceptualization of the curriculum.

It has been acknowledged by educationists throughout the world that education serves a dual
purpose, for the individuals and society. It is through proper education that an individual’s
potentials--physical, intellectual, moral, spiritual, and emotional--are drawn out, cultivated and
developed. It is in this sense that Socrates referred to a teacher as a midwife because of his or
her role to draw out something already innate in the child. Of course, what is drawn out and how
soon depend very much on the skills and ability of the teachers. Education also serves another
important role which is to transmit and transform the cultures, values and legacy of a particular
society. Education is said to be playing a conservative role when it just transmits the prevailing
cultures, values and beliefs from one generation to the next or maintains the status quo. However,
it is also capable of playing a more radical role when it attempts to bring about changes in an effort
to reform society. In general, education does play both conservative and radical roles with the
progress of civilization.

Education can be distinguished into three types: the informal, the formal and the non-formal.
Home is the most important institution of informal education whereby learning takes place in
an unstructured and indirect manner. Thus, the home is considered as the first school and the
mother as the first teacher. The school is the most important institution of learning for formal
education in which learning experiences are structured and organized systematically to achieve
specific learning outcomes. In a formal education, the school curriculum and the teachers are
very important agents of learning. Learning also occurs through non-formal ways which means
providing education through organized efforts by institutions or organizations other than the
school such the community, non-governmental organizations, the mosque or the church.

Changes at the beginning of the 21st century

Much has changed in education and the way schooling is operated since the dawn of globalization
in the 1990s, a new era brought about by the power of the Information and Communication
Technologies.

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The present generation of students – children and adolescents, is different from previous generations.
They grew up surrounded by digital media. They have the radio and television that we also had but
they have more – multimedia computer systems, then the greatest of all the internet with its email
for brief, speedy communication; for transporting text, audio and video files; then the world wide
web with Google and its search engine for almost anything that exist in man’s vocabulary; social
media networks, and the list keeps growing. Today we have hand phones, smart phones, iPod,
iPad, tablets etc. to connect communities in a cyber world and now we have artificial intelligence
IR4.0 then IR5.0. This generation believes that technology is part of the natural landscape without
which they will not be able to survive. The power of connectivity via the internet is tremendous.
Education is no longer seen as the instruction by the sage on the stage to the pupils. The sage is
no longer seen as someone with the know all and the pupils as empty vessels upon which the sage
can pour his or her knowledge. The subject-centred classroom is now being challenged greatly so
by the learner-centred classroom. The blackboard as the major equipment for writing or drawing
to aid in explanation is being replaced with not only a typical whiteboard but an electronic one too.
Teaching of an ever-growing body of knowledge now occurs in so many different forms and ways.

The world today is also beset by environmental degradation, socio-economic dysfunction and
geopolitical instability. The effect of climatic changes through pollution, unexpected floods,
earthquakes, fires and weathers are causing damage to crops resulting in famines and death of
livestock that threaten lives due to shortage of food. In short, the current developmental trajectory
is impelling mankind and our planet towards crisis. However, the main international discourse on
education continues to see it primarily as a tool for enhancing economic growth, and takes for
granted the intrinsically beneficial nature both of growth and of schooling. To hope for a future
that is peaceful, prosperous and environmentally sustainable depend on grasping the broader
meaning and potential of education. Thus, the United Nation (2015) has drawn up 17 sustainable
development goals (SDG) for this purpose which are divided into three categories as follows:

(1) Environmental: natural resources (water, energy, agriculture, biodiversity), climate change,
rural development, sustainable urbanization, disaster prevention, and mitigation;

(2) Socio-cultural: human rights, peace and human security, gender equality, cultural diversity
and intercultural understanding, health, HIV/AIDS, and governance; and

(3) Economic: poverty reduction, corporate responsibility and accountability, and market
economy

Sustainability is a paradigm for thinking about a future in which environmental, social and economic
considerations are balanced in the pursuit of development and an improved quality of life. These
three spheres are intertwined. How to sustain our planet’s resources? The sustainability paradigm
is a consequence of the failure of the paradigm of economic development.

To make matter worse, Corona virus or Covid broke out in 2019 which rampaged the world killing
thousands and affecting millions. To avoid the virus, a total world lockdown was declared by
the World Health Organization (WHO), where all have to stay home, isolate themselves and wear
protective masks if there was a need to go out of their homes. Schools were physically closed down
until 2022 which means there exist a generation of lost children.

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Effects of Globalisation, Sustainability and the Covid Pandemic on Education

Globalisation
It will be useful to examine the effects of these changes for education, in terms of the curriculum,
the teachers and learners. More than two decades ago, Carnoy (1999) warned that there were
at least six major effects of globalisation in education. First, when the World Trade Organization
(WTO) set the rules and regulate the international trade in the services sector even for intellectual
property, this opens up national education systems to the global education market. As a result,
there develops a pressure towards internationally recognised accreditation of educational
institutions. Education becomes a marketable commodity instead of just a social commodity and
that knowledge will be exportable in the form of universities becoming an export industry. Courses
are advertised in international markets to attract students and parents who are willing to spend
large amounts of money for a degree. It also means that one has to pay expensively for learning.

Second, globalization brings back colonization but in a new form. This time it is no longer physical
but through the medium of English language and culture. Globalization generates and consolidates
the colonizing effect of English domination. Majority of the data in Google or in the internet are
conveyed in English. A large amount of money is spent to ensure children will acquire competence
in English which will become the language of instruction at universities in different parts of the
world. Although we have the internet also in Japanese, Spanish, Turkish, Chinese or Arabic, these
will be not as dominant as English. This will have a domino effect on local education with many
private colleges switching to use English as its medium of instruction creating the bifurcation
between private and public higher education institutions.

Third, globalization increases the process of internationalisation as a consequence of migration and

work especially movement of human capital and resources from countries with high population
density to countries with high business capital. Similarly, movements occur due to study abroad,
international and exchange programs plus the establishment of International and English schools
and universities. The process of internationalization results in recognition of racial and cultural
diversities, tension and the dominance of English. Fourth, globalisation affects the conceptualisation
of ‘valuable’ knowledge. It gives a higher value to knowledge with immediate economic benefits to
improve economic productivity over social knowledge such as the humanities, arts, religious, ethical
and moral studies. In this way, globalisation determines curriculum formation, education policy
and practice. Increasing numbers of students would opt for science and technology which created
real pressures for universities to become more vocationally-oriented. There is a growing tendency
towards curriculum reform that makes education system more responsive to globalisation trends
- English language, computer literacy, STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics)
literacy, economics, and management.

Fifth, with globalization it is expected to see increasing decentralisation, that is redefinition of the
relationship between education, the state, and the market through transfers of decision-making
powers from central Ministries of Education to intermediate governments, local governments,
communities, and schools. It usually involves public-private partnership. Decentralisation
supposedly improves efficiency, transparency, accountability, and responsiveness of service
provision compared with centralised systems. However, evidence is mixed.

Sixth, international testing and ranking has become more pronounced as means for emphasising
accountability and raising standards in education. The OECD (Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development) conducts the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
across schools in member countries for comparison of performance in mathematics, science and
reading, in addition to TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) conducted
by IEA.

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For higher education, many countries have adopted league tables to place universities in hierarchical
order according to their performance assessment, which is part of education marketing. The
introduction of the new public management principles such ISO 9001 and business models in
education had a consequence in the explosion of testing. Educational measurement promoted by
international organisations, such as the THE (Times Higher Education World), QS (Quacquarelli
Symonds), Shanghai Ranking (ARWU) and the World Bank represents a highly quantitative view of
progress and finance driven-reforms rather than an attempt towards school improvement. There
is a growing convergence in terms of ‘quality’ between different educational settings. When the
language of accountability is dominant, the indicators of true quality narrow to measurable data.
This emphasis on testing and ranking shifted the value system between students and academic
staffs in private institutions and in public institutions in terms of their worldviews and values.
To be ahead in the competition, academic staffs in university not only teach but have to become
entrepreneurs to draw research grants or contracts to their universities and to publish. In both
research and publication, quantity of money and number of articles and books matter more than
the quality. This might spell the death of the intellectuals.

The pace of change of lifestyles with ICT, the precursor of globalization, and AI is phenomenal.
With ICT alone education has changed from emphasis in product (memorisation and application)
to process (thinking skills). The twenty first century skills encompass the ability to search and sort
information for problem solving, formulate and implement research, analyse and synthesise data,
apply the learning in a new situation, monitor and improve their own learning and achievements,
communicate well in various forms, work in a team, learning independently or self-learning
(Darling-Hammond, 2008). With IR 4.0 and 5.0 in which many routine tasks are being handled by
robot equipped with AI that gives it the capacity of some form of thinking ability, this has changed
the nature of occupations which will be instead to command over the robot or computers.
Consequently, the nature of education for economic growth and human resource capital will have
to change too.

Climatic Changes and Education for Sustainable Development

The threat that our planet Earth will perish seems more real now than before. The change envision
by the liberal economists in their economic pursuits are now being scrutinised by environmentalist
as detrimental to the well-being of humans and the environment. The nature of the pursuit of
economic development in this mode seems like to have no place within the sustainability paradigm
as a concern raised by Ban Ki Moon, the former UN Secretary General in 2007: “We hold the future
in our hands. Together, we must ensure that our grandchildren will not have to ask why we failed to
do the right thing, and let them suffer the consequences.” The UN Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) are intended to set the global development agenda until 2030. Goal 4 exhorts member states
to ensure ‘inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities
for all’. Under SDG 4, Target 4.7 calls for countries to integrate value-based and action-oriented
learning into their education systems:

By 2030 ensure all learners acquire knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable
development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and
sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-
violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution
to sustainable development.

Consequently, UNESCO (de Lores Report, 1996) advocated educational programmes for quality
education and fostering human development that are based on the four pillars of education: i)
Learning to know, ii) learning to do, iii) learning to live together, iv) learning to be, and later after
the SDG movement added, v) learning to transform oneself and society.

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It is interesting that Malaysia has developed an educational philosophy and curriculum that are
value-based about a decade earlier in 1987.

COVID-19 and education

To make matter worse, COVID-19 had caused learning physically face-to-face to cease, something
that had never happened before. Learning had to go virtual on the Net. Before the pandemic,
universities found it difficult to persuade both lecturers and students to have online classroom.
The problem was due to access to the internet and its infrastructures, and also its asynchronous,
monologue nature. It was probably only used by those universities with Online Distance Learning
programmes.

However, the COVID-2019 pandemic has accelerated the use of ICT in the classroom through
Google meet and Zoom apps, and registration of students in virtual classes like Google Classroom,
Edmodo and LMS such as MOODLE all of which happened to be created at the right time. These
applications and tools were much better than previous ones because the nature of the physical
classroom activities could be duplicated - lecturing, questions and answers, dialogue, board for
writing and group discussions. The pandemic made it clear that it was not only for the universities
but necessary for the schools too. Cheaper smart phones, telephone lines and government
subsidies had to be formulated to provide access to all students. Without this digital technology, it
would have been impossible to teach in a virtual environment. We can say that Google meet and
Zoom save humanity in terms of education and also living. These tools and applications are not
only used for classroom teaching but also for hosting webinars. These apps have expanded the
use of the Web for virtual education. To make learning using these possible, students, teachers and
universities lecturers had to be trained and despite the initial teething issues, by the first month
of its introduction, most could use it. However, because it was not possible to provide for all, the
digital divide still persists in many societies.

Issues Related to the Changes

The new technologies require an education where the students or learners are no longer spoon fed
but must be transformed to problem solvers. For this, they ought to be critical and creative and learn
to work in a team so as to be able to see problems and generate new ideas as part of the solution.
Working as a team will afford them to see different perspectives and alternatives and build upon
new feasible ideas. Consequently, as team members, they need the skills of communication and
collaboration for a meaningful discussion. They will also need to have self-confidence and inter-
personal and social skills. They need to learn the ethics of discussion in a community of inquirers
such as mutual respect, tolerance for differences of views, learning to listen, have understanding
and empathy. Definitely the students need to be more tech-savvy and become independent learners
with self-initiative to self-lead themselves for their own good instead of waiting for instruction from
their teachers. Thus, they have to learn to be self-disciplined.

Teachers also have to undergo transformation from their previous roles as instructors, giving notes,
pushing students to already set learning outcomes and being the sage on the stage. They are now
going to be facilitators who orchestrate the classroom discussion – building it up from a scratch of
idea till it reaches much bigger with a certain conclusion, be tech-savvy because they will be the
point of reference for students with software and hardware problems, or when they need to search
for data on the Net. The methods of teaching will change from teacher-centred to student-centred,
more inquiry-based with questions and thus, dialogues to obtain the answers. Students need not
memorized a lot since they can remember better through dialogue and discussion. The nature of
assessment will change with this new emphasis on the process of learning where it is authentic,
that is in real situations. Teachers can evaluate their students’ performance from the discussion
and also from continuous assignments given.

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Hence the class will be less information-driven but more transformation-driven. In most cases since
the class composition will be more diverse in terms of race, culture and religion, the teachers need
to be sensitive to the cultural baggage students brought with them so as to be able to capitalise on
it rather than to cause misunderstanding.

There are some major issues that have arisen with these changes. The most critical is the availability
of the educational tools such as the smartphones, software, hardware, mobile applications and
internet lines to students and the readiness of students, teachers and parents on the application
of ICT in the classroom especially if the students are unfamiliar with the language of the internet.
Another issue deals with discipline in browsing through the internet. Students can easily be
distracted from the main subject to switch to something that interest them and thus spend more
time searching than is necessary. Another major concern especially in using the social media
is being misguided to pornographic pages with unsuitable images for their age or they might
broadcast dangerous or fake news. Students might also spend their time on Net games which in
most cases are about violence (killing, shooting and bombing), competitiveness, although there
exist educational games such as scrabble, chess and jigsaw puzzles. The emergence of digital
technologies and a more global and digital society has brought about the need to develop and
educate students in digital citizenship, as well as to study how youth are taught to participate
and learn citizenship in a digital age. However, the negative effects can be avoided if students are
taught how to properly surf the internet and the ethics as users.

Another issue arises from parents who are less tech-savvy and could not help their children with
their classroom tasks. Many were confused with the changes going in school like their children are
not reading any books at home or are not given any homework. Definitely there will be no more
bookworm as they probably were during their times. They seem to believe that students will not
learn without the standardised tests, deep reading, high stake examinations and with no more
class position.

Concerning education for sustainable development, there does not seem to be much evidence
of collective effort on the basic care for the environment and sustainability, for example actions
in the 3R – Reduce, Reuse and Recycle programme or taking care of pets and school gardens.
Diversity in the schools which means students and teachers from various ethnicity, culture, gender
or religion, working together in activities with many common aspirations for the common good
and subscribing to common universal, values is better fostered.

At the level of higher education, there are also more problems. It seems that commodification
of knowledge has elevated the values of STEM which can create new products and jobs that will
generate more growth in the industry. However, because of the inability of the humanities and
social sciences to do so, its programme became marginalized due to a lack of enrolment. This
seems to contradict the purpose of the founding of the first school in man’s history. Religious
values, moral values, and conduct were among the most important reasons for the establishment
of schools. Instead, today the schools and universities have become more vocational in response
to the market demand. Lewis (2007) shocked the academia with a sharp “critique of the blend of
incremental decisions and mission drift allowing the market to control the academy” in reference
to Harvard. Lewis argued that “Universities have lost the sense that their educational mission is to
transform teenagers, whose lives have been structured by their families and their high schools, into
adults with the learning and wisdom to take responsibility for their own lives and for civil society”
(xiv).

Global ranking among universities too has led to negligence of the ethical values as each desired
to be ranked higher even if it means having to cheat, to plagiarize or to pay a high sum of money
to publish.

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It also means that professors are not going to deal with social issues that do not rank high in getting
published.

According to a study by United Nation Report of Education for Sustainability in Asia (2017), Asian
countries that were reviewed generally emphasize the instrumental role of education in fostering
national identity and developing human resources for economic development. However, concepts
associated with gender equality, peace, and global citizenship were found to be widely absent
from national education policy and curricular documents. It seems that there will be challenges
involved in reorienting education in Asia towards global citizenship which is a necessary outcome of
globalisation. The same study states that ‘critical thinking’, ‘creative thinking’ and ‘problem-solving’
skills, as well as ‘collaboration’ and ‘empathy’ are evidently in vogue amongst policymakers and
curriculum developers across Asia. But the overwhelming stress is generally on the instrumental
dimension of these attributes. Such skills and competencies tend to be presented as important
primarily for ensuring a flow of human resources for enhancing economic competitiveness.
References to ‘civil liberties’ (under the category ‘human rights’) were completely absent. Most
featured no reference to the concepts included in the category of ‘activism’ (‘participation in civic
protest’, ‘engagement in debates on socio-political issues’, and ‘action on issues of global reach’).
By contrast, notion of ‘civic engagement’ (under the category ‘responsible lifestyle’) appeared to
be endorsed in curricular documents across most countries.

The UN Report for Asia mentioned that Environmental aspects of sustainable development were
widely cited, with an emphasis on conservation. However, ‘climate change’ and ‘renewable
energy’ rated little coverage. No concern for climate warming, nor illegal logging in forests on a
mountain, improper drainage in cities all of which cause heavy flooding. Only positive effects of
AI are covered but no concern over its impending dangers as warned by Hawkins and now Elon
Musk who along with more than 1,000 other tech leaders, called for a halt to the development of
artificial intelligence in an open letter that warned of “profound risks to society and humanity.” AI
developers are “locked in an out-of-control race to develop and deploy ever more powerful digital
minds that no one — not even their creators — can understand, predict or reliably control,” the tech
leaders wrote (Future of Life Institute, 2023).

The paper argues that as we enter the 21st century, the curricula found in schools faced many
challenges as discussed above which affect the community and hence, there is a need to rethink
and reconceptualize the curriculum so that it is meaningful and useful for the advancement and
harmony of society. The education curriculum is very important to the extent that it has been
named the queen of the educational sciences. The curriculum is a reflection of the educational
philosophy of an institution, in fact, it is the mechanism by which the goals are attained.

Rethinking and Reconceptualising the Curriculum

Curriculum development is a process of improving the curriculum. Various approaches have been
used in developing curricula. According to Kaddu & Haumba (2018), commonly used approaches
consist of analysis (i.e. need analysis, task analysis), design (i.e. objective design), selecting (i.e.
choosing appropriate learning/teaching methods and appropriate assessment methods),
formation (i.e. formation of the curriculum implementation committee / curriculum evaluation
committee) and review (i.e. curriculum review committee). To rethink and reconceptualise the
curriculum, we need to analyse the concepts and needs, design and select the appropriate contents,
the teaching methods and assessment consistent with the philosophy, then we do the synthesis.
We need to look at the goals and objectives of education, its content, method and assessment.

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Educational Aims
Historically, organized education was initiated and instituted to serve many purposes: spiritual
salvation, political socialization, moral upliftment, societal stability, social mobility, mental
discipline, vocational efficiency and social reform. It tends to be conservative in the sense that it
desired to preserve and transmit the society’s cultures and values. This is especially true among
society that possesses the Book or Scripture. Literacy then, became a prerequisite for understanding
the Book. There is no way to transmit its content except through reading, teaching or preaching
to a group of people, whether young or old. Hence, educational practices are religious or tradition
bound.

But as communities organised itself into a country, then education was a means for political
socialisation, vocational efficiency and social reform. The Enlightenment brought to light the
importance of natural science, and the goals of education shifted to the material world. The aims
of education then were free development of personality, general efficiency, observation of facts,
and knowledge of causes and effects of things. The Industrial Revolution brought yet another
transformation in educational ends. With the power over nature wielded from the accumulation
of scientific knowledge, education aimed to free man from non-rational beliefs including religious
dogmas and the authority of the Church. The goals of education turned to the development of the
individual according to a state’s ideology--democratic, socialist, or communist. Economic interests
also began to find a place in education, and the aim of producing skilled manpower became a
dominant theme, manifested in the importance of vocational education (Gutek, 1972).

Thus, we see in the 21st century, ICT, globalisation, state and economic interests have shifted
educational aims increasingly toward vocational education at the expense of holistic development,
which to a certain extent is dehumanizing man. The education of the holistic, virtuous man has been
thwarted. Therefore, it is not surprising that contemporary Western education has been criticized
especially by Christian educators such as Maritain (1943) for giving false and incomplete ideas
concerning the nature of the end of education. He argues that the aim of education is intertwined with
the answer to the question of what is man? Lewis (2006) also made a critique of education having lost
its soul and so do Muslim philosophers (Nasr 1987, 1988; Al-Attas 1978, 1979) who criticized modern
science and secularism respectively for the loss of the Sacred. Today many are witnessing the truth
of these criticisms. The aims of education should be redefined for this coming century. Most would
agree that education should aim for the happiness of man but in which sense. Probably one that will
develop his potentials, have excellent morals, knowledgeable and competent and can think wisely so
that he can live peacefully and harmoniously with his self, his Creator and all of Creation (Nature and
the environment).

Content
The content of the latent, formal curriculum are knowledge, values and skills. In the Traditional
epistemology, various sources of knowledge are recognized from the highest in revelation, to
inspiration, rational thinking (intellect), and finally, sense experience. Knowledge which has been
classified into perennial or revealed sciences and acquired sciences derived through the mind
or sense experience forms a unity of truth. Both knowledge, whether in the form of the text (al-
Qur’an or Bible) or in the form of God’s creation in Nature are derived from the same source, that
is God. Since both are important signs of God both would have to be preserved in the school and
university curriculum. In particular, the perennial knowledge based on revelation (the Scriptures)
must form the core fundamental knowledge which will provide the moral and spiritual compass
to not abuse Nature in all our activities. It should permeate all subject matters or all faculties
in the university. Therefore, a few courses from these perennial sciences have to be made into
graduation requirements for all students, regardless of their specialisation instead of only the
acquired sciences (natural sciences, humanities, social sciences, applied sciences and arts).

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With respect to education for vocation, it is acknowledged that in the 21st century, we cannot really
train students for a particular vocation because we do not really know the nature of the future jobs.
Therefore, in this case the liberal arts education which is to develop all the potentials—intellectuals,
moral and spiritual included, and soft skills will be an advantage for graduates because they can
then adapt to any jobs that they find suitable.

Definitely, the approach of teaching these sciences in the university ought to be different from that
of the schools especially when university students now are more matured and capable of thinking
and reflecting over the texts and also relate it to their social reality. Similarly, a few courses from
the acquired sciences such as the natural sciences, the social sciences, and humanities must be
required of our students, especially those specialising in the perennial sciences. This curriculum
which is more integrated but still possessing a core should be adopted by schools and universities
so that it is holistic. An integrated curriculum would enable students to prepare to specialize in
any of the perennial or acquired sciences from within the same school system. From the religious
perspective, subject matters or courses offered in the curriculum must be free from secular elements
that deny the unity of Creation and the Creator, the sacred and the profane. These elements must
be replaced with the world view based on the Unity of God for it is only in this manner that Man will
learn to respect Creation which has its souls and thus preserve the Planet Earth.

In the context of environmental sustainability, the subject of science has to be reviewed in the
way it is taught and believed to be. School science typically reverberates with the popular belief
that science proclaims human mastery over nature. Many scientific discoveries and inventions are
projected in the popular media as well as in textbooks as instances of humanity’s ability to tame
nature and harness it to the pursuit of prosperity (Gunderson, 2014). Such an anthropocentric
view of nature is incompatible with the objective of environmental sustainability, now widely
enshrined in education policy statements at national and transnational levels. A tension thus often
exists between the established culture of science and the emerging discourse of environmental
conservation (Ratcliffe and Grace, 2003). While statements of environmental concern have been
duly inserted into many school curricula worldwide over recent years, there has often been
insufficient examination of what such concerns imply for the overall approach to teaching science.
Curricula need to confront learners with these complexities, rather than inculcating a blind faith in
the capacity of science and technology to solve all our dilemmas.

Twenty first century has brought the world close together as in a global village which is culturally
diverse and this forms a challenge to democracy in terms of the global citizens. It is necessary that
all children acquire the skills they need as digital citizens to participate actively and responsibly
in a democratic society (Richardson & Milovidov, 2019). Digital citizenship is “the ability to engage
competently and positively with digital technologies (creating, working, sharing, socialising,
investigating, playing, communicating, and learning); as well as, participating actively and
responsibly (values, skills, attitudes, knowledge and critical understanding) in communities at all
levels (political, economic, social, cultural and intercultural). It is a process of being involved in
all lifelong learning settings (formal, non-formal and informal) and defending human rights and
dignity” (Richardson & Milovidov, 2019, pp.11-12). Three pillars of training are required to exercise
digital citizenship: 1) democratic knowledge and behaviours for citizen participation; 2) social
skills that include communicative abilities, critical and axiological attitudes, creativity and finally,
3) digital literacy that include management and handling of information. In order to reduce the
digital gap, researchers and educators must improve the development of digital and social skills.

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Methods
The method of instruction has to change the most as we march into the 21st century. It is true
that in the past the amount of content or information a student is able to store in his memory
and applied is prized more than anything else. But today what is prized is not the quantity of
information but rather the process leading to the ability to solve problem. Hence, new methods of
instruction must be explored and teachers or lecturers should be creative and innovative. Students
need to be exposed to the process of learning including the scientific method and problem solving,
and not just the product. Therefore, they need to learn the doing of critical and creative thinking.
Moreover, a balance must be struck between student-centred and teacher-centred approaches.

In general, eight shifts of interactive learning have been found happening with the advent of ICT
(Tapscott, 1999). These shifts in learning are from (1) linear to hypermedia, that is from textbooks,
novels, texts etc which are linear, to the Net that is non-linear; (2) instructional to constructional
whereby instead of the learner assimilating knowledge, he or she now constructs knowledge anew
since people learn best by doing rather than listening; (3) absorbing material to learning how to
navigate and how to synthesize the data they have collected; (4) teacher-centred to learner-centred
teaching which is more active with students discussing, debating, researching, and collaborating
on projects with one another and with the teacher; (5) teacher as the sage on the stage to the sage
by the side which means shifts from being a transmitter to a facilitator. Teaching and Learning
become a social activity and the classroom becomes a community of inquiry where teachers
do not have to answer all the questions, but instead help students to find the solutions through
various means or prepare to discuss this in class; (6) learning as torture to learning as fun or an
entertainment which means “to keep, hold, or maintain in the mind” just as teachers throughout
history have been entertainers. Using the new media, the learner also becomes the entertainer and,
in doing so, enjoys, is motivated toward, and feels responsible for learning; (7) one-size-fits-all to
customized learning in which the digital media enables students to be treated as individuals based
on their backgrounds, individual talents, age levels, cognitive styles and interpersonal preferences;
and from (8) schooling to lifelong learning that is learning is continuous, a lifelong process.

In this regard, an approach to teacher education that is consistent with the educational philosophy
should be developed. The teacher education programme—pre-service and in-service should also
emphasise teacher personality development, in particular the moral and spiritual, which have been
mostly neglected. Teachers are the most crucial element in bringing changes in education and they
ought to know and be able to see the new direction. Pre-service teacher education programmes
seem to emphasise thinking skill and information technology but downplay the importance of
foundations of education and personality development, especially moral and spiritual. Virtual
education will grow in importance as we marched into the century. Thus, both students and
teachers should be trained to be technologically savvy because it is necessary in their lives. Almost
everything in life today has been digitized even in the public and commercial systems. One cannot
survive without this knowledge. Although the covid pandemic has almost gone and we are back to
face-to-face learning, these tech-savvy skills should not be abandoned. To preserve them, blended
teaching and learning should continue.

Educational Evaluation
Evaluation is a powerful device for clarifying and measuring the attainment of educational
objectives or learning outcomes. It is a “process for finding out how far the learning experiences as
developed and organized are actually producing the desired results and the process of evaluation
will involve identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the plan” (Tyler, 1975:103). “Evaluation is
the process for determining the degree to which changes in behaviour are actually taking place”
(Tyler, 1975: 206). Therefore in 21st century learning, it is important to dispel the notion that
evaluation is synonymous with giving the paper and pencil test.

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Evaluation is also a powerful motivating force for learning. Students are influenced in their learning
and teachers are influenced in their teaching by the kind of evaluation expected. Thus, evaluation
or assessment is a very important component of the curriculum. Consequently, “unless the
evaluation procedure closely parallels the educational objectives of the curriculum the evaluation
procedure may become the focus of the students’ attention and even of the teachers’ attention
rather than the curriculum objectives set up” (Tyler, 1975: 124).

Thus, new methods of assessment that is authentic such as project works based on problems,
fieldworks, demonstration, presentation and continuous assessment should be introduced. This is
true too especially with respect to moral and spiritual objectives. We should expect some changes
in student behaviours since these are the objectives but unfortunately in the previous assessment
mode, students score highly on paper and pencil tests but do not exhibit expected moral behaviours.
Thus, the curriculum ought to be revised with respect to the learning experiences offered to them,
the instructional method and the kind of evaluation administered. In this context, we expect more
authentic assessment such as continuous assessments throughout the learning experience which
consist of both cognitive and affective domains. The evaluation is interested in the process and not
in just the product. So, there should be checklists on student performance in the community of
inquiry with respect to critical reasoning, creative responses, communication skills, collaboration
skills, caring thinking, sustainability and so on. It is also pertinent to evaluate the progress of the
small groups. As for product, one can evaluate their scores in formative assignments and also the
few summative tests.

Summary and Conclusion

In summary, the twenty-first century curriculum is about abandoning textbook-driven, teacher-
centred, paper and pencil schooling. It brings another perspective in understanding the concept
of knowledge and a new meaning of the educated person. Hence, a new way of conceptualising,
designing and delivering the curriculum is required.   Twenty-first century curriculum is project-
based, research-driven and interdisciplinary. It is linked to the community – local, state, national
and global. Sometimes students may collaborate with students from other schools or from other
countries in various projects. The curriculum incorporates higher order thinking skills, multiple
intelligences, technology and multimedia, the multiple literacies of the 21st century, and authentic
assessments. Service learning, which is a blend of theory learned in the classroom and practice
within the community for real benefit of both is an important component. The curriculum is no
longer driven by the textbook nor is it fragmented, but should be thematic, project-based and
integrated.

Students are not taught content and skills as an end in themselves, but they are acquired through
research and application in students’ projects. The skills and content become relevant and needed
as students require this information to complete their projects. A major conceptual shift is in the
concept of the textbook, which is now considered as just one of many resources.  Knowledge is
constructed through research and application, and no more just memorization of facts and
figures. Assessment shifts from regurgitation of memorized facts and disconnected processes to
demonstration of understanding through application in a variety of contexts. Real-world audiences
are an important part of the assessment process, as is self-assessment.

The concepts of School, Teacher and Learner are redefined appropriately for the 21st century. Schools
are redefined “from ‘buildings’ to ‘nerve centres’, with walls that are porous and transparent,
connecting teachers, students and the community to the wealth of knowledge that exists in the
world.” Teachers will shift from primary role as a transmitter of information to a facilitator or an
orchestrator of learning and helping students turn information into knowledge, and knowledge
into wisdom.  

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The 21st century will require knowledge generation, not just information delivery, and schools will
need to create a “culture of inquiry” (www.21stcenturyschool.com accessed 1 Apr 2023).  

In the past a learner was a young person who went to school, spent a specified amount of time in
certain courses, received passing grades and graduated. Today learners must be seen in a new
context. First, we have to sustain student interest by helping them see how what they are learning
prepares them for life in the real world.  Second, we must inculcate curiosity or wondering, which
is fundamental to lifelong learning.  Third, we must be flexible in how we teach. Fourth we must
excite learners to become even more resourceful and more disciplined so that they will continue
to learn even when they are outside the formal school day. This will give them the foundation for a
lifelong learning (www.21stcenturyschool.com accessed 1 Apr 2023).

In the past, education was mainly to serve the state-centred idea of economic development and
school serves as a place to train the manpower needed. The idea of the active and reflective citizen
who engages critically with the state in a participatory democracy is largely absent from official
educational discourse, even in societies where electoral democracy is relatively well established.
Even the movement for cultivating students with higher order thinking skills is geared towards
that critical and innovative worker and not to encourage the critical citizens. Thus, critical and
creative thinking through dialogue and deliberation in the community of inquiry is should serve
a broader spectrum including as a teaching method to open up the minds of students, to learn
how to respect, listen and care for others and to be tolerant toward differences of views which are
important characters for living in a culturally diverse democracy which is necessary in 21st century
education.

In conclusion, we have analysed and reconceptualized the concept of curriculum development

for the 21st century. We began the discussion with describing the problems that plagued schools
today and examining the source of the drastic changes affecting education especially with the
advent of ICT. We elaborated on the issues related to education that arose from these changes.
Finally, we discussed the reconceptualization of education based on educational aims, curricular
content, teaching methods and educational evaluation. We discussed how education will change
drastically.

First, we discuss how the 21st century education changes major concepts of schools, learners and
teachers. We highlighted how the goal of education has become narrower towards vocationalism
and missing the human dimension of morality and spirituality. We have become more dehumanised
and this can be seen from our disrespect for Nature while doing science to the extent that our
planet began to show many symptoms of ailing with climate changes, pollutions, global warming
etc. Second, in discussing the curriculum content we admonish that science be taught from the
perspective of revering our planet earth which is our home, by being concern with environmental
sustainability. Similarly, we should also be concerned of sustainability with economics and socio-
cultural activities. In this respect we need to give attention to the other sources of knowledge which
is the revealed scriptures for guidance and an integrated, holistic curriculum should acknowledge
some courses on it in the core requirement. We also discussed the needs for teaching the skills
and knowledge in developing the digital citizens for the diverse world we live in today and not just
apply it for scientific and economic purposes. Third, we highlight the changes in teaching methods
to accompany the changes in philosophy and objectives which are greatly influenced by the ICT.
Finally, we discussed the changes that have to occur in educational evaluation as a result of all
these changes in objectives. Thus the 21st century teaching and learning is challenging but it also
provides an opportunity for us to learn to live together and transform our world community to be
more peaceful and prosperous for we have ultimately, the same destiny.

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References
al-Attas, S.M.N. (1978). Islam and Secularism. Kuala Lumpur: Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia.
al-Attas, S.M.N. (1979). (ed), Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education. Jeddah: King Abdulaziz
University & Hodder & Stoughton.
Carnoy, M. (1999). Globalization and education reform: what planners need to know. Paris: UNESCO
International Institute for Educational Planning.
Darling-Hammond, L. & McCloskey, L. (2008, December). Assessment for Learning around the
World: What Would it Mean to Be “Internationally Competitive?” Phi Delta Kappan 90:4 263-272.
Future of Life Institute (2023). Asking for a pause on A.I. An Open Letter by Elon Musk and 1000 tech
leaders.
Gunderson, R. (2014). Erich Fromm’s Ecological Messianism: The First Biophilia Hypothesis as
Humanistic Social Theory. Humanity and Society, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 182-204. In Unesco-MGIEP (2017).

Gutek, G.L. (1972). A History of Western Educational Experience. New York: Random House.
Kaddu, S. & Haumba Eric Nelson (2018). Is there a role for social media in LIS curriculum development
process in developing countries? (PDF). IFLA Journal. IFLA:1-8.
Lewis, H.R. (2006). Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education. New York:
Public Affairs.

Maritain, J. (1943). Education at the Crossroads. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Nasr, S.H. (1987). Traditional Islam in the Modern World. London: Kegan Paul International

Nasr, S.H. (1988). Islam and the Problem of Modern Science. Aligarh: Journal of Islamic Thought, Vol.
1: (1)
Ratcliffe, M., & Grace, M. (2003). Science Education for Citizenship: Teaching Socio-Scientific Issues.
New York: McGraw-Hill Education
Richardson, J., & Milovidov, E. (2019). Digital citizenship education handbook (Online ed.). Council
of Europe Publications Office.
Tyler, R. (1975). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. 3d. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Tapscott, D. (1999). Educating the Net Generation. Educational Leadership, Feb 1999, Vol. 56 (5), pp.
6-11.
UNESCO (1996). Learning: the Treasure Within. (The Delors Report). The International Commission
on Education for the 21st Century. UNESCO Publishing.

UNESCO. (2015). Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
UNESCO MGIEP (2017). Rethinking Schooling for the 21st Century: The State of Education for Peace,
Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship in Asia. United Nation Report of Education for
Sustainability in Asia: What is 21st century curriculum? www.21stcenturyschool.com accessed on
1 Apr 2023.

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Conference Theme and Sub-themes

The theme of the conference was “Reconceptualising Curriculum in the 21st Century for Socio-
Economic Transformation”.
The conference was organised under seven sub-themes, namely;
1. Competency-based curriculum development and implementation
2. The ICT revolution in Education
3. Stakeholders’ involvement in education
4. Global trends in education reforms
5. Quality education for Socio-economic transformation
6. The 21st Century Curriculum (design and development, implementation, assessment,
evaluation, innovations, skills and pedagogies)
7. Localisation and decolonisation of the curriculum in Africa
8. Current and future financing for curriculum development and implementations

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Sub-Theme 1:
Competency Based Curriculum Development and Implementation

The Status of Implementation of the Reviewed Uganda

Lower Secondary Curriculum: The Teachers’ Perspective

Mercy Barasa Chemutai1*, Proscovia Namubiru Ssentamu2, John K. Chang’ach1, Susan

Kurgat1
1
Moi University, Kenya, 2Uganda Management Institute, Uganda
* Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract
The Uganda lower secondary curriculum underwent critical review following concerns of an obsolete,
subject-centred and examination-oriented curriculum that did not meet the 21st Century needs.
Consequently, a competence-based curriculum (CBC) was developed and rolled out for implementation
in January 2020. This paper presents the status of the implementation of the curriculum three years
later by responding to the question: What are the concerns of Ugandan secondary school teachers
about the transition into the CBC? The Concerns-Based Adoption Model offers a theoretical framework
through which the concerns of these teachers are analysed. A total of 383 teachers from selected
Ugandan Government secondary schools were interrogated regarding their experiences with the
implementation of the CBC by use of a structured questionnaire. Their qualitative responses were
compiled into a database and analysed using content analysis. Results indicate that the curriculum
is perceived positively by majority of the teachers. However, management, informational, and
refocusing concerns were most prevalent among the teachers. The insufficiency of instructional
materials; poor infrastructure; large student to teacher ratios; lack of access to technological devices;
and poor or no internet connection in most secondary schools presents a serious bottleneck to the
effective implementation of the lower secondary curriculum. It is recommended that the Ministry of
Education and its affiliate agencies resolve these issues in order to achieve the overall objectives of
the reviewed curriculum.

Keywords: Competence-based curriculum, change facilitators, change implementers,

implementation, teacher concerns
Introduction
Teachers are central to the success of any curriculum reform. Depending on the education system,
teachers may take up diverse roles including that of: curriculum developers, implementers, and
evaluators. Unfortunately, many curriculum reform processes often relegate teachers to the role of
mere implementers. This is common to mandated top-down change which demands fidelity on the
part of the teacher (Fullan, 2015; Iskandar, 2020).

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While both top-down and bottom-up educational reforms present unique opportunities and
challenges, it must be acknowledged that each approach affects teachers and their consequent
implementation of the curriculum reform in different ways. This paper shall exemplify
implementation of a top-down curriculum reform as in Uganda.

Research on curriculum reform has revealed the importance of paying attention to the experiences
that teachers undergo in implementing change (Altinyelken, 2010; Fullan, 2015; Ornstein &
Hunkins, 2018; Vandeyar, 2017). Indeed, Fullan (2015) pointed out that change facilitators err in
neglecting the phenomenology of change as experienced by implementers. In his seminal book:
The New Meaning of Educational Change, Fullan quipped: “Educational change depends on
what teachers do and think - it’s as simple and complex as that” (2015, p.97). Thus, it is critical
for change facilitators to work on engendering teacher commitment to curriculum reform at the
earliest opportunity possible. A committed teacher will be more willing to expend the extra effort
and shoulder additional burdens of self and professional development necessary to sustain a
curriculum reform and this is facilitated through change leadership (Liu, 2015; Sodha, 2019).

Majority of curriculum change facilitators at national and school level rely on staff training and
capacity development programmes as the main avenue of achieving teacher commitment (Hall
& Hord, 2015). However, educational change scholarship has demonstrated that staff training is
insufficient; rather, the personal side of change for every change implementer must be attended to
(Fullan, 2015; Hall & Hord, 2015; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018). Moreover, there is a need to interrogate
the myriad other factors that besiege teachers as they attempt to implement the curriculum reform.

Unfortunately, some educational researchers have summarily presented the teachers’ responses
towards the curriculum reform in Uganda as negative and tending towards resistance (Mubangizi,
2020; Olema et al., 2021). Acknowledging that resistance to change is real, Fullan (2015) nonetheless
asserted that it is worthwhile to investigate the experiences that engender this resistance. This
study bridged the knowledge gap about the concerns of Ugandan secondary school teachers
regarding curriculum reform and hence responded to the recommendation by Altinyelken (2010)
that more research be done into curriculum implementation processes in developing countries
especially taking school realities into context. It also responded to the proposal by the International
Commission on the Futures of Education (2021) that teachers be fully engaged in public debate
and dialogue on the futures of education as represented by the curriculum reform in Uganda. This
study is thus among the first to explore the concerns of Ugandan teachers in the curriculum reform
effort and hence aims to contribute to the management and policy guidance around curriculum
reform in Uganda and similar contexts.

Research Objective
The aim of this study was to discover the status of implementation of the lower secondary
competence-based curriculum through the perspective of teachers. It sought to answer the
question: What are the concerns of Ugandan secondary school teachers in their implementation of
the competence-based curriculum (CBC)?

Literature Review
The Uganda Education System
The Education sector in Uganda is overseen by the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) whose
mandate is to provide technical and policy guidance in order to achieve quality education for all
Ugandans. Established in 1961 (Scanlon, 1964), the MoES currently comprises several departments
including, among others, the National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC), the Uganda
National Examinations Board (UNEB), and the Directorate of Education Standards (DES).

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The Uganda education system offers four main levels of education: pre-primary, primary, post
primary education and training, and tertiary and university education. The primary level is
completed in a minimum of seven years while the secondary school level consists of the ordinary
level which goes for a minimum of four years and the advanced level which goes for a minimum of
two years. The 1992 Government White Paper on Education is the foundational policy framework
for the education sector. It stipulated that all Ugandan educational curricula should reflect three
key issues: a scientific and technological orientation, development of the ability to use data and
information in decision-making, and environmental awareness and concern (Ministry of Education
and Sports [MoES], 1992). The 2020 Lower Secondary Curriculum (LSC) reform was guided by these
three concerns.

The Uganda Lower Secondary Curriculum Reform

A national curriculum is the primary instrument through which a country actualizes its
socioeconomic aspirations. This is because it is the means by which human capital is moulded to
meet the specific needs of the country. Under the NCDC, Uganda has operated a secondary school
curriculum that has remained largely unaltered since independence in 1962. This curriculum has
come under intense criticism over the past decade and a half primarily because it seems to have
failed to produce a market-ready labour force. The 2020 State of the Youth Report showed that
while access to education had drastically improved in Uganda, the education system fell short in
quality since it was more theoretical than practical (Kwesiga et al., 2019).

The Curriculum, Assessment, and Examinations Report commissioned by the World Bank in
partnership with the Uganda Ministry of Education (Clegg et al., 2007; Museveni, 2020) highlighted
seven key areas in which the secondary curriculum was proving inadequate:

i) the curriculum espoused teaching methodologies that were examinations-oriented to the

detriment of effective learning and skills acquisition,
ii) it lacked a guiding framework, resulting in an overloaded curriculum,
iii) the curriculum catered to an exclusive academic elite leaving out a majority for students,
iv) it was failing to produce a competent workforce to support socio-economic growth,
v) much of the knowledge content in the curriculum was obsolete,
vi) it was unable to develop metacognitive skills relevant to the 21st century, and
vii) it was unsustainably costly owing to the numerous optional subjects, especially in the
vocational, science, and technical categories.

Consequently, in accordance to the Education Sector Strategic Plans 2009/2018 and 2017/2020
(National Curriculum Development Centre, 2020), the LSC was reviewed to make it competence-
based. This competence-based curriculum was to be a departure from the previous knowledge-
based curriculum in that, among other aspects, it is less examinations-oriented, placing greater
emphasis on the acquisition of skills and values by learners (NCDC, 2020).

The new curriculum stipulated new roles for the teacher and the learner. This was in order to
transform the educational experience into one which is learner-driven rather than teacher-driven
as had been the case. In the previous curriculum, the teacher was the custodian of knowledge and
transmitted this to the learners primarily through the lecture method and note-taking. Summative
assessment in form of end of topic tests and end of term examinations were relied upon to
determine academic achievement of learners. In the new curriculum, however, the learner became
the originator of knowledge with the teacher guiding and building upon the learners’ knowledge.

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The new curriculum introduced a kaleidoscope of learning methods, including: projects, debates,
drama, research, problem-solving activities, field trips, and community engagements (NCDC,
2018). Moreover, assessment was now split between formative and summative assessment with
the former constituting 20% of the end of cycle grade. This role reversal was a stark departure
from both established practice and the teacher training received by majority of in-service Ugandan
teachers. Unsurprisingly, therefore, teachers are implementing the curriculum amid various
concerns which, if unattended to, may hinder the success of the reform.

Teacher Concerns
Concerns are a ubiquitous part of any social environment, including the school. Concerns represent
heightened thoughts, feelings, and perceptions regarding a particular phenomenon (George et al.,
2006). Educational reforms are one such phenomenon that trigger the development of concerns
among stakeholders. Scholars of educational change have shown that the concerns of change
implementers present the most superior outlook of how the reform process is unfolding (Fullan,
2015; Hall & Hord, 2015; Leithwood et al., 1994). The individual teacher’s personal journey through
change is succinctly encapsulated in the concerns they express as they implement the curriculum.
Thus, teachers’ concerns in a curriculum reform effort present an excellent point of leverage for
curriculum change facilitators to track the progress of individual teachers as well as groups in the
implementation process thereby allowing them to guide and support teachers in a relevant and
effective manner (Fullan, 2015; Hall & Hord, 2015).

When the LSC was introduced in Uganda, various stakeholders, including parliamentarians, parents,
community leaders, school leaders, and teachers expressed concerns about it (Ahimbisibwe,
2020; Museveni, 2020). While all stakeholder concerns are of import, this paper argues that the
concerns of teachers should be keenly noted, monitored, and addressed in order to support a
successful curriculum reform process. Being the clinical educational experts, teachers possess a
keen understanding of the technicalities of classroom instruction and hence curriculum delivery
(Gouëdard et al., 2020; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018).

According to the MoES’ roadmap for the LSC reform, training of teachers on the curriculum
implementation including classroom-based assessment was to begin in 2019. This training utilised
a cascaded model in which a selection of teachers was trained and these were tasked with training
their colleagues at school level. Teacher training and support was to continue all through the
implementation process. This paper argues that a predetermined teacher training schedule can
only go so far to address teachers’ needs and concerns about a curriculum. While it may serve to
provide a basic framework of knowledge and skills required by the teacher, the unique individual and
school contexts cannot be anticipated by such a training programme. These must be investigated
at school level as this study has attempted to accomplish. Change facilitators must recognise that
addressing teacher concerns regarding a curriculum reform is not a one-off endeavour. Research
into the concerns of teachers has revealed that they are developmental and can be categorised
into three main stages: self, task, and impact (George et al., 2006). Therefore, when one level of
concerns is addressed for an individual teacher, he then transitions to another level of concerns.
This continues all through the curriculum implementation process.

Research on teacher concerns in several countries has proved to be revelatory and instructive on
the curriculum reform processes in those countries. Unfortunately, there is a significant paucity of
research on teacher concerns in Africa with majority of the available studies conducted in Southern
Africa and West Africa. In Malaysia, Lo (2018) found that English teachers using the Common European
Framework of References for Languages Innovation were manifesting a distrustful non-user profile.
These teachers had high awareness, personal, and management concerns which pointed to a need
for intervention programmes to support the teachers in the curriculum implementation.

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A study by Yan and Deng (2019) on the concerns of teachers implementing an inclusive education
programme in China revealed that their concerns varied according to certain demographic factors.
The teachers’ implementation of the programme was being guided by their knowledge of it and
whether or not they believed it to be effective, hence it was imperative that educational leaders
conduct effective professional development programmes to address this.

In Africa, a study by Oguoma et al. (2019) found that, in the implementation of practical work in
the physical sciences curriculum in South Africa, teachers were grappling with the day-to-day
management of the curriculum. This was a siren call to educational leaders to support teachers
in that regard. Sarfo et al. (2020) investigated teacher concerns on the implementation of the
information and communication technology curriculum in Ghana and their results showed that
teachers lacked prerequisite knowledge to implement the curriculum innovation and were also
highly concerned about its impact on their students’ learning. Apau (2021) reported that a study
on the implementation of a standards-based curriculum in Ghana revealed that teachers’ main
concern was to promote peer collaboration as well as to work with change facilitators to implement
the curriculum. This implied that teachers had embraced the curriculum and were implementing
it well. Such studies have great instructional potential for change facilitators since they help to
point them in the right direction as regards how to support teachers in their implementation of
curriculum reforms. These studies demonstrate the need to investigate teacher concerns in any
educational innovation, particularly a high-stakes one like a curriculum reform in order to facilitate
its success.

The Concerns Based Adoption Model (CBAM)

The basis for scholarship on teacher concerns was provided by Fuller et al. (1974) who conducted
a study of pre-service teachers investigating what their primary concerns were. Findings from the
study revealed that these pre-service teachers’ concerns were actually expressions of felt need
that affected their motivation for learning (Fuller et al., 1974). Fuller’s concerns theory therefore
postulated that the concerns of student teachers progressed with experience from self to task,
and ultimately to impact concerns. The Concerns Based Adoption Model (CBAM) was developed by
researchers at the University of Texas Research and Development Centre for Teacher Education as
a spin-off from Fuller’s concerns theory.

The CBAM supports change facilitators to measure the implementation of an innovation by

revealing the affective and behavioural processes that change implementers undergo. An
innovation is conceptualised as a change (Hall & Hord, 2015) and in this study, the LSC reform
was the educational change and hence innovation in focus. The CBAM (Figure 1) provides three
diagnostic tools with which to track the implementation of an innovation: the stages of concerns
questionnaire, the levels of use interview tool, the innovations configuration tool.

Figure 1: The Concerns Based Adoption Model (George et al., 2006, p. 1)

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Note: Adapted from Measuring Implementation in Schools: The Stages of Concern Questionnaire (p.

1), by George A.; Hall, G; and Stiegelbauer, S.M., 2006, SEDL. Copyright 2006 by SEDL. Adapted with
permission.

According to the CBAM, change implementers, in this case teachers, undergo seven stages in their
implementation of an innovation: stage 0 (awareness), stage 1 (information), stage 2 (personal),
stage 3 (management), stage 4 (consequence), stage 5 (collaboration), and stage 6 (refocusing)
(George et al., 2006). At the awareness stage, teachers are pre-occupied with other tasks besides
the curriculum under question and are therefore less involved with it. Teachers at the informational
stage manifest a basic awareness of the curriculum and a need to learn more about it. At the
personal stage, teachers are preoccupied with the ways in which the curriculum reform will affect
them personally in terms of work demands, changing roles, commitments and remuneration.
At the management stage, the teachers’ focus is on how to navigate the curriculum in terms of
processes, daily tasks, and resources required. Teachers who are at the consequences stage are
more concerned about how the curriculum will affect the learning of their students. Those at
the collaboration stage are keenly looking for opportunities to cooperate with other change
implementers and even facilitators in implementing the curriculum. Finally, those at the refocusing
stage are beginning to look beyond the curriculum, to modify it in order to glean greater benefits
for students, or to replace it altogether with a better curriculum.

All these concerns manifest differently depending on a number of factors, including the individual
teacher’s predispositions, school culture and affinity to reforms, the school socioeconomic context,
and curriculum reform strategies employed by change facilitators. Hall and Hord (2015) referred to
the curriculum reform strategies as the functions of interventions. They enumerated six functions
that they believed needed to be undertaken by change facilitators in order to facilitate a successful
innovation. These functions were: the articulation and communication of a shared vision of the
change, planning for and providing resources, facilitating continuous professional development
for change implementers, monitoring of progress, provision of continuous assistance, and creating
contexts that are supportive of change in terms of culture, staffing, resources and infrastructure (p.
35).

Figure 2 shows a conceptual framework of how three key factors: curriculum reform strategies,
teacher concerns, and quality of curriculum implementation interact to bring about a successful
curriculum reform. They are conceptualised as three cogs in a machine. Ideally, curriculum reform
strategies should drive implementation of the curriculum. However, teacher concerns, whether
acknowledged or not, and if unattended to, may present a significant barrier to effective curriculum
implementation. Therefore, change facilitators do well to continuously attend to and address these
concerns.

Figure 2: Conceptual model (Authors, 2023)

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Note: The model shows the interaction between curriculum reform strategies that may be employed
by change facilitators, teacher concerns in the curriculum reform, and the quality of curriculum
implementation by teachers who are the main change implementers.

Research Design
This paper was based on a mixed methods study in which teacher concerns and their relationship
to the implementation of a curriculum reform were investigated. It was grounded in the pragmatic
philosophical worldview. The study utilised a structured questionnaire consisting of three sections:
the stages of concerns questionnaire (George et al., 2006), a closed-ended section interrogating the
teachers’ experiences with the curriculum reform process and their implementation of the LSC,
and a comments section at the end. Participants’ responses to the comments section provided
data for this paper. Here, participants were prompted to express their concerns in their own words
by making a comment on their experience with implementation of the curriculum or on any of the
issues that had been highlighted in the two foregoing sections. This allowed a deeper probing of
teachers’ concerns and experiences by allowing participants freedom to highlight specific issues
pertinent to them. It also allowed an analysis of frequently occurring themes.

Population, Sampling Frame and Sample

The target population for this study was all secondary school teachers in Uganda. The Uganda
Bureau of Statistics report of 2019 numbered the secondary school teachers at 114,859 (Ministry of
Education and Sports, 2020). Therefore, at a confidence interval of 95% and a 5% margin error, a
sample size of 383 was considered representative of the total population (Cohen et al., 2018). The
sampling frame consisted of government-aided secondary schools within the central sub-region
of Uganda. Due to its proximity to the administrative capital, Kampala, and hence perceived ease
of access to resources like instructional materials and trainers, the central sub-region was deemed
appropriate to provide a benchmark for the nature of teacher concerns. Government-aided schools
were selected for study because they are directly resourced and supervised by the Government of
Uganda (Education Act Uganda, 2008) and hence it was assumed that they are more likely to be
implementing the LSC reform with greater fidelity.

Sampling was done by cluster random sampling in which schools were randomly selected from
the sampling frame. According to the Uganda MoES, the central sub-region boasts 267 secondary
schools (Ministry of Education and Sports, 2019). Thus 40 government-aided secondary schools
were randomly selected from this list. All teachers present on the day that the researchers visited
were included in the sample and requested to fill out the questionnaire. At every school that
was visited, an average of 10 teachers were present and on duty. No school was visited twice. A
total of 383 secondary school teachers participated in the survey. Of these, 286 (74%) provided
a qualitative response in the last section of the questionnaire. Demographic information on the
study participants was collected on five criteria: gender, highest academic qualification, length
of teaching experience, subject group taught, and main source of information regarding the LSC
reform as shown in Table 1:

Table 1: Demographic characteristics of study participants. (Source: Field data, 2023)

Characteristic Number of respondents %

(n= 286)
Gender
Male 191 66.78
Female 95 33.22
Highest academic
qualification

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Characteristic Number of respondents %

(n= 286)
Certificate 0 0.35
Diploma 41 14.34
Bachelor’s degree 212 74.13
Masters 32 11.19
Teaching experience
(years)
0 to 5 69 24.13
6 to 10 59 20.63
11 to 15 70 24.48
Over 15 88 30.77
Subject group
taught
Humanities, Busi- 130 45.45
ness, and Languag-
es
Math and Sciences 100 34.97
Vocational and Arts 56 19.58
Main information
source
NCDC Training 212 74.13
School administra- 26 9.09
tors
Fellow teachers 44 15.38
Internet 4 1.40

Ethical Considerations
At every study site, school administrators including the head teacher, deputy head teacher or
director of studies were requested for permission to access the teachers. The senior-most school
administrator present during the study visit was approached for permission. The front page of
the questionnaire consisted of an informed consent statement which introduced the study to the
participants, explaining its purpose and emphasizing the principles of voluntariness and anonymity.
Teachers were invited to signal their consent by proceeding with the survey therein. The informed
consent was also explained orally by the researchers prior to handing out the questionnaires to the
teachers.

Data Analysis
All the qualitative responses were compiled into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. These responses
were the teachers’ individual expressions of concern regarding the curriculum reform process
thus far. These statements were analysed using content analysis with the aim of both describing
and quantifying participant responses (Kleinheksel et al., 2020; Vaismoradi et al., 2013). Content
analysis was deemed appropriate as it allows for the analysis of frequency of occurrence of themes
within the data through the creation of a numerical data matrix (Kuckartz, 2014).

In this study, the frequency of occurrence of various themes from the expressed teacher concerns
was equated with the degree of importance of that particular concern in the LSC implementation

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process. The data were analysed following the five steps outlined by Denscombe (2014) in Cohen
et al. (2018, p. 675): i) selection of a data sample, ii) extraction of codes from the text on the basis
of predetermined units of analysis, iii) distillation of categories from those codes, iv) matching
the units with the categories, and v) counting the frequency with which the units occur within the
various categories.

Findings
The teacher responses allowed three levels of codes to be carved out: level one (in vivo), level two
(categorical), and level three (conceptual) (Yin, 2016). Analysis of the in vivo codes produced 16
categories which were fitted into the six CBAM stages of concern as shown in Table 2.

Table 2: In vivo codes, categories and stages of concern emerging from the teachers’ responses
(Source: Field data, 2023)

Conceptual (Level Categorical A SELECTION OF IN VIVO CODES (LEVEL 1)

3) (Level 2)
INFORMATION Teacher training and Insufficient teacher preparation
preparation
PERSONAL Human resource High learner/ teacher ratio
Big classes limiting individual attention to learners
Remuneration and Big workloads
motivation
MANAGEMENT Instructional Few/ no teaching/learning materials, DIT materials
materials and
resources
Infrastructure No technological devices, poor or no internet, small
learning spaces, poorly equipped libraries
Time allocation Too much content vis a vis time allocated/ limited
time on the timetable
Change facilitator Limited administrative support
support
CONSEQUENCES Impact on learners Development of learner talents/ potential/ skills

Learner challenges Learners hesitant

COLLABORATION Satisfaction with Better than old
CBC
Personal Supporting other teachers
competence
REFOCUSING Education sector Allow learner gadgets, start CBC in primary
policy
Stakeholder Need for teacher involvement in CBC evaluation, lit-
engagement tle parental support
Mode of assessment Advocacy for 40:60 ratio of summative to formative
assessment
Learning content Shallow/misleading/overwhelming content
A frequency count revealed that at 76% (216), the management concern was the most prevalent of
the concerns, followed by the information concern at 24% (70), and the refocusing concern at 20%
(57). This is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2: Percentage occurrence of stages of teacher concerns (Source: Field data, 2023)

Note: The data was collected between November 2022 and February 2023.

The data revealed that majority of the teachers perceived the competence-based LSC in a positive
light. Teachers used descriptors like: good, effective, better, timely, right direction, enjoyable, and
interesting to express their views of the curriculum. Such responses included:

“The CBC is OK and better than the old curriculum. So, the learners are going to benefit.
(Respondent W317)”

“The CBC has made me a better teacher because am able to discover the unique abilities of
each learner unlike before. It is also less tiresome. The lesson is interesting. (Respondent W320)”

“The implementation of CBC was a little tricky at first but after many sessions of training by
the school administration, it has proven to be the best curriculum. It gives learners chance to
explore and discover a lot on their own. (Respondent Kay116)”

“The competent based curriculum is likely to be the best curriculum when compared to the
old theory curriculum that was not encouraging creative thinking amongst the learners.
(Respondent Kay205)”

“I am so far convinced with the CBC system that we can move our country forward because
the learners are able to actively participate in the activities given in the system going forward.
(Respondent L108)”

Nonetheless, numerous concerns were raised pertaining to the curriculum reform process from the
onset of implementation in 2020 to date. These concerns corresponded with the CBAM stages of
concern as explained in the following section:

Awareness Concerns
This stage of concern had the lowest percentage occurrence. It was manifested by respondents
who seemed non-committal about their implementation of the LSC. This was an indication that the
teachers were not yet fully immersed in the curriculum. One such response was:

“I am still studying the CBC programme. However, it is a good one. (Respondent K110)”

Concerns on awareness could be emerging among teachers who were exclusively teaching
the higher classes but anticipate having to eventually engage with the CBC. At the time of data
collection, seniors three, four, five, and six were carrying on with the old curriculum. However, such
teachers are in the minority as common practice in Uganda is that teachers teach across the board
from O to A level.

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Informational Concerns
Several teachers expressed a need for more information regarding the LSC as they felt unprepared
in terms of knowledge and skills to implement the CBC. Some revealed struggles with transitioning
from the old curriculum into the LSC. The majority of teachers with informational concerns desired
help with the new assessment modes, specifically summative end of year assessments, projects
and activities of integration (AOI) as well as report-making. They also indicated that they were ill-
equipped to prepare learners for the end of cycle assessment by the Uganda National Examinations
Board (UNEB).

“The CBC is a good one but still requires much more preparation on the side of the teachers
(facilitators) since they were not adequately prepared through trainings nationally. (Respondent
L112)”

“I think at this moment due to my experience; the students and we (teachers) are still locked
in an old curriculum therefore it is still transforming and many teachers mix the old and new
curriculum. (Respondent K111)”

“Guidance on the summative assessment by UNEB is hidden from the teachers up to now. So we
teach but don’t know how UNEB will set its assessment yet it carries the biggest percentage of
80%. (Respondent L104)”

The informational concerns expressed by the teachers offer excellent guidance in the preparation
of continuous teacher training programmes.

Personal Concerns
The personal concerns that the teachers expressed in this study spanned three specific issues: large
student to teacher ratios in the classrooms, huge workloads, and need for better remuneration as
expressed by this respondent:

“Teacher-student ratio still remains a big challenge especially with the USE programme in many
secondary schools. Additionally, the disparities in salaries between Arts and Science teachers is
a great hinderance to the teaching and learning process. (Respondent Kay105)”

The issue of big classes was persistent regardless of the socioeconomic status of the school. Citing
classes of over 100 learners, respondents felt this was a significant hindrance to the interaction
between teachers and individual learners and hence defeating the purposes of the CBC. Issues of
better remuneration and motivation were closely tied to the perceived increase in workload that
accompanied the LSC as evident in the following field excerpts:

“CBC implementation has been very interesting. Had it not been the challenge of a high teacher-
pupil ratio (1:130). How I wish it is addressed. (Respondent Mu211)”

“The CBC is good enough; however, many schools still give teachers a bigger teaching load
which seriously affects the teacher’s concentration on the CBC curriculum. (Respondent L203)”

These concerns indicate that teachers are attempting to reconcile their personal and professional
needs with the demands of the LSC.

Management Concerns
The management concerns were the most prevalent among the respondents. Teachers revealed
key challenges that they grappled with in their day-to-day implementation of the LSC. Four main
issues emerged: insufficiency of instructional materials, finances, and resources; inadequacy of
infrastructure including poor internet connectivity, few or no technological devices, relatively small

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and few classrooms, and ill-equipped libraries; insufficient time allocation; and limited change
facilitator support including the MoES, NCDC, and school administrators. Some respondents
commented as follows:

“The CBC needs review between content and time scheduled as in many cases the available
content and activities exceeds the scheduled time for the lessons and other activities.
(Respondent W111)”

“The school lacks a functional computer lab therefore it becomes hard to use ICT in the teaching
learning process. This being a USE school it is hard to get money to facilitate projects. I improvise
but can’t all the time improvise. (Respondent W301)”

“Can the Ministry of Education and curriculum developers (NCDC) keep timely checking on us
and see where we need to adjust. The learner’s guides are still few in some subjects compared to
big numbers… There are many software developers coming up with inadequate information on
report writing and schools choose who is cheaper hence ending up with assessment disparities.
ICT gadgets are so demanding and calls for data/internet where some of our learners miss a lot
specially when it comes to research work to support their delivery. (Respondent W309)”

It was evident from the respondents’ comments that large learner to teacher ratios; insufficient
instructional materials; limited resources including finances and time; inadequate infrastructure
including small classrooms, poorly-equipped libraries, lack of internet connectivity and few
technological devices; and the perceived insufficiency of change facilitator support at both school
and national levels present a significant bottleneck to the sustained success of the curriculum
reform.

Consequence Concerns
Several respondents expressed concerns about the impact of the new curriculum on the learners.
A section appreciated the curriculum’s potential to develop learners’ talents and skills, as well as
confidence in communication and research. Concurrently, a few teachers were concerned that
learners’ competence in basic reading, writing and spoking was lacking. Others opined that many
learners were simply reluctant to engage at the level required by the curriculum, a problem that
was exacerbated by large classes as remarked below.

“According to me, CBC has done good to change format teaching. In my school, my learners have
improved in writing good essays; they are confident during classroom presentation. However,
there are some challenges for instance, CBC favours learners who like to study but those who do
not want are left out, they don’t work, no reading. So I need to look into that so as to help these
learners. (Respondent W310)”

“CBC is more student-centred because they carry out their own research and make notes. It has
also developed confidence in the learners. (Respondent W312)”

“The CBC seems to require very shallow knowledge from the students and yet the AOI require
many details i.e. it gives a superficial approach. Students are not yet aware of their role as
learners, they still expect to be given most of the information. (Respondent K203)”

Such concerns reveal that teachers are assessing the curriculum for its merits as far as student
achievement is concerned and its potential to deliver positive outcomes for learners. Consequence
concerns showed that teachers had noted the potential of the curriculum to improve learning
outcomes and were therefore inspired to support it. They also noted learner weaknesses like poor
reading and writing competence that needed to be addressed.

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Collaboration Concerns
A few respondents expressed concerns that fell under the need and willingness to collaborate with
others in the implementation of the curriculum. Such respondents were overt in their appreciation
of the curriculum while others felt they were competent enough to implement it and even support
others in their implementation. This is evident in the extracts below:

“Now I feel like am in the system. I always form groups of teachers to explain to them. Supporting
them on grading, AOI, and criterion referencing. (Respondent MGB55)”

“I appreciate the fact that with my experience in new curriculum teaching, I have so far been
in position to master and teach what is required in form of assessments and many others…
(Respondent L311)”

Such concerns reveal the availability of potential teacher champions for the curriculum reform.
A positive sentiment and even a confession of a basic level of competence indicates that the
curriculum has been positively received and is poised to take root if handled well.

Refocusing Concerns
The refocusing concern, in which respondents had ideas to improve, modify, or completely redirect
the reform effort, was evident among a sizeable proportion of respondents. A section of teachers
pointed out gaps in the education sector policy that facilitated the introduction of the CBC. For
instance, one respondent faulted budget allocation for the LSC:

“The new curriculum is too costly yet the government is not effective is provision of the teaching/
learning aids. The school administration has been economically strained to spend yet it had not
budgeted and the nation is too impoverished to cater for the expenses. (Respondent W402)”

Another respondent opined that the LSC should have been introduced at the primary level
rather than at the secondary school level. Several respondents felt that engagement with key
stakeholders, including parents, teachers, and private schools, was inadequate. The ratio of
formative to summative assessment 20:80 was faulted by several respondents as encouraging
examination-orientation. Most advocated for a 40:60 ratio instead. Finally, several respondents
expressed dissatisfaction with the teaching content presented in the LSC materials. While some
felt that it was shallow, others thought it was too broad. Some of the content was thought to be
misleading and in other instances, lacking in relevant content. For instance:

“The CBC is indeed supposed to be a good system to facilitate learning, it stimulates the
learners to like studies, self-discovery, etc., but it was hurriedly implemented without involving
the stakeholders (teachers)- not given ample time. It also requires learners to have gadgets
e.g., phones, Ipads, laptops, etc. Are we going to allow smart phones in schools? What about
the learners who can’t access these gadgets? Why still maintain the 80% of UNEB marks when
actually we want to promote skills? (Respondent K206)”

“CBC should be integrated with the old curriculum in assessment and make vocational subjects
like metal works, technical drawing, food and nutrition compulsory. (MGB62)”

The refocusing concerns showed a two-pronged response to the curriculum reform: supportive
and resisting. Supportive responses revealed ideas to improve the approach to the reform and
make it more impactful. On the other hand, resisting responses tended to dismiss the curriculum
in its entirety.

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Discussion
This study sought to answer the question: What are the concerns of Ugandan secondary school
teachers about the transition into the CBC? Contrary to the assertion by Olema et al. (2021) that
teachers generally have negative perceptions of the competence-based LSC, data revealed that in
general, the curriculum has been well received by teachers. The expression of teacher concerns
was found to correlate with the expected trends as explained by Hall and Hord (2015). According to
Hall and Hord, in early implementation of an educational innovation, usually the first three years,
management concerns are often the most intense. However, as implementation progresses, impact
concerns, which include consequence, collaboration, and refocusing, should ideally intensify as
task and self-concerns (informational and personal) wane. They did caution that if self and task
concerns are not well handled, they could progress beyond the third year of implementation,
thereby undermining the success of the innovation.

This trend of teacher concerns was evident from the data. With the LSC in its third year of
implementation at the time of the study, self and task concerns were prevalent among the
teachers. This underscores the need for change facilitators to pay close attention to the needs and
concerns expressed by teachers as they implement the curriculum. Goodson (2014) termed this as
a crisis of positionality among professional educators wherein they were compelled to respond to
externally-generated change rather than being the originators of this change. In agreement with
Fullan (2015), Goodson posited that external change agents often erroneously assume the goodwill
and cooperation of internal change agents (educators). Self and task concerns are therefore a
manifestation of efforts by change implementers to align their personal and professional missions
with the mandated change. This was evident in the concerns voiced by respondents in this study.

The prevalence of task concerns, also termed management concerns (George et al., 2006) is
noteworthy. Teachers pointed out a general insufficiency of resources and infrastructure to support
the implementation of the curriculum. This issue has been identified as a perennial hindrance
to effective curriculum implementation and hence quality education in Africa (Akala, 2021;
Cunningham, 2018; Fleisch et al., 2019; Isaboke et al., 2021; Makunja, 2016; Sajitha et al., 2018).
Outlining major obstacles to success of new curricula implemented in sub-Saharan Africa from
2007 to 2016, Fleisch et al (2019) cited rampant under-resourcing of educational environments as
a key pragmatic challenge. These are issues that will have to be addressed by Ugandan change
facilitators if the LSC reform is to take flight.

The highest and most ideal level of concerns is the impact level since such concerns indicate that the
teacher is engaging with the reform at the philosophical level of vision and rationale (Hall & Hord,
2015). Impact concerns include consequence, collaboration, and refocusing concerns. The data
revealed that the impact concerns, specifically refocusing concerns were the third most prevalent
category. Teachers were interrogating how the CBC was delivering better student outcomes.
According to Hall and Hord (2015), refocusing concerns are expected among implementers who
have gained some degree of experience with use of the innovation as they seek to modify and
improve, or even replace it with a better one.

However, the refocusing concerns in this study tended to reveal resisting tendencies among the
teachers. This is in agreement with Mubangizi (2020) and Olema et al. (2021) who cited resistance
to the curriculum among the Ugandan teachers although, at only 20%, it was not as widespread
as claimed in these two studies. This could be attributed to conservativeness among the teachers
(Goodson, 2014), majority of whom had over 15 years of experience in teaching. Moreover,
the teachers have not adequately engaged with the CBC given that it is only in its third year of
implementation.

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Conclusion
In as much as this paper presents an analysis of the concerns of teachers, it must be acknowledged
that this is but a vignette of the wide range of concerns that teachers across the country may
harbour. However, it does provide a sound starting point for change facilitators to address these
concerns at school, district, and national levels. The findings suggested that most Ugandan
secondary school teachers are committed to the LSC reform at a fundamental level. However, this
commitment is in danger of being worn out by the daily toils of endeavouring to implement the
curriculum within a resource-scarce context. Frustrations from limited understanding of specific
aspects of the curriculum also seems to come through. Thus, change facilitators must be awake to
the fact that the multiplicity of management concerns, especially when unaddressed could stall
the curriculum implementation significantly.

The personal and management concerns reveal practical points of intervention for change
facilitators. For instance, the occurrence of informational concerns is an indication that the
cascaded model of teacher retooling may have been limited in effectiveness. Interestingly, 74%
of teachers stated that their main source of information regarding the LSC reform was the NCDC
trainings. This could be a signal to the NCDC to review its training programmes for effectiveness.
According to the NCDC, the new curriculum aims to impart generic skills in the learners, one of
which is ICT proficiency (National Curriculum Development Centre, 2018). However, the widespread
insufficiency, and in many cases, absence of ICT equipment and internet connectivity means that
ICT proficiency will likely elude a vast majority of Ugandan youth. Thus, the scarcity of resources
and inadequate infrastructure presents a significant threat to the successful implementation of the
LSC reform. Nonetheless, as pointed out by Fullan (2015) and Goodson (2014), educational change
takes time to yield expected objectives. The latter is dependent upon prudent actions taken by
both change implementers and change facilitators. Curriculum reform is a cyclic process therefore
change facilitators must be committed to monitoring and addressing the concerns of change
implementers on a continuous basis.

Limitations
This study was carried out within the geographical scope of the central sub-region of Uganda. It
therefore does not capture the unique concerns of teachers in other regions of the country. However,
it included schools from all socio-economic contexts as well as urban, peri-urban, and rural areas. It
may therefore be considered approximately representative of teacher concerns across the country.
This paper only addresses schools under the financial support of the government: universal
secondary schools (USE) and non-universal secondary schools (non-USE). It is acknowledged
that the concerns of teachers in private schools, which constitute 66% of the secondary schools in
Uganda (Initiative for Social and Economic Rights, 2022), may differ from these expressed herein.

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Recommendations
From the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made to change facilitators,
change implementers, and for further scholarship:

1. The most influential change facilitators are at the school level. These are the school administrators,
departmental heads, and teacher leaders. They are best placed to address teacher concerns
at self, task, and even impact levels especially through the strengthening of professional
learning communities. Therefore, school administrators should undertake to devise methods of
monitoring, documenting, and addressing teacher concerns as they implement the curriculum.

2. The Ministry of Education and Sports equip schools to facilitate the curriculum in terms of
infrastructure, internet connectivity, and increased financial support. This has been identified
both in literature and through teacher concerns as a significant threat to the success of a
curriculum reform at this scale.

3. The National Curriculum Development Centre step up its training programmes in order to reach
every teacher, paying particular attention to learner assessment. The study results have revealed
that although NCDC is a main source of information for teachers, significant information gaps
persist. The NCDC should be guided by the specific areas of concern highlighted by teachers in
this study.

4. National Curriculum Development Centre and Ministry of Education and Sports should work
with teachers to establish robust feedback channels through which teachers countrywide can
relate their concerns and have them addressed. Literature has revealed the danger of neglecting
teachers as the main change implementers. School and district administrative structures should
be leveraged for this purpose. Teacher organisations and social media platforms can also offer
excellent milieu for meaningful engagements.

5. School administrators, in collaboration with local governments and supported by the MoES
should conduct intensive stakeholder engagement targeting parents, community leaders and all
proprietors of educational institutions. This will help teachers find the support system they crave
both locally and nationally.

6. Change implementers, specifically teachers, should allow themselves time to learn, engage
with, and master the curriculum rather than dismissing it at this early point of implementation.
Educational reform scholarship has demonstrated that concerns evolve as implementation
progresses. Thus, teachers should make their concerns explicit through the available channels
in order to facilitate their advancement to higher stages of concern.

7. Further research should be dedicated to the concerns of teachers implementing the curriculum
reform in private schools in Uganda. It is worth discovering the concerns of teachers in private
schools as the nationwide success of the curriculum may be largely determined by them. A
comparison of teacher concerns in private versus government-aided schools should then be
carried out to provide scholars and change facilitators with a circumspect understanding of the
curriculum reform process and national teacher support needs.

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The Challenges and Strategies of Adopting Competency-Based

Assessment by National Assessment Bodies: The Case of Uganda
National Examinations Board

Florence Obong Capuc1, Tony Muzaale 1, Dennis Zami Atibuni 2*

Uganda National Examinations Board,

1

Busitema University Tororo, Uganda

2

* Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract
Lower secondary education in Uganda shifted from content-based to competency-based curriculum
in 2020. The adoption of competency-based education is hampered by a mode of assessment that has
traditionally placed a greater emphasis on memory than on critical and creative problem-solving.
This study, covering 17 districts in five of the six UNEB regions of Uganda, employed quantitative
research approach and cross-sectional survey research design to examine the extent to which the
implementation of the lower secondary school curriculum could inform competency-based assessment
of learning by UNEB. The study involved 491 learners randomly selected from secondary schools in the
selected districts. These respondents completed the survey on Competency-based Learning (Ryan &
Cox, 2016). The results of the study revealed generally high levels of belief in and understanding of
CBA (M = 3.82; Min. = 0.00, Max. = 5.00; SD = 0.622), student progression through demonstration of
mastery (M = 3.87; Min. = 0.00, Max. = 5.00; SD = 0.577), and flexible assessment (M = 3.91; Min. = 0.00,
Max. = 5.00; SD = 0.618). Personalization (M = 3.42; Min = 0.00, Max = 5.00; SD = 0.620) and skills and
disposition development (M = 3.13; Min = 0.00, Max = 5.00; SD = 0.734) were at moderate levels. We
argue that the implementation of the competency-based curriculum seems to take the shape of the
old cognitive-based curriculum such that it does not adequately prepare the learners for a terminal
competency-based assessment of the curriculum. Based on the results, we recommend that the
Ministry of Education and Sports and UNEB raise public sensitization on the need for the adoption of
CBA in the lower secondary schools in the country.

Keywords: Competency-based assessment, Competency-based curriculum, Competency-based

education, Examination, Lower secondary education

Introduction
The global prevalence of Covid-19 has provided a critical test of the relevance of education in
producing graduates with competitive job-related skills (Olesen, 2019). The post-Covid-19 period
threatens to pose more challenges of compensating for the time lost during the lockdown, the
readiness of the learners, and the quality of learning. This calls for education institutions to embrace
a paradigm shift from content-based to Competency-Based Education (CBE) model which has been
instituted at primary and lower secondary school levels of Uganda’s education system.

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The competency-based model describes the combination of specific knowledge, skills and personal
attributes that enables someone to perform a task. CBE is used interchangeably with Competency-
Based Curriculum (CBC) in this study to refer to education programs geared towards producing
graduates who not only have knowledge but also can apply it in complex jobs and life-related
situations (Klein-Collins, 2013).

Initially, CBE was majorly designed for adult learners, but has become an innovation attracting
institutions to design and offer it across the board (C-BEN, 2015; Fleming, 2015; Public Agenda,
2015). Increased interest by the U.S. Federal Government to fund and support higher education
opportunities for adults working in the 1970s led to the development of several CBE degree
programs (Klein-Collins, 2013). Later CBE philosophy was institutionalized in some national
qualification frameworks that included the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Netherlands, and
Germany (Mulder & Eppink, 2011). As such, CBE is not new since it has been applied by international
development agencies and consultancy firms for capacity building and strategic planning in Latin-
America, Asia and Africa.

Ford (2014) observes that calls for increased productivity, effectiveness and demonstrable
outcomes from the education sector prompted expanded global interest in the development of
competency-based education initiatives. According to Ford, the sixth generation of CBE models
is characterized by online learning, study analytics, adaptive technology, and direct assessment.
There are three different levels of use of competencies which include those related to training,
education, and development (Mulder & Eppink, 2011). Since our study focuses on elementary
secondary school education and preparing graduates for the competitive world of employment, the
study will concentrate on integrated occupations associated with competencies at the education
level. At this level, knowledge, skills, values and attitudes are integrated during the learning process
and authentic assessment is administered to determine mastery of job-related competencies
(Wesselink, 2010). In 1996, the Conference of Education Ministers of Francophone Countries summit
in Yaounde recommended that member countries adopt competency-based approach reforms
(Bernard et al., 2007). Education reforms according to competency-based approach were carried
out in the 23 West-African countries under the assistance of the organization.

Within the East-African Community member states (Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, South
Sudan, and Burundi), each country took a different approach in adopting CBC, mainly focusing on
inclusion of the 21st century skills in the curricula and at different levels of education. For example,
Kenya started implementing CBC in the pre-primary and lower primary in 2018 (Muasya & Waweru,
2019) while Uganda reformed her education from content-based to competency-based curriculum
in lower secondary in 2020 (National Curriculum Development Center [NCDC], 2020). Attempts have
also been made to integrate competency-based curriculum particularly in business, vocational
and technical education. For example, the Business, Technical, and Vocational Education and
Training (BTVET) Department supported by the German Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ)
set up the Uganda Vocational Qualification Framework (UVQF) secretariat in 2004 to monitor the
implementation of Competency-Based Education and Training (Kyobe & Rugumayo, 2005). This was
to link vocational institutions with the industrial sector by integrating job-related competencies
into their curricula. It is anticipated that a shift to service rather than business models of education
innovations such as CBC will provide competencies that are frequently associated with workforce
needs required by employers (Kasirye et al., 2021; Kim, 2015) and also help countries to attain
global development targets. However, there is a dearth of scientific evidence of competency-
based curriculum (CBC) or competency-based education (CBE) and programs in higher education
(Mbarushimana & Kuboja, 2016).

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The adoption of CBE, facilitated with technology, is hoped to among others, foster lifelong learning.
The education institutions are mandated to suit lessons for both formal and non-formal career
paths, promote accountability (Brightwell & Grant, 2013) and enable learners to gain competence
(knowledge, skills, and values) as the institutions strategize to enroll students throughout the year
without being limited by space or geographical location of learners. By adopting the CBE model,
it is further hoped that education institutions in the country will be more able to design efficient
content, reduce the cost of content delivery and make education programs more affordable to the
learners and parents who have been hit by the effects of the pandemic (Staskevia, 2019). In effect,
poor cognitive academic performance with its attendant consequences such as dropout should get
minimised.

The CBE model is underpinned by the constructivism theory that focuses on the centrality of the
learner in organizing and undertaking education activities or programs. Constructivists believe
in learners constructing knowledge through active engagement in authentic activities (Bartram,
2005). Geen and Gredler (2002) reveal that when learners are given clear goals for their learning and
left to explore knowledge on their own, they will be able to develop skills and competencies. This
will make learning more meaningful because it facilitates learners to apply content in an authentic
work-related environment.

Generally, the adoption of CBE has been slow in Sub-Saharan Africa (Kiguli et al., 2011) and is
expected to continue being as such in Uganda owing to the business rather than service model
of provision of content-based education that has characterized the country since independence.
The required shift from content-based education to the desired CBE in primary and secondary
education in Uganda is further challenged by the mode of assessment that has largely rewarded
recall rather than critical and creative solutions to extant problems. In this study, we aimed to
garner students’ perceptions of the extent of adoption of competency-based assessment in the
face of the existing highly popularized content-based assessment.

Objectives of the Study

1. To examine the extent to which the implementation of the competency-based curriculum has
prepared learners for competency-based assessment in lower secondary school in Uganda.
2. To determine the differences in the levels of implementation of the competency-based
curriculum by regional location of the schools, gender of the learners, and ownership of
schools.

Research Questions
The research questions are in line with the objectives of the study:

1. To what extent has the implementation of the competency-based curriculum prepared

learners for competency-based assessment in lower secondary school in Uganda?
2. What are the differences in the levels of implementation of the competency-based curriculum
by regional location of the schools, gender of the learners, and ownership of schools?

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Literature Review
Mbarushimana et al. (2016) note that education institutions of many developing countries produce
graduates with limited skills demanded by society and the employment market. These authors
agree with Mulder and Eppink (2011) who observe that education in Uganda and Ethiopia is
generally offered with limited attention to the development of work-related competencies. Further,
Staskevia (2019) reveals that the current education acquired through a business-oriented content-
based curriculum is important but not sufficient enough to produce graduates with competitive
skills ready to serve in the employment market. The above studies indicate the need to improve
the quality of education by either adopting tested education reforms elsewhere or rebranding their
curricula, teaching, and assessment.

Studies (e.g., Desrochers & Staisloof, 2016; Kabanga et al., 2018; Kafyuililo et al., 2012; Makulova et
al., 2015; Mulder & Eppink, 2011; Simonds et al., 2017; Staskevia, 2019; Wambua & Waweru, 2019)
have revealed that adoption of CBE improves the quality of education since learners can acquire
demonstrable competencies in real-life situations. However, Porter (2014) questioned the criteria
applied in determining the prior knowledge to include in the competency-based program, what
constitutes a term in a self-paced program, and how progress is determined. These studies were
either limited to developed countries, small sample size, a few programmes, or newly established
programs. They also do not explicitly explain the efficacy of the assessment of the CBE. Therefore,
we undertook a critical investigation of the learners’ perception of the adoption of competence-
based assessment with a view to enhancing its buy-in among the stakeholders.

Methodology
The study adopted quantitative approaches employing cross-sectional survey design. The study
was conducted in 17 districts within five UNEB regions of Uganda (see Table 1). The five regions
include Karamoja, central, western, south-western and eastern Uganda. The sample size for the
quantitative arm of the study was 491 Senior 2 learners, determined using Krejcie and Morgan’s
(1970) table of sample selection for social sciences. Senior 2 students were chosen because they
were the pioneers of the competency-based lower secondary school curriculum. Data were collected
over a four-week period with the help of field staff who were trained by the team of researchers.

Table 1. Selected Regions and Districts

Region District
Central Region Kampala, Wakiso
Eastern Region: Tororo, Iganga, Kapchorwa
Karamoja Region Moroto, Kotido, Nakapiripirit, Abim
Western Region Ibanda, Kamwenge, Masindi
South-Western Kabale, Rukungiri, Kanungu, Ntungamo, Isingiro

A self-report Likert scale questionnaire on Competency-based Learning (Ryan & Cox, 2016) was
administered to the participants to examine the extent to which the implementation of the lower
secondary school curriculum prepared them for competency-based assessment. The questionnaire
had six sections A—F measuring the demographic characteristics, student understanding of
competency-based education, progression through demonstration of mastery, personalisation,
flexible assessment, and development of specific skills and dispositions respectively. Progression
through demonstration of mastery requires a student to demonstrate that he or she has learned
what was expected before moving on to the next level.

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Personalization refers to the provision of individualised support, flexible pacing, and opportunities
for student choice in how to demonstrate mastery. Flexible assessment includes exposure to
multiple modes of assessment, which allows students to demonstrate mastery in a variety of ways
rather than through only one assessment (for example, a written test). Development of specific
skills and dispositions such as perseverance and a capacity to self-direct one’s learning may be
especially important in a competency-based learning system where student agency and choice are
emphasised (Lewis et al., 2014).

A number of measures were put in place to ensure good quality data through increasing the validity
and reliability of the study results. Among these, we trained the data collection team (research
associates) on how to handle the study procedures and study tools. The research team was actively
involved in the whole process to ensure quality checks at every level. For management of the
quantitative data, the questionnaires were sorted and those that were fully filled in were retained
while the incomplete ones were discarded. The completed questionnaires were coded serially to
avoid entering data from the same questionnaire more than once. The items were also coded and
entered in SPSS. None of the items required reverse scoring.

Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations) were generated
to determine the extent of implementation of the competency-based lower secondary school
curriculum in Uganda as a precursor of readiness for competency-based assessment of the
curriculum by UNEB. The mean levels of implementation were categorized as follows: 1—2.33 (low),
2.34—3.66 (moderate), and 3.67—5.00 (high). For the second objective, Kruskal-Wallis H Test plus
the post hoc test were run to generate the differences in implementation of the competency-based
curriculum by regional location while Mann-Whitney U test was run to establish the differences by
gender of the participants and school ownership.

The participants under 18 assented to participate in the study through the consent of their heads of
schools as representatives of their parents. Prior to the data collection session (i.e., questionnaire
administration), each participant was requested to give a signed informed consent to participate
in the study. They were also informed that all information shared in the discussions would be kept
confidential and all personal identifiers such as names would be removed during analysis and
report writing. Data access would be restricted only to those involved in the study.

The research team asked for a full waiver of ethical review from the External Research Committee
of UNEB. Permission to carry out the research was sought from the respective local governments.
The objectives, benefits, and risks of the study were explained to the prospective study participants
and informed consent sought before interviewing them as described above. Full consideration was
given to consent, anonymity, confidentiality, and right to withdraw at any point in time of the data
collection.

Results
Student Demographics

The quantitative data were gathered from 491 Senior 2 learners studying in the new lower
secondary school curriculum in Uganda. These learners were of different sexes, age groups, and
school characteristics from the 17 selected districts as shown in Table 2.

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Table 2: Study Demographics

Demographic Category Frequency Percent

Sex of student Male 265 54.0
Female 226 46.0
Total 491 100.0
Age of student 13 1 0.2
14 42 8.6
15 109 22.2
16 139 28.3
17 89 18.1
18 61 12.4
19 21 4.3
20 17 3.5
Total 479 97.6
Missing System 12 2.4
Total 491 100.0
School location Rural 92 18.7
Semi-urban 258 52.5
Urban 140 28.5
Total 490 99.8
Missing System 1 0.2
Total 491 100.0
School ownership Public 427 87.0
Private 64 13.0
Total 491 100.0
School composition Male 86 17.5
Female 64 13.0
Both male and female 341 69.5
Total 491 100.0
Foundation body of school Anglican 178 36.3
Catholic 107 21.8
Muslim 99 20.2
Pentecostal 39 7.9
SDA 24 4.9
Community 39 7.9
Others 5 1.0
Total 491 100.0

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Demographic Category Frequency Percent

District of school location Abim 20 4.1
Ibanda 58 11.8
Iganga 40 8.1
Isingiro 20 4.1
Kabale 20 4.1
Kampala 2 .4
Kamwenge 40 8.1
Kanungu 19 3.9
Kapchorwa 20 4.1
Kotido 19 3.9
Masindi 81 16.5
Moroto 39 7.9
Nakapiripirit 12 2.4
Ntungamo 20 4.1
Rukungiri 22 4.5
Tororo 40 8.1
Wakiso 19 3.9
Total 491 100.0

Results in Table 2 indicate that there was a slightly higher participation of boys than girls in the
study. The learners ranged in age from 13 to 20, with majority 15 and 16, typical of the delay in
ascending to the next class due to school closures as a result of covid-19 pandemic. Participant
distribution by school location decreased in the order semi-urban (52.5%), urban (28.5%), and rural
(18.7%). Most of the participants (87.0%) were drawn from public schools, with majority (69.5%)
studying in mixed rather than boys only (17.5%) or girls only (13.0%) schools. Participants came
from schools on all the main foundation bodies. Their responses to the questionnaire items are
presented in the following sections.

The Extent to Which the Implementation of the Competency-Based Curriculum Has Prepared
Learners for Competency-Based Assessment in Lower Secondary School in Uganda
This study mainly aimed at examining the extent to which the competency-based curriculum was
implemented and hence able to inform competency-based assessment by UNEB at lower secondary
school level in Uganda. The results are presented according to the key aspects of competency-based
education: student understanding of competency-based education, student progression through
demonstration of mastery, personalisation of competency-based education, flexible assessment,
and development of skills and dispositions.

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Table 3: Student Understanding of Competency-based Learning and Assessment

Item SD D U A SA M SD Level
The subjects I study at ‘O’ level prepare me for what I want to do
after secondary school education. 27(5.5) 45(9.2) 12(2.4) 226(46.0) 181(36.9) 4.00 1.121 High

The way we are studying gives students a lot of opportunity to

show whether they have learned the important topics in subjects. 47(9.6) 74(15.1) 47(9.6) 210(42.8) 113(23.0) 3.55 1.260 Moderate

The syllabus we are following helps us to get more than one

opportunity to pass a test or exam. 48(9.8) 82(16.7) 39(7.9) 179(36.5) 143(29.1) 3.58 1.323 Moderate

Homework is important to complete even if it is not graded.

42(8.6) 40(8.1) 29(5.9) 167(34.0) 213(43.4) 3.96 1.261 High
If two students in the same subject do different assignments, they
still have the opportunity to earn the same grade in the subject as
88(17.9) 142(28.9) 47(9.6) 134(27.3) 80(16.3) 2.95 1.390 Moderate
per the syllabus.

My current grades are a good reflection of what I have learned. 18(3.7) 20(4.1) 11(2.2) 204(41.5) 238(48.5) 4.27 .964 High
Most colleges and universities will understand and trust my
grades from the examinations. 20(4.1) 16(3.3) 6(1.2) 136(27.7) 313(63.7) 4.44 .978 High

Overall High
3.82 0.622
Results in Table 3 indicate that the learners were undecided as to whether the way they opportunity of repeating failed tests during the
expressed a generally moderately high level studied gave them a lot of opportunity to terminal assessment. Whereas majority (77.4%)
(M = 3.82, SD = 0.622) of understanding of show whether they had learned the important believed that homework was important to
the competency-based curriculum and its topics in subjects. A number of them (34.4%) complete even if not graded, a certain section
implementation. Majority (82.9%) agreed that also disagreed or were undecided that the (22.6%) believed otherwise, which speaks to a
the subjects they studied prepared them for syllabus they were following helped them tendency towards score oriented assessment.
what they wanted to do after secondary school to get more than one opportunity to pass a From these observations, it is gleaned that a
education, meaning that the education surely test or examination. In this case, the mode number of students still have misgivings about

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inculcated competency in them. However, an of assessment during the teaching and the new curriculum and its implementation
appreciable proportion (34.3%) disagreed or learning may not have revealed assurance of and assessment.

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Table 4: Progression through Demonstration of Mastery

Item SD D U A SA M SD Level
I know what I need to do to show my teachers that I am
making progress on each new topic or content I have been 17(3.5) 13(2.6) 10(2.0) 221(45.0) 230(46.8) 4.29 0.907 High
taught.
I must show my teachers that I have mastered each topic/
22(4.5) 27(5.5) 20(4.1) 201(40.9) 221(45.0) 4.16 1.044 High
content before I can move on to the next one.
I am able to move on to the next topic/content when I
have understood, even if other students have not yet 37(7.5) 44(9.0) 24(4.9) 214(43.6) 172(35.0) 3.90 1.195 High
understood.
Students in my class work on the same topic at the same
26(5.3) 34(6.9) 29(5.9) 218(44.4) 184(37.5) 4.02 1.091 High
time
I understand how the topics in my class will help me in the
21(4.3) 47(9.6) 35(7.1) 203(41.3) 185(37.7) 3.99 1.104 High
future.
My teachers share examples of excellent work on each Mod-
129(26.3) 182(37.1) 34(6.9) 82(16.7) 64(13.0) 2.53 1.376
topic/content. erate
My teachers let me know how my work will be marked for
25(5.1) 14(2.9) 12(2.4) 185(37.7) 255(51.9) 4.29 1.018 High
each topic/content.
My teachers give me a marking guide so that I know how I
47(9.6) 44(9.0) 35(7.1) 197(40.1) 168(34.2) 3.80 1.264 High
am progressing on each topic.
Overall 3.87 0.577 High

The students’ progression through on to the next one. Some of the students each topic/content, and 25.7% disagreed
demonstration of mastery (Table 4) was (21.4%) were unable to move on to the next that their teachers gave them marking guides
generally moderately high (M = 3.87, SD = topic/content when they had understood, so that they would know how they were
0.577). Most of them (91.8%) knew what they even if other students had not yet understood. progressing on each topic. This implies that
needed to do to show teachers that they Majority of the students, 345(70.3%), were national assessment of progression through
were making progress on each new topic or not in agreement with the assertion that their demonstration of mastery will still face gaps
content they had been taught. Some few of teachers shared examples of excellent work among the learners, with some having the
them (14.1%) disagreed that they needed to on each topic/content with them. Still others tendency of progressing at the pace of others.
show their teachers that they had mastered (10.4%) disagreed that their teachers let them
each topic/content before they could move know how their work would be marked for
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Table 5: Personalization

Item None Some Most All Not sure M SD Level

I am able to complete some or all of the topic
28(5.7) 35(7.1) 20(4.1) 173(35.2) 235(47.9) 4.12 1.142 High
requirements online using internet.
If I complete a project that wasn’t assigned at
school but is related to a topic I am learning, I can 43(8.8) 47(9.6) 25(5.1) 199(40.5) 177(36.0) 3.86 1.251 High
be awarded marks for the project in that topic.
I can earn marks for studying subjects at another
190(38.7) 95(19.3) 23(4.7) 81(16.5) 102(20.8) 2.61 1.610 Moderate
school.
I can earn marks for doing community service. 77(15.7) 100(20.4) 66(13.4) 143(29.1) 105(21.4) 3.20 1.393 Moderate
Never Seldom S o m e - Often Always M SD Level
times
Students in my class all work on the same assignment
119(24.2) 131(26.7) 94(19.1) 97(19.8) 50(10.2) 2.65 1.312 Moderate
at the same time
My teachers spend most of class time teaching the
103(21.0) 129(26.3) 84(17.1) 114(23.2) 61(12.4) 2.80 1.339 Moderate
whole class theoretically
My teachers work with students in small groups or
29(5.9) 52(10.6) 14(2.9) 175(35.6) 221(45.0) 4.03 1.198 High
individually
My teachers notice if I need extra help without me 122(24.8) 34(6.9) 140(28.5)
asking for help. 73(14.9) 122(24.8) 3.24 1.439 Moderate

My teachers teach the material in several different

44(9.0) 53(10.8) 29(5.9) 185(37.7) 180(36.7) 3.82 1.279 High
ways in order to help students learn.
Never 1-2 times 3 - 4 5 or more Not sure M SD Level
times times
My teachers or a counsellor/advisor discussed how I
61(12.4) 122(24.8) 29(5.9) 164(33.4) 115(23.4) 3.31 1.388 Moderate
am doing on each topic with me
My teachers gave me written feedback on my work 13(2.6) 52(10.6) 23(4.7) 210(42.8) 193(39.3) 4.05 1.049 High
I have had opportunities to choose how to show my
65(13.2) 113(23.0) 34(6.9) 172(35.0) 107(21.8) 3.29 1.379 Moderate
teachers what I have learned
Overall 3.42 0.620 Moderate
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According to the results in Table 5, the extent of personalisation of the curriculum was generally
moderate (M = 3.42, SD = 0.620), with an appreciable proportion (53.6%) unable or not sure to
complete some or all of the topic requirements online using internet, and 44.8% claiming that they
could never or were unsure to be awarded marks if they completed projects that were not assigned
at school but were related to a topic they were learning. Majority of the students (59.5%) disagreed
that they could earn marks for studying subjects at another school, implying that the curriculum
needs to provide for a national transfer of marks accessible in any school for every learner. A good
proportion (37.1%) disagreed or were undecided with the possibility of earning marks for doing
community service.

According to the 24.2% of the participants, students in their class never worked on the same
assignment at the same time. The majority of the participants (64.4%) agreed that their teachers
spent most of class time teaching the whole class theoretically, meaning that the intended extent
of practical implementation of the new curriculum is not yet up to the expected level. In other
words, teachers are still stuck to their traditional teacher-centred pedagogical approaches they
were used to during the implementation of the cognitive-based curriculum. About half (50.9%) of
the participants were either not sure or claimed that their teachers never worked with students
in small groups or individually. Others (43.7%) doubted or confirmed that their teachers never
noticed if they needed extra help without them asking for help. To further confirm the teacher
centeredness of the pedagogical approaches, 25.7% of the participants claimed that their teachers
never or rarely taught the content material in several different ways in order to help students learn.

Some students (35.8%) never experienced or were not sure of teachers or counsellors/advisors
discussing how they were doing on each topic with them. Others (41.9%) indicated that their
teachers never gave or were not sure of being given written feedback on their work. Only 35.0%
had had opportunities five or more times to choose how to show their teachers what they had
learned. In essence, the curriculum had not been properly personalized by the learners so as to
foster competency building. Its implementation was rather much characterized by the traditional
strategies of teaching and learning.

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Table 6: Flexible Assessment

Item Never 1-2 times 3 - 4 5 or more Not sure M SD Level

times times
I have created drawings or models to show what
68(13.8) 122(24.8) 33(6.7) 165(33.6) 103(21.0) 3.23 1.389 Moderate
I have learned
I have taken tests or quizzes to show what I have
22(4.5) 34(6.9) 25(5.1) 215(43.8) 195(39.7) 4.07 1.061 High
learned
I have given a performance to show what I have
learned (for example, performing in a video or skit/ 56(11.4) 70(14.3) 29(5.9) 168(34.2) 168(34.2) 3.66 1.372 Moderate
play, playing an instrument)
I have given a presentation to show what I have
29(5.9) 35(7.1) 30(6.1) 192(39.1) 205(41.8) 4.04 1.139 High
learned
Never Seldom S o m e - Often Always M SD Level
times
I have completed a project at school to show what
31(6.3) 30(6.1) 25(5.1) 191(38.9) 214(43.6) 4.07 1.139 High
I have learned
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I have completed a project in the community to

23(4.7) 10(2.0) 11(2.2) 158(32.2) 289(58.9) 4.38 0.984 High
show what I have learned
If I do poorly on an test or exam on the first try, I
56(11.4) 60(12.2) 35(7.1) 183(37.3) 157(32.0) 3.66 1.340 Moderate
can try again later.
To show that I have mastered a topic in a subject,
I must demonstrate my learning in more than one 21(4.3) 28(5.7) 17(3.5) 208(42.2) 217(44.2) 4.16 1.032 High
way, e.g., by doing written test, oral test, play, etc.
Overall 3.91 0.618 High

The flexibility of the mode of assessment was generally moderately presentation to show what they had learned (45.0%). With regard to
high (M = 3.91, SD = 0.618). An appreciable number of the participants projects, majority of the students had often (38.9%) or always (43.6%)
had never or were not sure of having created drawings or models to completed a project at school to show what they had learned.
show what they had learned (34.8%), having taken tests or quizzes
to show what they had learned (44.2%), having given a performance
to show what they had learned (for example, performing in a video
or skit/ play, playing an instrument; 45.6%), and having given a

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Similarly, 32.2% had often and 58.9% had always completed a project in the community to show
what they had learned. On the other hand, 30.7% reported that they never or rarely had opportunity
to try again later if they did poorly on a test or examination on the first try. This implies that the
mode of assessment of the learning outcomes is still far from meeting the desired expectation; the
current implementation and assessment of the curriculum is mimicking that of the old cognitive-
based curriculum. Majority of the students revealed that they often (42.2%) or always (42.2%)
demonstrated their learning in more than one way, (e.g., by doing written test, oral test, play, etc)
to show that they had mastered a topic in a subject.

Table 7: Development of Skills and Dispositions

Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always M SD Level

Teachers
encourage
students to
68(13.8) 130(26.5) 64(13.0) 150(30.5) 79(16.1) 3.09 1.328 Moderate
respect the
feelings of
others.
Teachers
show or
explain to
students
18(3.7) 25(5.1) 18(3.7) 176(35.8) 254(51.7) 4.27 1.009 High
how to
treat each
other with
respect.
When I
have trouble
learning
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something
new, my
teachers
139(30.5) 174(38.2) 110(24.2) 2(0.4) 27(5.9) 2.17 1.170 Low
give me
advice and
strategies
that help
me to keep
trying.
Overall 3.13 0.734 Moderate

The main aim of the new lower secondary school curriculum is to produce life-long learners who
have the requisite skills and dispositions to thrive in the world characterized as vulnerable, uncer-
tain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA). This is the core of competence-building in the curriculum.
Results in Table 7 indicate a generally moderately low level of personal gains in development of
skills and dispositions (M = 3.13, SD = 0.734). Less than half (46.6%) of the students reported often
or always having teachers to encourage students to respect the feelings of others. On a good
note, majority (87.5%) often or sometimes had teachers show or explain to students how to treat
each other with respect. To the contrary, majority (92.9) either never or seldom or just sometimes
had teachers give them advice and strategies to help them to keep trying when they had trouble
learning something new. This implies that the essence of the competency-based curriculum is not
being realised effectively.

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Differences in Levels of Implementation of the Lower Secondary Curriculum by Regional

Location, Gender, and School Ownership
The second objective of this study was to determine whether there were statistically significant
differences by regional location, gender, and school ownership in the levels of implementation
of the competency-based lower secondary curriculum as a precursor of competency-based
assessment. The results are presented below.

Regional Variation in CBA Readiness

One of the objectives of this study was to establish whether there was regional variation in
implementation of competency-based curriculum. A Kruskal-Wallis H nonparametric test was run
to achieve this. The results are presented in Table 8.

Table 8: Kruskal-Wallis H Test of Difference for Regional Variation in Implementation of Competency-

based Curriculum

Aspect of CBE Region Ranks X2 p

N Mean
Rank
Understanding of CBE Central 21 261.57 29.458 < .05
Eastern 100 293.90
Karamoja 90 254.30

Western

Student Progression South-western 179 203.70

through Demonstration 101 262.91
of Mastery
Central 21 247.71 15.737 .003
Eastern 100 294.52
Karamoja 90 240.93
Western 179 226.41
South-western 101 236.85
Personalisation Central 21 305.31 23.190 < .05
Eastern 100 278.10
Karamoja 90 274.33
Western 179 211.82
South-western 101 237.22
Flexible Assessment Central 21 342.93 26.546 < .05
Eastern 100 288.84
Karamoja 90 244.63
Western 179 218.55
South-western 101 233.29

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Development of Skills Central 21 277.00 5.923 .205

and Disposition Eastern 100 253.29
Karamoja 90 268.66
Western 179 231.10
South-western 101 238.56

Results in Table 8 indicate that apart from development of skills and dispositions, all other aspects
of competency-based education varied significantly by region. To establish the exact regions that
varied significantly in each region, a post hoc test of least square differences was run, presented in
Table 9.

Table 9: Post Hoc Tests for Regional Variation in Competency-based Education

Dependent (I) Region (J) Region Mean Std. p

Variable where where district Difference Error
district is is located (I-J)
located
Student Central Eastern -.15966 .14639 .276
understanding of Karamoja -.01633 .14779 .912
competency-based
Western .19511 .14067 .166
education
South-western -.02660 .14626 .856
Eastern Central .15966 .14639 .276
Karamoja .14333 .08861 .106
Western .35477* .07614 .000
South-western .13306 .08603 .123
Karamoja Central .01633 .14779 .912
Eastern -.14333 .08861 .106
Western .21144* .07880 .008
South-western -.01028 .08840 .907
Western Central -.19511 .14067 .166
Eastern -.35477* .07614 .000
Karamoja -.21144* .07880 .008
South-western -.22172* .07589 .004
South-western Central .02660 .14626 .856
Eastern -.13306 .08603 .123
Karamoja .01028 .08840 .907
Western .22172* .07589 .004

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Dependent (I) Region (J) Region Mean Std. p

Variable where where district Difference Error
district is is located (I-J)
located
Progression Central Eastern -.10054 .13790 .466
through Karamoja .05933 .13922 .670
Demonstration of
Western .09088 .13251 .493
Mastery
South-western .07284 .13778 .597
Eastern Central .10054 .13790 .466
Karamoja .15986 .08347 .056
Western .19142* .07172 .008
South-western .17338* .08104 .033
Karamoja Central -.05933 .13922 .670
Eastern -.15986 .08347 .056
Western .03156 .07424 .671
South-western .01352 .08328 .871
Western Central -.09088 .13251 .493
Eastern -.19142* .07172 .008
Karamoja -.03156 .07424 .671
South-western -.01804 .07149 .801
South-western Central -.07284 .13778 .597
Eastern -.17338* .08104 .033
Karamoja -.01352 .08328 .871
Western .01804 .07149 .801

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Dependent (I) Region (J) Region Mean Std. p

Variable where where district Difference Error
district is is located (I-J)
located
Personalisation Central Eastern .14167 .14637 .334
Karamoja .12130 .14778 .412
Western .38361* .14066 .007
South-western .29290* .14625 .046
Eastern Central -.14167 .14637 .334
Karamoja -.02037 .08860 .818
Western .24195* .07613 .002
South-western .15124 .08602 .079
Karamoja Central -.12130 .14778 .412
Eastern .02037 .08860 .818
Western .26232* .07880 .001
South-western .17161 .08839 .053
Western Central -.38361* .14066 .007
Eastern -.24195* .07613 .002
Karamoja -.26232* .07880 .001
South-western -.09071 .07589 .233
South-western Central -.29290* .14625 .046
Eastern -.15124 .08602 .079
Karamoja -.17161 .08839 .053
Western .09071 .07589 .233

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Dependent (I) Region (J) Region Mean Std. p

Variable where where district Difference Error
district is is located (I-J)
located
Flexible Central Eastern .24792 .14614 .090
Assessment Karamoja .36806* .14754 .013
Western .47463* .14043 .001
South-western .44018* .14601 .003
Eastern Central -.24792 .14614 .090
Karamoja .12014 .08846 .175
Western .22671* .07601 .003
South-western .19226* .08589 .026
Karamoja Central -.36806* .14754 .013
Eastern -.12014 .08846 .175
Western .10657 .07867 .176
South-western .07213 .08825 .414
Western Central -.47463* .14043 .001
Eastern -.22671* .07601 .003
Karamoja -.10657 .07867 .176
South-western -.03445 .07577 .650
South-western Central -.44018* .14601 .003
Eastern -.19226* .08589 .026
Karamoja -.07213 .08825 .414
Western .03445 .07577 .650

Post hoc test results in Table 9 indicate that students’ understanding varied significantly between
the Eastern and Western regions, Karamoja and Western regions, and South-western and Western
regions. Progression through demonstration of mastery varied significantly between the Eastern
and Western regions, and Eastern and South-western regions. Personalisation of the curriculum
differed significantly among students in the Central and Western regions, Central and South-
western regions, Eastern and Western regions, and Karamoja and Western regions. Flexible
assessment varied significantly between the Central and Karamoja regions, Central and Western
regions, Central and South-western regions, Eastern and Western regions, and Eastern and South-
western regions. In each of these cases, the former region exhibits a higher mean than the latter.
Differences in Competency-based Assessment Readiness by Gender of Learners
The study also sought to determine whether the implementation of competency-based lower
secondary school curriculum in Uganda varied significantly among male and female students.
Given that the number of male and female students was not equal, Mann-Whitney U test—the non-
parametric equivalent of the t-test—was run. The results are presented in Table 10.

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Table 10: Mann-Whitney U Test of Difference in Competency-based Education by Gender of Students

Aspect of CBE Sex of N Mean Sum of Mann- p
student Rank Ranks Whitney U
Student Male 265 262.32 69513.50 25621.500 .006
understanding of Female 226 226.87 51272.50
competency-based
education
Progression through Male 265 245.06 64941.00 29696.000 .873
demonstration of Female 226 247.10 55845.00
mastery
Personalisation Male 265 265.87 70456.00 24679.000 .001
Female 226 222.70 50330.00
Flexible assessment Male 265 239.09 63358.00 28113.000 .241
Female 226 254.11 57428.00
Development of skills Male 265 249.65 66158.00 28977.000 .533
and dispositions Female 226 241.72 54628.00

Results in Table 10 indicate that there was a significant difference (U = 25621.500, p = .006) in student
understanding of competency-based education between male (Mean Rank = 69513.50) and female
(Mean Rank = 51272.50) students. Similarly, male students (Mean Rank = 70456.00) exhibited a
significantly higher personalisation (U = 24679.000, p = .001) than female students (Mean Rank
= 50330.00). The other aspects of implementation of the curriculum did not vary significantly by
gender of the students. Most probably, the implementation of the curriculum tended to resemble
the previous mode of teaching sciences which traditionally favoured male students rather than
female students such that the female students got biased against the “new” curriculum.
Differences in Competency-based Assessment Readiness by School Ownership
In this study, we also intended to determine whether the implementation of the competency-based
lower secondary school curriculum varied between private and public schools. Given unequal
numbers of participants from private and public schools, Mann-Whitney U test was run and the
results are presented in Table 11.
Table 11: Mann-Whitney U Test of Difference in Competency-based Education by School Ownership
Aspect of CBE School N Mean Sum of Mann-Whitney p
ownership Rank Ranks U

Student understanding Public 427 243.53 103987.50 12609.500 .318

of competency-based Private 64 262.48 16798.50
education
Progression through Public 427 249.11 106368.00 12338.000 .209
demonstration of Private 64 225.28 14418.00
mastery
Personalisation Public 427 244.98 104608.00 13230.000 .682
Private 64 252.78 16178.00
Flexible assessment Public 427 242.18 103411.00 12033.000 .123
Private 64 271.48 17375.00
Development of skills Public 427 246.60 105296.50 13409.500 .808
and dispositions Private 64 242.02 15489.50

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It is interesting to note that the results in Table 11 do not reveal any statistically significant difference
between public and private schools in mean levels of the implementation of the various aspects
of competency-based curriculum as a precursor of adoption of competency-based assessment.
This implies that the private schools were probably as well-resourced as the public schools to
handle the new lower secondary school curriculum, or the sample of the few private schools was
biased towards an equal match in capacity to the public schools in running the competency-based
curriculum.

Discussion
This study had two main objectives: (a) to determine the extent to which the competency-based
curriculum prepared students for competency-based assessments in lower secondary school
in Uganda; and (b) to identify the differences in the levels of competency-based curriculum
implementation by regional location of schools, gender of students, and ownership of schools.
According to a growing corpus of research, essential components of competency-based learning
include advancement through demonstration of mastery, personalization, flexible assessment,
and the development of specific skills and dispositions (Patrick & Sturgis, 2011, 2013; Scheopner
Torres et al., 2015; Steele et al., 2014). Prior to advancing to the next level, a student must
demonstrate that they have mastered the anticipated material through demonstration of mastery.
Personalization is exemplified by individualized support, flexible scheduling, and options for
students to demonstrate proficiency in a variety of ways. Flexible assessment exposes students
to numerous forms of evaluation, allowing them to demonstrate mastery in a variety of methods
as opposed to only one. (for example, a written test). In a competency-based learning system that
places a strong emphasis on student agency and choice, the development of certain skills and
dispositions, such as perseverance and the capacity to self-direct one’s learning, may be especially
important (Lewis et al., 2014). According to Freeland (2014) and Haynes et al. (2016), interest in
competency-based and other student-centred reforms at the secondary level continues to grow,
but research lags behind.

The study results indicate generally high levels of belief in and understanding of the competency-
based curriculum, student progression through demonstration of mastery, and flexible assessment.
Personalization, and skills and disposition development were at moderate levels. According to
Lassnigg (2015, p. 11),

CBE should ‘eradicate the notion of failure’, address students instead of teachers as ‘focal point’, give
students ‘as much time as needed to learn’ and ‘always opportunity to certify’, bringing formative
assessment to the fore; teacher should ‘manage learning’ instead of ‘dispensing information’, and
schools should be transformed in to ‘learning centres.’

Competency-based education is therefore based on observable activities demonstrated as opposed

to seat-time, assessment by criterion-referencing as opposed to standardized testing involving
national comparison of candidates, balanced curriculum based on selection of a small number of
key major objectives as opposed to segmented behavioural curriculum, explicit measurement of
mastery of skills as opposed to slippery measurement involving comparison of students against
each other, and flexible time structure as opposed to floppy time structure.

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Results in Table 8 and 9 indicate significant differences in students’ understanding of competency-

based education, progression through demonstration of mastery, personalization, and flexible
assessment by region. Results in Table 10 indicate a significant difference between male and
female students in student understanding of competency-based education. Similarly, there was
a significantly higher personalisation among male students than among female students. Results
in Table 11 do not reveal any statistically significant difference between public and private schools
in mean levels of the implementation of the various aspects of competency-based curriculum as a
precursor of adoption of competency-based assessment.

Lower secondary education in Uganda transitioned from a focus on content to competencies in

2020. Assessment strategies that prioritize memorization over analytical and inventive problem-
solving hinder competency-based education. This study revealed extensive trust and familiarity
with competency-based education, as well as advancement through demonstrated competence
and flexible assessment. Personal development, as well as advancement in skills and personality
traits, was average. We argue that students are not adequately prepared for a culminating
competency-based assessment because the competency-based program frequently resembles the
prior cognitive-based curriculum. On the basis of the findings, it is recommended that the Ministry
of Education and Sports and UNEB inform junior high and senior high schools about the significance
of CBA. As observed by Kiguli et al. (2011), the adoption of CBE has been slow in Sub-Saharan Africa
and this trend is anticipated to continue in Uganda due to the business rather than service model
of content-based education provision that has characterized the country since independence.
Further complicating the necessary transition from content-based education to the desired CBE
in secondary education in Uganda is the assessment method, which has primarily rewarded recall
rather than critical and creative solutions to existing problems. It is therefore important to broaden
the strategies for contextualizing and enhancing the adoption of competency-based assessment.

Conclusions and Recommendations

In Uganda, lower secondary education switched from a content-based to a competency-based
system in 2020. Assessment methods that place more emphasis on memory than on analytical and
creative problem solving are detrimental to competency-based education. According to this study,
competency-based education is widely accepted and widely known. It also promotes development
through demonstrated competence and flexible evaluation. The increase in competencies
and character attributes was ordinary, as was personal growth. We contend that because the
competency-based curriculum frequently resembles the previous cognitive-based curriculum,
learners are not sufficiently prepared for a final competency-based assessment. The Ministry of
Education and Sports and UNEB are advised to inform people about the value of CBA in junior high
and high schools in light of the findings. We further recommend initiatives to garner stakeholders’
perceptions of challenges and resistance that Uganda National Examinations Board (UNEB) is likely
to face in adopting competence-based assessment in the face of the existing highly popularized
content-based assessment. Strategies for ensuring buy-in among the stakeholders should also be
populated. Generally, there is need to amplify the sensitization of the citizenry on the need to adopt
the competency-based curriculum and hence assessment in education institutions in the country.

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Towards a Successful Development of School-Based Instructional Supervision Materials

to Support Effective Competency-Based Curriculum Implementation in Zanzibar

Habibu Dadi Ali

University of Dodoma-Tanzania

Email: [email protected]

Abstract
The implementation of the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) among teachers in Tanzania
and Zanzibar in particular remains an issue despite its functioning in schools for nearly seventeen
years. In the absence of a supporting guide, school leaders feel less prepared to assist their teachers
in implementing the CBC. For this reason, School-Based Instructional Materials (SB-ISMs) were
developed by researchers in collaboration with potential users of the SB-ISMs (section leaders and
head teachers) and experts. The goal was to provide school leaders with the means to support their
teachers as they implement CBC. This article presents the main comments received from users and
experts regarding the SB-ISMs developed. The practicality, effectiveness and validity of the developed
content was evaluated by 33 section leaders, 15 head teachers, and 5 experts in the area of design-
based research, educational management, and curriculum development through a semi-structured
interview guide. The generated data were analysed using inductive thematic analysis protocol.
The users’ and experts’ comments about the SB-ISMs covered four major themes namely; ensuring
authentic content and reflective activities in the materials, having a logical sequence of SB-ISMs, using
context-based facilitation skills and descriptive style of materials presentation, and using practical
and hands-on activities for competence development. The involvement of a variety of experts and
users contributes to the successful development of intervention materials in education. Therefore,
it is recommended that the government, through Ministry of Education, Science and Technology,
whenever it needs to develop any curriculum guide to be implemented in any educational institution,
should involve experts and those who are going to use it in the real school milieu.

Keywords: competency-based curriculum, implementation, prototyping, school leader,

supervisory guide.

Introduction
The previous two decades have served as an alarm signal for education authorities around the
world to reconsider the best way in which education systems could produce young people who will
cope with life in the twenty first century (Anderson, 2017; Ruth & Ramdas, 2020; Sullivan, & Burce,
2014). For that reason, several nations engaged in reforming their curricular by sifting from content-
based to competency-based curriculum (CBC) which emphasizes acquisition of key competencies
for society transformation (Kasirye,2020; Mulena & Kabombwe, 2019). Practically, CBC adopts a
learner-centred pedagogy, formative assessment approaches, and stresses the development
of competencies and application of knowledge in real life context so that learners master and
manipulate their environment confidently (Sifuna & Obonyo, 2019). In essence, the CBC is rooted
in USA. It began when the state departments of education began promoting competency-based
teacher preparation in the middle of the 1960s as a result of concerns over insufficient teacher
preparation programs and graduates’ difficulties in finding jobs (Sullivan & Burce, 2014).

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Later, these ideas were adopted by a number of other European nations including France, Australia,
Belgium, Switzerland, and Quebec (Anderson, 2017).

In line with the changes globally, South Africa in 1998 became the first African country to adopt the
CBC in an effort to alter people’s mindsets and provide them with the employability skills they need
to deal with difficult situations in the twenty-first century (Komba & Mwandanji, 2015). The Republic
of Cameroon embraced the competency-based approach in 2012 which was then approved in
2014 (Ngala, 2016). The shift into competency-based approach was an attempt to do away with
content-based curriculum inherited from their colonial masters. Specifically, the CBC was to help
the people be well-versed in the two official languages (French and English), thoroughly steeped in
their traditions, and open to a world dominated by information and communication technology.
The goals were to help these kids acquire competencies and essential information that would
either enable them to further their schooling or position them for a seamless entry into the labour
market, in addition to fostering their intellectual, civic, and moral development (Akala, 2021).

East Africa was not left behind this move; countries like Rwanda embraced the CBC innovation
in 2015 according to Rwanda Education Board (2017), and Kenya implemented the same in 2016
(K.I.C.D, 2016), the major goal being to prepare the graduates for the challenges of the workforce and
develop their problem-solving skills. Tanzania and Zanzibar in particular, are no exception when
it comes to the educational reforms aiming to improve quality education provision. The country
introduced CBC in 2005 to replace the content-based curriculum that emphasized the acquisition
of content knowledge rather than developing students’ ability to use the acquired knowledge and
skills to become problem solvers in their societies (Mwandanji & Komba, 2015). In this regard, CBC
was seen as a potential measure to produce competent graduates who would be future experts in
various fields hence contributing to the country’s economic development. Indeed, the country’s
effort to move into CBC was a viable decision in the context of achieving global competence (Ruth
& Ramdas, 2020). However, several scholars (see Nkya, Huang & Mwakabungu, 2021; Kangalawe,
Machyo, & Nduku, 2019; Muneja, 2015; William, O-Saki, Mselle, & Gabriel, 2014) have observed that
classroom teaching in Tanzania still uses the conventional teacher-centred approach predominantly
characterised by lecture methods in which chalk-and-talk predominates. In the chalk-and-talk kind
of teaching, students are still assumed to be passive listeners and receivers of knowledge whose
learning activity is only coping notes from the board (Makunja, 2016). Research findings have
established that one of the reasons for the ineffective implementation of CBC in schools to some
extent, is a result of inadequate supervision of teachers by their school leaders (headteachers and
section leaders) (Ali, 2015; Nyambo, 2017; Siamoo, 2013). In this context, enhancing the capacity of
school leaders to supervise the implementation of CBC was felt reasonable.

Researcher is mindful of several interventions undertaken by the governments and other educational
stakeholders both in Tanzania mainland and Zanzibar to facilitate effective implementation of the
CBC. Some of the notable interventions include Boost for Primary Education, Secondary Education
Quality Improvement Project (SEQUIP), and the latest initiative is Enhancing Quality of Secondary
School Education Project (United Nations Office for Project Services [UNOPS], 2022). For instance,
Enhancing Quality of Secondary School Education Project is coordinated by Good Neighbours
in Zanzibar whose focus is enhancing quality of secondary school education by building science
laboratories and procuring equipment and supplies for secondary schools both in Unguja and
Pemba Islands. The cited project also organises capacity building workshops for teachers on
curriculum issues. As it can be seen, the focus of majority of these projects has been on teachers
and with less focus on school leaders and CBC aspects. This necessitated the need to conduct this
study to enhance school leaders’ capacity of supervising the CBC implementation through the
design and development of educational materials.

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From the foregoing, it is clear that the school leaders are the primary curriculum advisors for their
schools in charge of helping teachers to improve the quality of teaching and learning in classrooms
(Ashum & Acquah, 2021). Underscoring the role of school leaders in supervising the curriculum, an
agreement among scholars (see Jonyo &Jonyo, 2019; Metulo, 2014; Mkulu &Ngole, 2020; Sabola,
2017; Islam, Usman & Yousaf, 2018; Tesema, 2014) suggest that school leaders are key to developing
teachers’ competence and confidence in implementing curricula, which in turn enhances students’
positive learning outcomes. Related research evidence elsewhere indicate that the school leaders
can influence effective implementation of curriculum by motivating, encouraging, facilitating
teamwork and peer training, and advising teachers on the best practices to implement curricula
more effectively (Chaudhary, 2015; Waruingi, Mbogo & Mambo, 2022). From the discourse
pertaining to the role of school leaders on curriculum implementation, it is fair to argue that school
leaders are responsible for monitoring and guiding curriculum implementation by ensuring that
teachers prepare schemes of work and lesson plans correctly according to the requirements of
CBC (Lynn & CurryCorp, 2017; van Griethuijs, Kust, van Woerkom, Wesselink, & Poell, 2019). These
supervisory competences - supervising effective constructions of competency-based scheme of
work and lesson plans have never been realistic among many public secondary school leaders in
Zanzibar (Ali, 2015; Nyambo, 2017). The implication here is that school leaders continue to provide
inadequate support to teachers regarding CBC implementation.

In addressing the CBC supervision problem, the School-Based Instructional Materials (SB-ISMs)
were collaboratively developed to enhance school leaders’ capacity to supervise CBC (see Appendix
1 for a summary of the desired intervention). Specifically, the SB-ISMs aimed to support school
leaders to supervise competency-based instructional planning, including lesson plan and scheme
of work, competency-based lesson delivery and competency-based assessment. Eventually, the
developed intervention material was appraised by users and experts for its quality with particular
focus on the relevance, effectiveness and usability.

The main objective of this article, therefore, is to report on the comments of the experts and
potential users (school leaders of the SB-ISMs) during the development of the SB-ISMs. The
lessons learned from this study will go a long way in enabling organisations and other researchers
in developing guides to support school leaders in supervising the implementation of the revised
curriculum, notably CBC.

Research Design
This study opted for a phenomenography design anchored on qualitative research approach to
address the research objectives. The choice of this design is based on the desire of the researcher
to explore users and experts’ lived experiences of and perceptions on SB-ISMs (Khan, 2014; Nixon
& Odoyo, 2020)where researchers must understand how an event is perceived and interpreted
by the people in a community. Ethnography is therefore a qualitative research method that is
used to study people and cultures for in-depth knowledge about a socio-technological realities
surrounding everyday software development practice. Ethnography can help to uncover not only
what practitioners do, but also why they do it in terms of human computer interaction and user
interfaces design. This is due to its unique strength to involve the researcher, the research process
and the research, making it a potential ideal method for undertaking research where the community
and its members interact with each other. The main objective of this paper is to examine through
literature review, the strengths and weaknesses of ethnography as a research design method for
researchers in the information communications and technology (ICT. Based on their experiences,
the desired SB-ISMs were improved

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Study Area
This study was carried out in Zanzibar in West B District and Urban District both located in the
Urban West Region. A total of 30 schools was selected, 15 from each District. The schools were
conveniently selected based on their readiness and availability to be studied. A preliminary study
conducted by the researcher in 2015 established that the two districts showed interest in taking
part in the study because the training programme would update school leaders on the modern
supervisory skills for CBC implementation.
Sample and Sampling Procedures
The section leaders (N=33) were purposively involved in this study because they are considered
as information rich since they are instructional supervisors and hence become in charge of
ensuring that teachers are effectively implementing the existing curriculum. The study also
purposively involved developmental study experts (N=3), educational management expert (N=1)
and department of curriculum development (N=1). The experts’ ideas were highly demanded in
enriching the content and for improving the relevance (usefulness) and practicability (usability) of
the designed intervention materials.

Data Collection Methods

Data collection was performed using semi-structured face-to-face interviews (SSFFIs) with
participating section leaders, head teachers, and experts. For each of these categories, SSFFIs
lasted approximately 50 minutes and they were directed by a semi-structured interview guide.
The use of SSFFIs was preferred due to the researcher’s intention to have unique experiences of
each participant freely which would have been impossible to get through focus group discussion.
Moreover, the use of semi-structured interviews was felt appropriate based on its flexibility in
allowing discovery or further elaboration of information that may not sound clear to the researcher
(Elhami & Khoshnevisan, 2022). Putting this strength in mind, follow-up questions were asked to
obtain clarification, examples, and more details.

Data Analysis Procedures

The data collected for this study were analysed using inductive thematic analysis following Braun
and Clarke (2006) analytical procedures. The authors highlighted six phases of thematic analysis,
which include: data familiarisation, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing
themes, defining and naming themes, and finally, report production. Moreover, NVivo and Microsoft
Word programs supported data organisation, coding, and theme identification. In reporting the
emerged findings, the data were presented as summaries and narratives, and illustrated with
examples and quotations, capturing the respondents’ perspectives and experiences.

Ethical Aspects
Like any other scientific investigation, research ethical procedures were well observed in the course
of performing this study. At the outset, approval for the conduct of this study was sought and
granted by the Directorate of Research and Publications, University of Dodoma. Informed consent
from participants was also gained. Confidentiality and anonymity were taken care of beforehand
while participation remained voluntary. To observe anonymity, letters were used to represent the
actual names of participants.

Results and Discussion

This study purposed to report the users’ and experts’ comments on the designed intervention
materials. With this in mind, the prototype zero of the materials had to be appraised by the head
teachers and section leaders who are the prospective users of the materials at the school level.

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It was hoped that involving head teachers and section leaders in the development of the
desired materials would result in increased ownership and acceptance of the materials thereby
facilitating easy usability of the materials. The same materials were appraised by other experts
with considerable experience in curriculum development, developmental studies, and educational
management. Moreover, simulation training of the prototypes was made to section leaders to
consolidate the materials. The emerging comments from the formative evaluations by users and
experts are presented in Table 4.4. The related details are given thereafter.

Table 4.4 Users’ and Experts’ comments for Improving SB-ISMs

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Authentic content and reflective activities of SB-ISMs

In an effort to enrich the quality of materials, participants suggested inclusion of authentic content
and reflective activities in SB-ISMs. Specifically, they demanded an introductory paragraph to the
materials to guide users on how to use them. Furthermore, participants noted that the materials
needed to be divided into sub-units, with each sub-unit providing introductory remarks describing
the objectives of the unit. The introductory part should inform the readers of the purpose of both
the materials and the sub-unit to avoid confusion. The developmental research expert 1 is quoted
below:

“I have gone through your materials carefully and came up with one major recommendation to
improve the materials. I do not know how the lesson plans are intended to be used but I suggest
to have a paragraph to introduce the materials (Interview with developmental research Expert
I, 4th November, 2019)”

This quotation suggests that an introduction for each module or unit of the intervention materials
is critical in enabling the readers to have a general understanding of the respective unit (Hansen
& Tengnäs, 2021). Section leaders suggested that workshop activities should be reflective,
encouraging participants to elicit their previous experiences on the matter at hand before learning
new experiences from the facilitator side. Developmental research expert 2 was in agreement as
quoted below:

“I would suggest the inclusion of reflective workshop activities that provoke the participants or
learners to share their experiences or practices on the subject matter at hand. In fact, reflective
workshop activities go in line with CBC implementation since even the CBC itself emphasizes
learners’ interactivity (Interview with developmental research expert 2, on 4th November, 2019).”

The above narrative indicates that reflective activities are important in the intervention materials
due to their potential in facilitating a sharing of past experiences and knowledge regarding the
subject at hand. This in the end invites new ideas and development of new knowledge and skills
(National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2009).

The experts further added that the difference between competence and competency and how to
build them should be made more apparent in the intervention materials. They emphasized that
the materials should tell when competence is used instead of competency and vice versa to avoid
ambiguity to the readers. Categorically, it was advised that specific competency standards were
required to be demonstrated by school leaders (section leaders) for CBC supervision. In this respect,
it was suggested that the materials should show specific skills required by the school leader to
supervise the implementation of CBC. The section leaders and more so experts thought that this
is nuclear of the whole proposed intervention programme. The educational management expert’s
remarks in this respect are illustrated by this quote:

“I think it is good to delineate specific competency standards to be demonstrated by school

leaders in supervising CBC. Obviously, the epicentre of this programme is coming up with the
key elements or standards that school leaders should possess for supervising implementation of
CBC. In my view these standards are those which you found school leaders lacking during your
baseline survey. These standards, therefore, need to be featured in your intervention materials
(Interview with educational management expert, 4th November, 2019)”

Also, a curriculum development expert echoed these sentiments remarking that:

You should always remember to include the basic supervision qualities that school leaders
should have to be capable of supervising the implementation of CBC in schools. Without
these supervision qualities, your intervention is likely to be illogical (Interview with curriculum
development expert, 6th November, 2019).

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The above quotations suggest that it is felt significant to make conceptual clarifications of some
important terms for the readers to have an in-depth grasp of the intervention materials and for
enhancing usability. Bugler, Marple, Burr, Chen-Gaddini, and Finkelstein, (2017) concur that
accuracy and visual appeal, alignment to standards and depth of knowledge, ease of use and
support, engagement and ability to meet participants’ learning needs determine the effectiveness
of the desired intervention materials.

Logical sequence of the SB-ISMs

Participants felt it necessary to ensure a logical sequence of the school-based supervision skills
on CBC. In organizing the content of the materials, they recommended that instructional delivery
supervision is to be preceded by instructional planning supervision. They cemented this suggestion
arguing that one always starts with planning how instructional activities are going to be executed in
the actual classroom context before they are executed in the real context. In regard to this, section
leader A narrated:

“In my view, your material has to be coherent and logical for easy understanding. I think
the material can help school leaders to supervise CBC. For example, last week, I ordered my
teachers to collect instructional documents, namely lesson plans, schemes of work and lesson
notes for assessment. I used these workshop materials to assess their instructional ability.
Frankly speaking, the materials are useful. These materials would be a good tool for many
school leaders to supervise the instructional process in this era of the implementation of the
CBC (Interview with section leader at school A, 10th November, 2019).”

The same was echoed by head teacher A who remarked that:

“In my opinion, the materials have been well organised in a way that one would gain
understanding easily. The content coverage is adequate and relevant. I can use these materials
without any trouble. Only that some improvements need to be made on the coherence of some
contents (Interview with head teacher at school A, 11th November, 2019).”

A close interpretation of the quote above leads in a conclusion that the materials developed
were helpful and accepted by the users. One of the areas where the participants condemned the
materials was its use and coherence. Moreover, it was aired that workshop activities ought to be
arranged from simple to complex. Such an arrangement would facilitate easy understanding of the
materials for all section leaders and other school leaders who will practice the materials in their
schools (Bugler, Marple, Burr, Chen-Gaddini & Finkelstein, 2017)

Context-based facilitation skills and descriptive style of materials presentations

Both section leaders and experts noted that the desired materials should contain context-based
facilitation skills and a descriptive style of presentation. In this direction, it was commented that
it is good for the facilitator to prepare notes for a workshop in advance (possible answers for each
activity). The main reason for the suggestion was that the notes would serve as a point of reflection
for the facilitator to crosscheck whether what is presented by the participants matches with the
state-of-the art or intentions and expectations of the facilitator. However, they cautioned that
the facilitator’s notes and activities should not be presented together to avoid hampering critical
thinking. Also, it was advised that formative evaluation should be allocated more time as it is a
significant part of the programme. Emphatically, a curriculum development expert in his words
confirmed:

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“I would propose that your facilitation skills should be context-based and the presentation of
the materials should be descriptive. It is good to see, however, that the materials have taken a
good shape such that one could read and understand easily. I am of the view that the materials
now present the intended objectives. I have seen that at some point, activities of the workshop
have taken sufficient time but I wonder why formative evaluation takes 40 minutes. I think you
need to re-evaluate this part (Interview with curriculum development expert, 15th November,
2019).”

These observations indicate that the experts think that the timing for formative evaluation and in
this case activities to be carried out through Know, Want to know and Learned (KWL) table need
to be increased. This is to allow facilitators to collect prior knowledge of the participants about
a subject under discussion before moving to the next lesson (Foorman, Dombek, & Smith, 2016).
Moreover, while discussing the materials with the experts for improving the prototype two of the
intervention materials, experts had extra feelings on the layout of the materials. In this, the experts
were of the view that the materials cannot have a proper flow if presented in tables. As such,
they advised for a descriptive form of presenting the intervention materials. Consistent with this
comment, developmental research Expert 2 had this to say:

“The materials’ presentation style needs revision. I have seen your layout and the programme
structure being in units: introduction, activities, programme procedures and assessment. I
am suggesting for the improvement of the layout and structure to create a good flow of the
programme components; i.e. the introduction, assessment, task one and its related notes,
task two and the related notes, task three and the related notes. I hope this will help you get
away from the table you are using which to me sounds awkward (Interview with developmental
research expert, 15th November, 2019).”

From the critical observations done, the experts suggested that the materials should be presented
in a descriptive structure. It seemed that they were not satisfied with the tabular presentation of
materials. The experts advised on the use of descriptive or narrative style presenting the content of
the intervention to enhance clarity and usability (Bugler, Marple, Burr, Chen-Gaddini & Finkelstein,
2017).

Besides, some experts added that it was a good idea to be guided by Think, Ink, Pair, Share (TIPS)
approach while executing the intervention programme to the participants. This implied that for
any idea to be presented to the workshop, the participants should first critically think in their
groups about the presented concept before writing their thoughts on the piece of flip chat or
manila sheet. Participants have to discuss these ideas in their respective groups. Finally, one of
the group members will present the issues discussed before others for further discussions. When
asked to justify the use of TIPS in this context, experts expressed that the approach helps to create
interactivity during the execution of the intervention programme. It was also added that for each
unit of the materials, KWL table (what I know, what I want to learn, and what I have learned) should
be used as a basis of formative evaluation. The remarks of developmental research expert 3 in this
direction are illustrated below:

“I think you can use the KWL table for formative evaluation. This means that you assess what
your workshop participants know on the subject at hand before the workshop, what they want
to learn from your workshop and what they have learned from your workshop (Interview with
developmental research expert, 15th November, 2019)”

An analysis of the arguments by these respondents would mean that supporting the supervision
capacity of school leaders should be led by a tool that can enable them to share what they already
know, new things they want to learn and assess what they have learned. This can be made possible
with the help of the KWL (Alsalhi, 2019; Mofreh, & Aseeri, 2020).

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Practical and hands-on activities for competence development

Before getting the final version of the desired intervention materials, they remarked that SB-ISMs
contained adequate content and activities for the intended purpose. Besides, it was observed that
the workshop resources are enough considering the nature of the programme and participants.
However, section leaders advised to have practical and hands-on activities for competence
development. In the views of the section leaders, the rationale for having practical works along with
hands-on activities is to enable participants to convey their past experiences on the supervision of
the implementation of the CBC. In this context, one of the users (section leader B) had this to say:

“Practical and hands on activities should always be one of the key components of your
intervention materials. Without these, you may no longer build the capacity of section leaders
on supervising the CBC. Interestingly, the workshop resources or materials are relevant. I think,
your materials are now fit for the intervention programme. However, I remind you not to forget
to have as many hands-on and practical activities as possible in your intervention materials
(Interview with section leader at school B, November, 22nd 2019).”

The quote above indicates that the section leaders who are also the prospective users of the materials
were satisfied with the content of the third prototype and the materials could be implemented in
the schools. Nonetheless, they advised on the addition of more hands on activities to make the
materials effective to the target users (Kibga, Sentongo & Gakuba, 2021).

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study was grounded on presenting the comments of the users and experts on the designed
intervention materials which were to be used by school leaders in supporting effective
implementation of CBC. The users’ and experts’ comments focused on the need to include
authentic content and reflective activities in the materials, having a logical sequence of SB-ISMs,
using context-based facilitation skills and descriptive style of materials presentation, and using
practical and hands-on activities for competence development. Based on the findings, the study
feels safe to conclude that involving various experts and intended users of the guide contributes to
the successful development of intervention materials in education. Therefore, it is recommended
that the Government, through Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, whenever, it needs
to develop any curriculum guide to be implemented in schools, it is reasonable to involve experts
and those who are going to use it in the real school milieu

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Implementation of Competency-Based Lessons in Class: Case Study: Luweero Region

in Uganda
Sarah Kobusinge
Mazzoldi College School– Nakaseke, Uganda
[email protected]

Abstract
This paper examines the implementation of competency-based lessons (CBL) in secondary schools in
Uganda following the introduction of a competency-based curriculum in 2020. The study’s objective
is to assess the impact of CBL on learners’ academic achievement and teachers’ teaching practices,
focusing on the Luweero region of Uganda. The study involved 282 secondary school teachers from
84 government-aided and private schools. Over 10,000 learners were sampled from Nakaseke,
Nakasongola, and Luweero between August 2022 and March 2023. Different subject teachers
participated in focus group discussions (FGDs), and lesson observations were conducted to represent
each discipline. Thematic coding was used to analyse the data, revealing that many teachers must
be more adequately prepared for CBL and prioritise achieving intended learning outcomes. The study
recommends providing teachers with more training and professional development opportunities to
enhance their understanding and implementation of CBL. The themes from the data analysis included
content coverage, tracking progress over three years, and managing learner activities during delivery
time. The study highlights the need for continued efforts to support the successful implementation of
competency-based education in Uganda.

Keywords: Assessment, Competency-Based Lesson, Preparedness, Science and Mathematics

Teachers.

Introduction
In recent years, there has been a global shift towards Competency-Based Education (CBE),
which focused on the mastery of specific skills and knowledge rather than just completing a
set of prescribed learning activities (Jung et al., 2018). In Uganda, the Ministry of Education
and Sports (MoES) introduced a new secondary school curriculum emphasising CBE, which is
being implemented nationwide. Thist called for a shift in the traditional teaching practices to
align with the goals of CBE. Schools/classes were designed to provide a learning environment
for exploration, self-awareness, and connecting with other children.
This study aims to examine the implementation of competency-based lessons in classes in the
Luweero region of Uganda and to assess their impact on learners’ academic achievement and
teachers’ teaching practices.

The CBC challenges traditional notions of grading, promotion, and even classroom dynamics.
Support from administrators can help drive this cultural shift at an institutional level, while parents
can reinforce it at home.

The findings indicate that assessing individual learner performance in CBL, especially during group
activities, was challenging as some learners dominated the discussion while others remained
passive.

The learning resources available ought to support a competency-based pedagogy rooted in

behaviourism, mastery learning, and modular teaching (Molders, 2004). Furthermore, these
resources rarely encourage learners to engage in higher-order thinking skills. Notably, the teacher’s
guides available provide limited guidance on facilitating mastery of these activities (Nakiguli et
al.,2022).

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The textbooks supplied in schools still reflect some elements of the traditional curriculum. For
example, working out numbers in mathematics textbooks hinders learners’ creativity and promotes
rote learning among learners. Over 220 teachers (about 78%) responded that textbooks and other
reference materials supplied reflected a traditional way of teaching. This hinders teachers from
adopting the new teaching and learning styles.

Some learning activities in the textbook cannot relate to learners’ lived experiences, making it hard
for them to see the relevance or importance of the concepts they are learning. Generic skills like
critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication are essential for success in many aspects of
life, but textbook activities focus more on content knowledge. By integrating these skills, learners
may develop them adequately.

Competency-based instruction emphasizes diverse learning modalities, such as musical, visual,

and logical-mathematical thinking. However, teachers often need explicit guidance on integrating
information and communication technology (ICT) into this teaching approach. According to the
survey, 53 schools possess ICT tools. Their primary uses include storing learners’ scores, typing
and printing reports, addressing learners during assemblies, and entertainment. These tools are
seldom employed to enhance classroom learning.

Methodology
This part highlights the research design, study area, population description, sampling design,
methods of data collection, data processing as well as data analysis and interpretation.

Research Design
The researcher adopted a qualitative research design. Qualitative research is a type of research
that aims to gather and analyse non-numerical (descriptive) data in order to gain an understanding
of individuals’ social reality, including understanding their attitudes, beliefs, and motivations
(Elizabeth et al., 2022). The study explored ways competency-based lessons are applied in classes
and various challenges associated with implementing competency-based lessons in classes in the
three districts comprising the Luweero region.

Area of Study
The study was conducted in secondary schools in the Luweero region (the districts of Nakaseke,
Nakasongola, and Luweero), both government-aided/community and privately-owned schools.
Schools in urban, semi-urban, and rural areas were visited. The choice of the study area was due
to the convenience the researcher had in accessing the schools and having many acquaintances
in the schools, teaching in one of the schools in the same region, and being the Regional Trainer
(SESEMAT) for Luweero region, something that eased getting of the required information.

Population of the Study

The study involved 282 secondary school teachers from 84 government-aided/community and
privately-owned secondary schools and over 10,000 learners from Nakaseke, Nakasongola, and
Luweero districts.

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Sampling Technique
Purposive sampling was used to choose different categories of respondents. Teachers were chosen
according to their subject disciplines because they are classroom implementers in CBC. The
learners of S1, S2 and S3 were selected because they are the beneficiaries of the CBC.

Data Analysis
Data was analysed qualitatively. Qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis. The
researchers coded and identified categories and patterns emerging from the data collected.
The categories were categorized into themes to support writing of key findings. The researcher
presented findings on each theme.

Findings and Recommendation

Theme One: Classroom teaching practices used in selected secondary schools for effective
implementation of competence-based curriculum
What is the current status of competency-based lessons in the Luweero region of Uganda? What
challenges do teachers face in implementing competency-based lessons in the Luweero region?
How do learners perceive competency-based lessons in the Luweero region of Uganda?

Findings
The research findings indicate that implementing competency-based lessons in the Luweero region
of Uganda is still at an early stage. Kafumbe (2019) posed that teachers face significant challenges
in implementing competency-based lessons due to a lack of understanding of the concept and,
inadequate training, limited resources, including textbooks and technology, which also pose a
significant challenge to the successful implementation of competency-based lessons.

During an FGD in most schools, teachers raised concerns about the challenges they face in
implementing competency-based lessons.

On the other hand, students have generally positive perceptions of competency-based lessons,
finding them more engaging and interactive than traditional teaching methods. According to
Mwesigwa (2019), students appreciate the practical focus of the lessons and the development
of competencies relevant to their future careers. During lesson observation, teachers needed to
create an environment for learners to describe, explain, demonstrate, create, or design to develop
content during lessons. It was also found that in most classes there are a big number of students
which has led to a very high textbook learner ratio.

Findings showed that there are few teachers in the Luweero region who prepare adequately
for lessons using the skills acquired from SESEMAT training. Teacher preparedness regarding
knowledge, attitude, and skills to create CBL needs to be improved (Nthulanyane, 2004). Teachers’
preparedness consists of content analysis from the learning outcomes to create exercises, activities,
and experiences geared to learning.

Most Focus Group Discussions revealed that due to limited number of textbooks in schools,
teachers avail to students textbooks by different authors which may affect the lesson’s logical flow.
Although the skills expected to be achieved by the student are clearly stated in the syllabus book
for each subject, teachers need to be oriented on how to develop these skills during the teaching
and learning process.

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According to the subsequent FGDs, only a minority of the teachers in the Luweero region knew the
kind of students who aspired for competence-based curriculum. Of the 282 teachers interviewed,
only 34 understood this concept of competence based. In comparison, the remaining 148
teachers were still rooted in the old systems prioritising examination performance over mastery
of competence, which, as a result, hinders the successful implementation of competency-based
lessons in the region. It is suggested that the teachers handling competency-based lessons in their
classrooms must be adequately prepared to identify key concepts of learning outcomes.

Recommendations
From the research findings, the following recommendations were made to improve the
implementation of competency-based lessons in the Luweero region:

There is a need for more training and professional development opportunities for teachers on
the concept and implementation of the CBC. Owuor (2022) argues that teachers should be fully
prepared to implement competency-based lessons. The study recommends enhancement in
teachers’ capacity in ICT through continuous in-service training, seminars, and workshops,
providing certification to teachers, and providing scholarships for further studies to teachers who
excel in order for them to become professional teachers.

To be effective, competency-based lessons must be supported by flexible, individualised, and

diverse resources. This means not just having textbooks and technology but ensuring they are
tailored to the unique requirements of a competency-based system. Failure to provide these
resources can hinder the approach’s success thus limiting its potential benefits for learners.

There is also a need to encourage school administrators and parents to support the implementation
of the CBC by doing the following:

i) School administrators should enforce curricular changes.

ii) School administrators should be transparent and accountable in controlling the budgets,
staffing, and resource allocation for successful implementation.
iii) School administrators should facilitate and prioritise training to equip teachers to handle
the demands of a competency-based system.
iv) The parents, as primary observers of their children’s growth, should provide valuable
feedback on the effectiveness of the CBC. Their insights can help schools refine and improve
the implementation process.
v) Both the school administrators and parents should advocate for higher-level educational
policies that support CBC.
vi) School administrators can help drive a cultural shift of grading, promotion, and classroom
dynamics at the school level, while parents can reinforce it at home.
vii) Parents should ensure that the home environment is conducive to the educational
approaches adopted by schools.

The findings suggest a pressing need to ensure that only approved textbooks relevant to the
current CBC are available in the market. In order to optimise the learning experience for students,
it is recommended that teachers only bring a single textbook to the class that portrays the required
competencies of a given subject.

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Teachers need to create a conducive environment to bring their students into a cohesive and
supportive learning community by:

i) Determining the appropriate and manageable number of learners in each group.

ii) Ensuring the sitting arrangements encourage collaboration, communication, creativity, and
innovations, among others, and impact the value of respect, love, and citizenship.
iii) During lessons, teachers should enable learners to develop content from their prior
knowledge and experience, including those from home culture. Kimaryo (2011) argues that
implementing a competency-based lesson in classes is still complex since teachers still
focus on developing content for the learners, hoping that they will automatically develop
the intended competence.

Conclusion
In conclusion, implementing competency-based lessons in the Luweero region of Uganda is still in
its infancy and it’s too early to make conclusions. However, there is evidence to show that teachers
face several challenges in implementing this approach. Students generally, however, have positive
perceptions of competency-based lessons. To improve the implementation of CBE, teachers and
school administrators need more training, resources, and support. By addressing these challenges,
the Luweero region of Uganda can better prepare students for the future and equip them with the
necessary competencies for success.

Reference
Turner‐Bisset, R. (1999). The knowledge bases of the expert teacher. British Educational Research
Journal, 25(1), 39-55.

Kavindi, A. E. (2014). The implementation of competence-based curriculum in certificate teacher’s

colleges in Tanzania: the case of two teacher’s colleges in Mbeya region. Maodzwa–Taruvinga, M.,
& Cross, M. (2012).

Richards, J. C. & Bohlke, D. (2011). Creating practical language lessons. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.

Du, X., et al (2020). Active learning engagement in teacher preparation programs comparative study
from Qatar, Lebanon, and China. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 40(3), 283-298.

Förtsch, C., et al (2017). Effects of cognitive activation in biology lessons on students’ situational
interest and achievement. Research in Science Education, 47, 559-578.

Alonso, J. G. (2022). Analysis of tactics and strategies to integrate digital resources in the educational
model in Spain (secondary education and baccalaureate). In ICERI2022 Proceedings (pp. 7290-
7294). IATED.

Everhart, D., Derryberry, A., Knight, E., & Lee, S. (2016). The role of endorsement in open badge
ecosystems. Foundation of digital badges and micro-credentials: Demonstrating and recognising
knowledge and competencies, pp. 221–235.

Yoon, Y. S., & Amin, M. G. (2008, April). Compressed sensing technique for high-resolution radar
imaging. In Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion, and Target Recognition XVII (Vol. 6968, pp. 506-515).
SPIE.

Mestan, K. (2019). Create a fine blend: An examination of institutional transition to blended

learning. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 35(1).

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The Implementation of the Learning Framework for Early Childhood Development

(3–6 Years) in Pre-Schools in Uganda

Deborah R. K. Magera, Bernadette K. Nambi, Annet K. Nnakalyowa

National Curriculum Development Centre

Abstract
The purpose of the needs assessment study was to find out if there are any gaps in the Learning
Framework (LFW) for children of 3–6 years in Uganda and determine how these can be integrated.
This was done through the objectives of the study that included soliciting views and perceptions from
various stakeholders on the factors affecting the implementation of the Early Childhood Education
(ECD) Learning Framework 3–6 years and possible solutions; establishing the local and global
emerging issues in ECD education that need to be integrated into the Learning Framework for 3–6
year-old-children; and identifying gaps and best practices relating to the design, learning outcomes,
competencies, development activities, teaching methods and assessment modalities of the LFW. The
study adopted the cross-sectional research design, and was also descriptive in nature. To prevent
the bias inherent in each method, the study included both qualitative and quantitative components.
The study employed both probability and non-probability sampling designs using random sampling,
as well as convenient and purposive sampling techniques, respectively. The sample size for the
survey was 378 respondents, and 58 districts were selected using the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) and
Yamane (1967) approaches. Quantifiable data from the survey was sorted, coded and then entered in
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0. The data was presented using tables,
charts and bar graphs. Data was further analysed using descriptive statistics, tables with percentages
and corresponding mean values. Qualitative data from document review, observation and interviews
were sorted and compiled into response categories and sub-categories. The data was thematically
coded by clustering similar responses together.

It was concluded that the sampled teachers/caregivers have regularly been equipped with skills
to implement the ECD LFW. However, guidance from the District Inspectors of Schools, DEOs and
Coordinating Centre Tutors (CCTs) was inadequate to support the teachers/caregivers in using the LFW.
The teachers/caregivers are not provided with ICT equipment (computers, smart TVs, smartphones,
tablets) to use during the teaching and learning process, thus affecting the implementation of the
LFW. The survey indicated that the LFW did not merge emerging issues like climate change into its
content. The survey indicated that regarding the aspect of the teacher using the LFW, the design of
the LFW does not provide clear guidance to the teacher. The survey indicated that there was limited
focus on the competences of learners with special needs. The researchers, therefore, recommended
that curriculum developers need to ensure that the needs of learners with special needs are catered
for in the same proportions as those of normal learners to ensure inclusion. Using the LFW did not
provide clear guidance to the teacher. This, therefore, needs to be catered for during the review, and
there should be more emphasis on integrating ICT in the LFW. The researchers recommended that
it is necessary to design the LFW in such a way that it is continuously responsive to emerging issues
at all levels. The lack of information on emerging issues should be intentionally integrated into the
LFW to enable the learners to access it. The researchers further recommended that the LFW should
support teachers in understanding and implementing appropriate practices for these learners. The
researchers finally recommended that there is need to create a curriculum framework as a source
guide for the LFW.

Keywords: competencies, development activities, learning framework, learning outcome

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Introduction
The National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) is responsible for developing and reviewing
curricula for various levels of education in Uganda, including pre-primary, primary, secondary, and
some tertiary levels. NCDC conducts research on curriculum-related matters as stipulated in the
NCDC Act of 1973, Cap. 135 of the laws of Uganda. NCDC supports the government’s commitment to
improve the quality of education for all people in Uganda through its mandate. To guide instruction
at the early childhood level, NCDC developed the early childhood development (ECD) nursery
teaching syllabus in 1993, which was later reviewed and renamed the Learning Framework (LFW)
for ECD (3–6 years). The LFW was launched in 2005. In an effort to identify gaps in the LFW that may
warrant its review, a needs assessment study was conducted to assess societal expectations of the
LFW (3–6 years). Investing in quality ECD is recognised as a key factor in human capital development
and socioeconomic transformation (World Health Organisation, 2018; UNESCO, 2021). In Uganda,
the government acknowledges the significance of quality ECD in developing human resources for
sustainable development. The LFW for ECD 3–6 years was developed by NCDC and rolled out in
2005 to guide the foundational level of learning. Despite its strengths, the LFW has been criticised
for being difficult to interpret and there are indications of increased use of alternative ECD curricula
by private proprietors (Cambridge Education, 2017; Kyazze, 2018).

Evidence shows that literacy and numeracy levels at the ECD level are still wanting, indicating a
gap in either the content, learning experiences, pedagogy or assessment modalities. Therefore, a
needs assessment was conducted to establish gaps in the LFW, which has been in use since 2005.
Changes in policy, pedagogy and technology, as well as emerging dynamics such as e-learning
and online classes, community-based learning, and play pedagogies for learners at this level,
have occurred since the LFW was rolled out, necessitating a needs assessment. The occurrence of
global upheavals, for instance pandemics like Covid-19, has also given rise to homeschooling as a
critical approach to learning, which shifted instruction, especially of 3–6-year-olds, to parents and
guardians who may not necessarily have the skills to teach learners at that age.

Problem Statement
Since the start of the implementation of the LFW in 2005, Uganda has subscribed to local and
international policy frameworks which advance emerging issues, including environmental issues
such as climate change, risk and disaster management, gender issues, inclusion in education,
and pandemics like Covid-19 (UNESCO, 2021). Furthermore, changes in local and global societal
demands and pedagogical practices have occurred, with an increased emphasis on 21st-century
skills and Science, Technology, Engineering and Innovation (STEI), which need to be nurtured in
learners from a young age (UNESCO, 2014). Moreover, trends in education such as home learning,
online learning, e-learning, community-based learning, and play-based pedagogies have been
adopted by teachers and caregivers (UNESCO, 2021). Studies have indicated that the LFW is difficult
to interpret and is sometimes mistaken for a curriculum. There is also increased use of alternative
curricula by private proprietors (UNESCO, 2021). These issues call for curriculum developers to
rethink pedagogies and development activities that are appropriate for learners at the ECD level
in the current world. Therefore, there is a need to ascertain whether the LFW aligns with the
emerging learning dynamics and policy direction nationally and internationally, and whether it
is in alignment with the national and global trends in education in terms of content, pedagogies,
materials and resources (UNESCO, 2015). Although UNESCO prescribes that a curriculum should be
reviewed every five years, a needs assessment of the LFW for 3–6-year-olds is necessary to identify
gaps that may necessitate a review (Donaldson & Franck, 2016). The aim of the needs assessment
is to collect information that can be used to plan how to meet the identified needs.

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Research Objectives and Questions

The purpose of the needs assessment study was to find out if there are any gaps in the LFW for
children of 3–6years in Uganda and determine how these can be narrowed. The objectives of the
needs assessment for ECD for 3–6 years, therefore, were:

1. To solicit views and perceptions from various stakeholders on the factors affecting the
implementation of the ECD Learning Framework 3–6 years and possible solutions.
2. To establish the local and global emerging issues in ECD education that need to be integrated
into the Learning Framework for 3–6 years.
3. To identify gaps and best practices relating to the design, learning outcomes, competencies,
development activities, teaching methods and assessment modalities of the LFW 3–6 years.

Research Questions
This study was guided by the following key research questions:
1. Is the ECD Learning Framework (3–6 years) aligned to the existing policy documents of Uganda,
that came into force after its implementation?
2. What factors affect the implementation of the ECD Learning Framework for 3–6 years and what
are the possible solutions?
3. What local and global emerging issues in ECD education need to be integrated into the Learning
Framework for 3–6 years?
4. Which gaps and best practices that are related to the design, learning outcomes, competencies,
development activities, teaching methods and assessment modalities exist in the LFW 3–6
years?

Literature Review
The purpose of the study was to conduct a needs assessment of the LFW for children aged 3–6
years in Uganda and determine if there were any gaps in the framework. In order to achieve this,
a literature review was conducted to gain an in-depth understanding of the needs assessment,
the factors affecting curriculum implementation, emerging issues, and best practices relating to
design, learning outcomes, competencies, pedagogies and assessment modalities used in the
contemporary world.

Factors Affecting Implementation of the Learning Framework/Curriculum

According to Viennet and Point (2017), the process of curriculum implementation involves putting
ideas and materials into practice. The successful implementation of a curriculum has both short-
and long-term benefits for children and society. However, the implementation of a curriculum
framework is complex and occurs over time and through many mechanisms. The lack of political
will, inadequate resources, and poor training of educators have been identified as challenges
in implementing the curriculum successfully (Offorma, 2015). In addition, according to Saleema
(2019), the low quality of teachers due to poor training in ECD, lack of resources, and inadequate
involvement of parents in their children’s education have also been identified as challenges to
ECD provisioning. To ensure effective ECD provisioning, qualified educators with accredited
qualifications are needed. Parents also play a crucial role in the ECD provisioning, but many are
not aware of their role in their children’s education, which affects the quality of ECD provisioning.

Curriculum implementation is influenced by professional factors such as job satisfaction,

professional growth, parent involvement and the resources and facilities available to teachers
(Ndijuye & Tandika, 2020).

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Adequate training of teachers is crucial in effective curriculum implementation as it influences

learners’ achievement. Successful curriculum implementation requires a change of habit and
often involves changes in beliefs and values, which can be challenging to implement. Coherence
among various departments and agencies is essential for successful curriculum implementation.
Evaluation of policies is also critical, but it is often neglected owing to lack of funds, ignorance
and illiteracy in some communities. Teachers play a significant role in evaluating curriculum
changes and should use examination results to improve curriculum at school level (Bush, 2008).
The literature by Hussein (2005) discusses various factors affecting the implementation of the
curriculum in Uganda’s education sector. These include the need for continuous review of staffing
levels, decentralisation of recruitment, ensuring staff stability and equity, providing relief teachers,
and emphasis on practical skills development. Newstrom and Davis (2002) also highlights the
importance of teacher development, in-service training, and school infrastructure. The role of
management in curriculum implementation is emphasised, and the literature suggests that
effective implementation requires adequate facilities, staffing, and the involvement of stakeholders.
The Ministry of Education and Sports is responsible for ensuring adherence to education policies
and guidelines. Overall, the literature emphasises the need for continuous improvement and the
involvement of all stakeholders in matters regarding education.

Local and global emerging issues to be integrated into the Learning Framework
Wilkinson (2021) discusses the global interest in providing Early Childhood Education and Care
(ECEC) services and the international sharing of ideas on ECEC, facilitated by technology and
funding schemes. However, there are concerns that the global discourses on ECEC could result in
homogenising desirable ECEC attributes and the potential consequences of this in local contexts for
theory, research and practice. Moss (2015) emphasises the importance of recognising the historical
and cultural context for shaping both the structure and conceptualisations of ECEC services. The
dominance of Anglo-American theories in ECEC facilitated by the use of the English language could
prescribe particular understandings of ECEC services. Moreover, the relevance of such theories in
different contexts needs to be considered. The literature also highlights the benefits of investing
ECEC and ensuring universal access to quality services, which is one of the most effective ways
to reduce inequities and one of the most efficient investments (European Commission, 2014).
The paragraph discusses challenges facing the implementation of the LFW in Uganda. The first
challenge, according to Salawu (2011), is inadequate funding, which has resulted in corruption and
nepotism. The second challenge is the quality and quantity of teachers, where there is a shortage of
qualified teachers, and some teachers lack the required qualifications (Altinyelken, 2010). Thirdly,
Hannon (2013) points out that there is a lack of textbooks, teachers’ guides and functional libraries
to support effective teaching and learning. Zirra and Mambula (2020) discuss the poor reward
system for teachers, which has led to an unhappy workforce, which can affect the implementation
of the LFW. Finally, there is inadequate supervision of schools due to a lack of coordination among
different quality assurance agencies, and unqualified personnel carrying out school supervisory
duties.

Gaps and best practices relating to the design, learning outcomes, competencies, development
activities, teaching methods and assessment modalities of the curriculum
The success of curriculum implementation depends on teachers as they are the ones who adopt and
implement the ideas and aspirations of the designers (Allais, 2012). In addition, teachers’ beliefs,
practices and attitudes are important in understanding and improving educational processes.
However, an appropriate supply of trained teachers is a challenge. Learners, resource materials and
facilities, the school environment, culture and ideology, instructional supervision, and assessment
are some of the factors that influence curriculum implementation (Elize Du Plessis, 2022).

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Curriculum frameworks guide the regulation, implementation and evaluation of curricula, but the
development of curricula and expected learning outcomes is a dynamic cyclical process requiring
reassessment and adaptation over time. However, cultural differences, examinations and interest
groups may hinder or facilitate curriculum implementation. Policy formulation should take into
consideration the implications of various factors influencing curriculum implementation (Kingdon
et al., 2014).

The literature also discusses challenges in implementing the curricula: dissemination and teacher
professional development. Dissemination involves creating specific plans to inform educators
of the new curricula and expected learning outcomes, as well as aligning textbooks and other
materials. Teacher professional development is important to ensure that educators have the
necessary knowledge, competence and confidence to implement new curricula, and to develop
formative assessments that can inform classroom practices. However, there are gaps in these
areas, such as the need for interactive professional development and revised pre-service teacher
training systems to reflect new curriculum frameworks. Additionally, the literature highlights
the importance of considering teacher perspectives in the curriculum development process and
developing curricular literacy at the district, school and individual teacher level (Allais, 2012).

The current education system is based on a Western model that replaced indigenous forms of
education and socialisation, and it is important to provide opportunities for minority populations
to participate in creating curricula. Gender inclusivity and support for special needs learners
are also important considerations in curriculum development. As societies face new challenges,
such as environmental and economic changes, several countries have reviewed their curricula to
equip students with the necessary skills and competencies needed for the future (Persson, 2016).
Curriculum reform is influenced by global and local factors, including societal needs, and must be
relevant and responsive to changes. In Uganda, Vision 2040 places emphasis on making Science,
Technology, Engineering and Innovation (STEI), the main driver of economic growth and key pillar
of competition, which requires a change in the approach to education. Early Childhood Care and
Education (ECEC) is critical in a child’s development, and curriculum development begins with a
needs assessment. Benchmarking is essential in reviewing and developing curricula, and curriculum
development should involve stakeholder participation (Seman, Yusoff & Embong, 2017).

Research Methodology
The study used a cross-sectional research design, combining both qualitative and quantitative
components to conduct a needs assessment study for early childhood development in Uganda. The
study employed probability and non-probability sampling designs, including random, convenient
and purposive sampling techniques. The population of the study consisted of key stakeholders in
early childhood care and education, such as teachers, caregivers, policymakers and development
partners. The sample size for the study was 650 respondents, with 378 respondents being ECD
teachers/caregivers, and 58 districts selected using the Yamane (1967) and Krejcie and Morgan
(1970) approaches. The study used saturation levels to determine the sample size for categories
from which qualitative data was collected. The aim of the study was to identify gaps in the LWF for
3–6-year-olds in Uganda.

The study was conducted in Uganda on the factors affecting the implementation of the ECD Learning
Framework and used four data collection methods, including a questionnaire survey, interviews,
document review, and observation. The study ensured an even distribution of respondents from
both rural and urban ECD canters to obtain balanced views across different settings in the same
district. Ethical considerations were observed, and the validity and reliability of the data collection
instruments were ensured. Quantifiable data from the survey was presented using tables, charts
and bar graphs and further analysed using descriptive statistics by a SPSS version 22.0.

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Qualitative data from the documents reviewed, the observations made and the interviews
conducted were thematically coded and clustered to establish similarities and differences in the
collected data. The research assistants were trained on ethical and professional conduct during
the data collection exercise and observed Covid-19 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).
Respondents were assured of anonymity and confidentiality of the information they provided.

Results
This section presents and analyses the findings in line with the study objectives.

Factors Affecting the Effective Implementation of the ECD Learning Framework (3–6 Years)

Figure 1: Support received from individuals during implementation of the ECD LFW

Source: Field data, 2022

The findings of a study on the implementation of the ECD Learning Framework in Uganda show
that a majority of teachers and caregivers did not receive regular support from district officials in
implementing the framework. Specifically, 56% of the respondents disagreed to receiving regular
support from District Inspectors of Schools (DISs), while 59% disagreed to receiving regular sup-
port from District Education Officers (DEOs). However, a majority of respondents received regular
support from Coordinating Centre Tutors (CCTs), Centre Management Committee (CMC) members,
head teachers, deputy head teachers, and fellow teachers. The study also revealed that there was
minimal supervision and monitoring of ECD by district officials, and a lack of a clear system for
supporting ECD at the district level.

Table 1: Kind of support received while implementing the ECD Learning Framework

Code Kind of support received while N Mean Std. Deviation

implementing of the ECD Learn-
ing Framework;
B(A)2i I have regularly received training 377 3.7 1.368
on methodologies to be used in
the classroom while implementing
the ECD learning framework
B(A)2ii I have regularly received support 377 3.57 1.429
on interpreting the learning frame-
work while implementing the ECD
learning framework

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Code Kind of support received while N Mean Std. Deviation

implementing of the ECD Learn-
ing Framework;
B(A)2iii I have regularly received support 377 3.33 1.356
on addressing implementation
challenges while implementing
the ECD learning framework
B(A)2iv I have regularly received support 377 3.67 1.296
on equipping me with skills to ef-
fectively implement the ECD learn-
ing framework

Source: Field data 2022

A general analysis of the mean scores of Section B2 items revealed an overall mean score of 3.57,
indicating that teachers/caregivers generally agreed to receiving regular support during the
implementation of the ECD Learning Framework. The highest mean score of 3.70 was obtained
by item B2i, implying that most teachers/caregivers agreed to receiving regular training on
methodologies used in the classroom. However, item B2iii had a mean score of 3.33, indicating
that most respondents were unsure of having received support on addressing implementation
challenges of the ECD Learning Framework. The standard deviation indicated that there was a
narrow spread of results among the respondents’ perceptions about the support received. The
mean scores for items B2i, B2ii and B2iv were above 3.5, showing that the respondents agreed
to receiving the support mentioned. This general agreement to receiving support implies that
teachers/caregivers receive regular support on the training methodologies used in the classroom,
interpreting the learning framework, and equipping them with skills to implement the LFW. The
uncertainty around item B2iii could suggest that the respondents did not receive such support;
otherwise, they would be sure.

Figure 2: Instructional materials provided

Source: Field data, 2022

The study examined the availability of ICT equipment, play materials, puzzles, readers, wall charts,
flash cards, the ECD Learning Framework and the Caregivers’ Guide to the Learning Framework
among teachers and caregivers in ECD centres in Uganda. From Figure 2, it was observed that a
majority of teachers/caregivers were not provided with ICT equipment, with only 16% and 11%
strongly agreeing and agreeing, respectively, that they were provided with it. The study found that
a majority of teachers/caregivers were provided with play materials, puzzles, readers, wall charts,
flash cards, the ECD Learning Framework, and the Caregivers’ Guide to the Learning Framework.
The study also highlighted the challenges some teachers/caregivers face in using ICT equipment to
deliver lessons.

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Figure 3: Guidance provided to teachers/caregivers

Source: Field data, 2022

The results of a survey with 377 respondents showed that guidance from the DISs did not help the
majority of teachers/caregivers (58%) in using the LFW, while a fair number of teachers/caregivers
were helped by the guidance from the CCTs (45%). However, the majority of teachers/caregivers
(87%) were helped by guidance from fellow teachers and the head teacher in using the LFW.

Figure 4: Monitoring by officers

Source: Field data, 2022

The results from Figure 4 indicate that out of 377 respondents, the majority of teachers/caregivers
were not monitored by the District Education Officer (DEO) while using the LFW, with 29% strongly
disagreeing and 27% disagreeing about whether monitoring by the DEO helped them use the LFW.
Only 12% strongly agreed and 27% agreed that monitoring by the DEO helped them use the LFW,
while 6% were uncertain. In contrast, the majority of teachers/caregivers were monitored by the
head teacher and CMC members while using the LFW. Regarding monitoring by the head teacher,
46% strongly agreed and 38% agreed that it helped them use the LFW, with only 5% strongly
disagreeing and 10% disagreeing. Only 1% were uncertain. Similarly, regarding monitoring by CMC
members, 22% strongly agreed and 39% agreed that it helped them use the LFW, with 16% strongly
disagreeing and 18% disagreeing.

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Challenges faced during use of the LFW

Figure 5: Failure to interpret the LFW

Source: Field data, 2022

The results from Figure 5 show that out of 377 respondents, 94 (25%) strongly disagreed and
131(35%) disagreed as to whether they had failed to interpret the LFW while 48(13%) strongly
agreed and 88(23%) agreed that they had failed to interpret the LFW. This means that the majority
of the teachers/caregivers do not face a challenge of failure to interpret the LFW. However, there is
a gap between the survey results and the experiences of some CCTs and NGO officials. One CCT said
that many caregivers had difficulty in understanding how to integrate personal/emotional/social/
behaviour aspects into the different areas of learning, while an NGO official reported that many
teachers did not know what some of the suggested resources are, such as jigsaws, and did not have
any knowledge of what some of the activities mean, such as rubbing.

Figure 6: Failure by teachers/caregivers to prepare lessons using the 5 recommended teaching steps

Source: Field data, 2022

According to Figure 6, a majority of teachers/caregivers did not face failure in preparing lessons
using the yearly plan (70% agreed or strongly agreed) and other planning periods including termly,
fortnightly, weekly and daily plans (ranging from 74% to 81% agreed or strongly agreed). Only a
small percentage were uncertain (2-5%) and a minority disagreed or strongly disagreed (19-34%).

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Figure 7: Failure to address implementation challenges in the classroom environment

Source: Field data, 2022

Based on the results from Figure 7, out of 377 respondents, 86(23%) of the teachers/caregivers
strongly disagreed and 108 (29%) disagreed as to whether they had faced failure to address
implementation challenges in the classroom environment, for example, managing large classes;
while 50(13%) strongly agreed and 110(29%) agreed that they had faced failure to address
implementation challenges in the classroom environment. Only 23(6%) were uncertain. This
means that the majority of the teachers/caregivers had faced failure to address implementation
challenges in the classroom environment.

Figure 8: Lack of teaching skills to implement the LF

Source: Field data, 2022

According to the results shown in Figure 8, out of 377 respondents, 33% strongly disagreed and
33% disagreed that they lacked teaching skills to implement the ECD Learning Framework (3–6
years). However, only 10% strongly agreed and 20% agreed that they lacked teaching skills, with
5% being uncertain. This indicates that the majority of the teacher/caregivers did not lack teaching
skills to implement the ECD Learning Framework (3–6 years).

Table 2: Challenges faced in using the LFW

Code Challenges faced in N Mean Std. Devia-

using the LFW tion
B5/5i I have failed to interpret 377 2.64 1.402
the LFW
B5/5iia I have failed to prepare 377 2.59 1.454
lessons based on the
yearly plan
B5/5iib I have failed to prepare 377 2.56 1.413
lessons based on the
termly plan
B5/5iic I have failed to prepare 377 2.46 1.364
lessons based on the
fortnightly plan

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Code Challenges faced in N Mean Std. Devia-

using the LFW tion
B5/5iid I have failed to prepare 377 2.49 1.426
lessons based on the
weekly plan
B5/5iie I have failed to prepare 377 2.52 1.489
lessons based on the
daily plan
B5/5iii I have failed to address 377 2.81 1.411
implementation chal-
lenges in the classroom
environment e.g. man-
aging large classes
B5/5iv I lack teaching skills to 377 2.41 1.377
implement the LFW

Source: Field Data

The results from Section B5/5 indicate that, on a 5-point Likert scale, the mean scores for all items
ranged between 2.5 and 3.0, suggesting that the majority of teachers/caregivers were uncertain
about the extent to which the listed challenges affected their use of the LFW. This uncertainty may
be due to a lack of knowledge of the LFW, failure to prepare lessons, implementation challenges,
or a lack of teaching skills. The standard deviation for the responses was low, ranging from 1.364
to 1.489, indicating little variability among the respondents. However, a gap in the data is that the
specific challenges that the respondents were uncertain about are not listed.

Table 6: Failure by parents to support the teaching/learning process

Particular SD D U A SA
B5/5va I have faced failure by parents 28% 32% 6% 25% 10%
to support the teaching/
learning process in the centre (104) (119) (22) (94) (38)
extracurricular activities
B5/5vb I have faced failure by parents to 21% 31% 7% 29% 12%
support the teaching/learning
process in acting as resource (78) (117) (28) (109) (45)
persons
B5/5vc I have faced failure by parents to 21% 29% 6% 26% 17%
support the teaching/learning
process in supporting learners in (82) (111) (23) (96) (65)
homework and storytelling
B5/5vd I have faced failure by parents to 20% 31% 3% 29% 16%
support the teaching/learning
process in provision of play ma- (77) (116) (12) (111) (61)
terials
B5/5ve I have faced failure by parents to 21% 29% 4% 29% 17%
support the teaching/learning
process in feeding their children (78) (111) (16) (108) (64)

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Particular SD D U A SA
B5/5vf I have faced failure by parents to 20% 34% 3% 23% 19%
support the teaching/learning
process in paying school fees for (77) (129) (13) (88) (70)
their children
B5/5vg I have faced failure by parents to 20% 32% 9% 25% 14%
support the teaching/learning
process in participating in the na- (77) (122) (34) (93) (51)
ture walk
B5/5vh I have faced failure by parents to 25% 30% 4% 26% 14%
support the teaching/learning
process in providing scholastic (95) (115) (15) (98) (54)
materials
B5/5vi I have faced failure by parents to 22% 34% 2% 23% 20%
support the teaching/learning
process in escorting their chil- (83) (127) (8) (85) (74)
dren to school

Source: Field data, 2022

The study asked 377 teachers/caregivers whether they had faced failure by parents to support the
teaching/learning process in various aspects of education. The majority of teachers/caregivers
had not faced failure in extracurricular activities, acting as resource persons, supporting learners
in homework and storytelling, providing scholastic materials, and participating in nature walks.
However, about half of the teachers/caregivers had faced failure in the provision of play materials,
feeding their children, and paying school fees for their children. Parents were not supportive of
escorting their children to school, according to a small number of teachers/caregivers.

Figure 9: Inadequate continuous professional development/training

Source: Field data, 2022

A survey of 377 respondents in Uganda showed that 27% strongly disagreed and 32% disagreed
about lacking continuous professional development or training. Only 11% strongly agreed
and 26% agreed that they lacked continuous professional development or training, while 4%
were uncertain. The majority of teachers/caregivers had not lacked continuous professional
development or training. However, some caregivers were not trained, which posed challenges
with implementation. Additionally, implementation seemed to be a challenge for some caregivers
who had received training. Therefore, although the majority of teachers/caregivers were trained,
there were many more who had not received continuous professional development or training in
Uganda.

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Figure 10: Lack of training on how to use the learning framework

Source: Field data, 2022

The results from Figure 10 indicate that out of 377 respondents, 219 (58%) of the teachers/caregivers
disagreed or strongly disagreed that they lacked training on how to use the learning framework,
while only 147 (39%) agreed or strongly agreed that they lacked such training. Only 11 (3%) were
uncertain. This suggests that the majority of the teachers/caregivers did not lack training on how
to use the learning framework.

Table 7: The LFW helps learners to develope

The LFW helps learners to

Code develop N Mean Std. Deviation
C1i literacy skills 377 4.2 0.983
C1ii numeracy skills 377 4.24 0.981
C1iii life skills 377 4.14 1.004
C1iv social skills 377 4.2 0.997
C1v ICT skills 377 2.79 1.482
C1vi communication skills 377 4.16 1.05
C1vii critical thinking skills 377 4.05 1.064
C1viii creativity and innovation 377 4.11 0.995
C1ix collaboration 377 3.96 1.117

Source: Field data, 2022

A majority of respondents agreed that the learning framework helped learners develop literacy,
numeracy, life skills, social skills, communication, critical thinking, creativity and innovation, as
shown by an aggregate mean of 3.98 in Section C1. However, the respondents disagreed that the
LFW helped develop ICT skills, with a mean score of 2.79, indicating that it does not emphasise ICT
skills. This finding confirms earlier responses in Section B4, where respondents disagreed about
using ICT. As ICT is an emerging issue and one of the 21st-century skills, there is a need to integrate
it into the LFW for Ugandan learners to cope with the demands of the world today.

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Emerging Approaches

Table 8: Emerging approaches to learning

Emerging approaches to SD D U A SA
learning
C2i The LFW promotes the use of 13% 10% 5% 47% 26%
homeschooling
(47) (36) (18) (177) (99)
C2ii The LFW promotes the use 19% 17% 11% 35% 19%
remote schooling
(71) (64) (42) (130) (70)
C2iii The LFW promotes the use of 34% 17% 13% 26% 10%
online study
(128) (65) (47) (99) (38)
C2iv The LFW promotes the use of 10% 9% 9% 45% 27%
community-based learning
(39) (34) (33) (171) (100)
C2v The LFW promotes the use of 18% 13% 6% 39% 24%
self-study
(66) (49) (24) (146) (92)

Source: Field data, 2022

Table 8 presents the results of the respondents’ views on whether the Learning Framework (LFW)
for Uganda promotes different types of learning. A majority of the teachers/caregivers agreed and
strongly agreed that the LFW promotes the use of homeschooling (73%), remote schooling (54%),
community-based learning (69%), and self-study (73%). However, only a minority agreed that
the LFW promotes the use of online study (36%). Strong disagreement was highest regarding the
promotion of online study (34%) and lowest regarding the promotion of self-study (19%).

Emerging Cross-Cutting Issues

Figure 11: The LFW contains information on emerging cross-cutting issues

Source: Field data, 2022

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A study surveyed 377 teachers/caregivers to determine whether the LFW contains information on
climate change, disaster risk management, HIV/AIDS, pandemics like COVID-19, gender issues, and
special needs education. The results showed that a majority of the respondents agreed that the
LFW contains information on climate change, disaster risk management, gender issues, and special
needs education, while a majority of the respondents disagreed that the LFW contains information
on HIV/AIDS and pandemics like COVID-19. However, in interviews with some CCTs and a District
Inspector of Schools, weaknesses in the LFW were identified, including inadequate content for
special needs learners and lack of coverage on issues of special needs education.

The recommendations and tools that help teachers/caregivers to use the LFW

Table 6: Recommendations and tools helping the teachers/caregivers in using the Learning Framework

Particular SD D U A SA
C4i The use of thematic approach to teaching 9% 7% 5% 54% 24%
and learning has helped me in using the LFW
(35) (27) (20) (205) (90)
C4ii The language policy has helped me in using 9% 7% 4% 53% 27%
the LFW
(32) (26) (15) (201) (103)
C4iii The class teacher system (one teacher per 14% 22% 5% 42% 17%
class) has helped me in using the LFW
(53) (82) (20) (159) (63)
C4iv The use of no cost/low-cost instructional 6% 10% 6% 49% 29%
materials has helped me in using the LFW
(23) (36) (22) (185) (111)
C4v Continuous assessment has helped me in 7% 5% 3% 52% 32%
using the LFW
(25) (19) (13) (198) (122)
C4vi ICT policy has helped me in using the LFW 37% 20% 8% 27% 9%

(140) (75) (29) (100) (33)

Source: Field data, 2022

The study findings showed that the majority of respondents agreed that the thematic approach
to teaching and learning, language policy, class teacher system, the use of no-cost/low-cost
instructional materials, and continuous assessment have helped teachers/caregivers in using the
local first language. However, remarks from the interviews indicated some discrepancies. Some
teachers and officials raised concerns about the implementation of the language policy, the
effectiveness of the class teacher system, and the use of low-cost instructional materials. These
findings imply that while certain approaches have been useful, there is still room for improvement
in the implementation and effectiveness of some of these strategies.

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Gaps and best practices relating to the design, learning outcomes, competences, develop-
mental activities, teaching methods and assessment modalities of the LFW of Uganda

Table 10: Gaps and best practices in the design of the LFW

Particulars SD D U A SA
D1i Use of the learning area approach to 7% 13% 3% 47% 30%
arrange the developmental activities
(content) is easy to follow (27) (48) (12) (178) (112)
D1ii Leaving out guidance to the teacher in the 20% 26% 6% 36% 13%
LFW has no effect on its teaching
(74) (99) (21) (134) (49)
D1iii The way the development activities 6% 14% 4% 50% 25%
(content) are presented in the learning
framework facilitates teaching (24) (52) (16) (190) (95)
D1iv The structure of the LFW is clear and easy 10% 14% 4% 45% 28%
to understand
(37) (51) (14) (169) (106)
D1v The developmental activities (content) 4% 7% 2% 53% 34%
are presented according to different age
groups (15) (27) (6) (200) (129)
D1vi The way the developmental activities 5% 10% 3% 51% 31%
(content) are presented according to
different age group makes it easy to teach (19) (37) (11) (192) (118)
the LFW

Source: Field data, 2022

The study reports the findings on the ease of use of the learning area approach and the Learning
Framework (LFW) for teachers/caregivers in arranging developmental activities. The majority of the
respondents agreed that the learning area approach to arrange developmental activities is easy to
follow (47% agreed and 30% strongly agreed). Similarly, the majority of the respondents agreed
that the way the developmental activities are presented in the LFW facilitates teaching (50% agreed
and 25% strongly agreed) and that the structure of the LFW is clear and easy to understand (45%
agreed and 28% strongly agreed). However, less than half of the respondents agreed that leaving
out guidance to the teacher in the LFW has no effect on its teaching (36% agreed and 13% strongly
agreed). Additionally, while the majority of the respondents agreed that the developmental activi-
ties are presented according to different age groups (53% agreed and 34% strongly agreed), fewer
agreed that the way the developmental activities are presented according to different age groups
makes it easy to teach the LFW (51% agreed and 31% strongly agreed).

Table 11: Competences

Particular SD D U A SA
D3i All the competences in the LFW help to achieve 2% 4% 5% 53% 37%
the learning outcomes
(7) (13) (17) (200) (139)
D3ii All the competences in the LFW are clear and 3% 9% 4% 49% 35%
well-stated
(10) (34) (16) (186) (131)

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Particular SD D U A SA
D3iii All the competences in the LFW are easy to 3% 11% 6% 50% 30%
interpret
(13) (43) (21) (187) (113)
D3iv All the competences in the LFW promote 3% 5% 6% 54% 32%
holistic development of the learner
(11) (17) (23) (205) (121)
D3v All the competences in the LFW promote 2% 5% 4% 53% 36%
learner cantered learning
(7) (20) (14) (201) (135)
D3vi All the competences in the LFW cater for 13% 12% 9% 43% 23%
learners with special educational needs
(49) (45) (35) (162) (86)
D3vii All the competences in the LFW promote 3% 6% 7% 57% 27%
gender equity
(11) (23) (27) (214) (102)
D3viii All the competences in the LFW promote 1% 3% 2% 61% 32%
development of moral values
(4) (12) (9) (231) (121)
D3ix All the competences in the LFW develop a 2% 4% 2% 58% 33%
positive attitude in learners
(6) (15) (7) (225) (124)

Source: Field data, 2022

The study evaluated teachers’/caregivers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the Life Skills-Based
Family Education (LSBFE) programme in promoting learning outcomes and holistic development
of learners. The majority of respondents agreed that all the competencies in the LSBFE programme
help achieve learning outcomes, are clear and well-stated, easy to interpret, promote holistic de-
velopment of the learner, promote learner-centred learning, cater for learners with special educa-
tional needs, promote gender equity, promote the development of moral values, and develop a
positive attitude in learners. However, there were some gaps in the results, as a small percentage
of respondents strongly disagreed or were uncertain about some of the competencies.

Teaching methods

Table 9: Teaching methods

The learning methods in the LFW: SD D U A SA

D5i Are relevant in achieving the learning 3% 4% 5% 58% 31%
outcomes
(10) (15) (18) (217) (117)
D5ii Allow the use other methods of 5% 5% 6% 59% 25%
teaching other than those in the
framework (17) (20) (24) (222) (94)
D5iii Guide on how to structure the 2% 3% 5% 59% 30%
development activities
(6) (13) (20) (225) (113)

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The learning methods in the LFW: SD D U A SA

D5iv Are easy to use 3% 7% 4% 53% 33%

(10) (26) (15) (202) (124)

D5v Are age-appropriate 2% 3% 3% 54% 38%

(6) (11) (11) (205) (144)

Source: Field data, 2022

The findings from Table 9 indicate that the majority of teachers/caregivers agree that the learning
methods in the LFW are relevant to achieving learning outcomes, allow the use of other teaching
methods, guide on how to structure development activities, and are age-appropriate. Specifically,
58% agreed and 31% strongly agreed that the learning methods are relevant in achieving learning
outcomes, 59% agreed and 25% strongly agreed that the methods allow the use of other teaching
methods, 59% agreed and 30% strongly agreed that the methods guide on how to structure devel-
opment activities, and 54% agreed and 38% strongly agreed that the methods are age-appropriate.

Assessment modalities
Table 10: Modalities
Particular SD D U A SA
D6i The LFW clearly explains how to assess learner 7% 12% 3% 53% 24%

(26) (46) (12) (201) (92)

D6ii The LFW promotes monitoring the learners’ 3% 10% 1% 57% 29%
achievement
(13) (37) (5) (213) (109)
D6iii The LFW clearly explains how I assess before I 6% 11% 1% 56% 26%
teach
(24) (40) (5) (211) (97)
D6iv The LFW clearly explains how I assess during 6% 11% 3% 52% 29%
teaching learning process
(21) (41) (11) (196) (108)
D6v The LFW clearly explains how I assess at the end 6% 9% 3% 54% 27%
of teaching
(21) (35) (13) (205) (103)
D6vi The LFW guides me on how to use the results of 6% 13% 2% 51% 28%
assessment to improve learning
(24) (49) (8) (192) (104)
D6vii The LFW guides me on how to use to record 6% 11% 3% 50% 29%
learner’s achievement
(23) (43) (13) (188) (110)
D6viii The LFW guides me on how to give feedback to 7% 11% 4% 48% 30%
learners, parents and administration
(25) (42) (15) (182) (113)
D6ix The LFW promotes achievement of the compe- 4% 8% 3% 52% 33%
tences
(16) (29) (12) (197) (123)

Source: Field data, 2022

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A study was conducted to investigate the perceptions of teachers/caregivers about how the Learning
for Well-being (LFW) framework explains the assessment of learners. A total of 377 respondents
participated in the study, and the findings suggest that the majority of the respondents agreed that
the LFW clearly explains how to assess learners, promotes monitoring of learners’ achievement,
guides on how to assess before, during, and at the end of teaching, guides on how to use the results
of assessment to improve learning, guides on how to record learners’ achievement, guides on
how to give feedback to learners, parents, and administration, and promotes the achievement of
competences. However, a small percentage of respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with
some of the statements, indicating the need for further exploration and clarification in those areas
into simplified topics.

Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations

This section summarises the discussion, conclusions, and recommendations based on the findings
presented in the previous section. The discussions were structured around the research questions,
and the conclusions were drawn from the survey data. Finally, recommendations were provided
based on the findings.

Discussion
The first objective of the study was to identify the factors that affect the implementation of the
Early Childhood Development (ECD) Learning Framework (LFW) for children aged 3–6 years and to
suggest possible solutions. The findings showed that while teachers/caregivers had regular training
on the LFW, the training was mostly theoretical and lacked practical elements. Additionally, the
teachers/caregivers did not receive regular support from District Inspectors of Schools and did
not have access to ICT equipment, which affected the implementation of the LFW. The teachers/
caregivers had difficulty in integrating personal/emotional/social/behaviour aspects into the
different areas of learning. However, parents were supportive of the teaching/learning process
through participation in co-curricular activities, acting as resource persons, supporting learners
in homework, providing play materials, and participating in feeding their children. The literature
cited in the study highlights the need for political and financial support, administrative strategies,
and parental involvement for effective implementation of ECD policies. Gaps in the study include
the lack of information on the specific challenges faced by teachers/caregivers in integrating
personal/emotional/social/behaviour aspects into the different areas of learning and the absence
of information on the specific practical elements missing in the teachers’/caregivers’ training.

The second objective of the study was to identify emerging issues in early childhood education
that need to be integrated into the Learning Framework for 3–6-year-olds. The literature review
revealed that early childhood education and care is gaining global interest, and there is a need to
address emerging issues such as ICT skills, learners with special needs, disaster risk management,
HIV/AIDS, pandemics, Science, Technology and Innovation (STI), and global citizenship education.
The findings showed that the current framework promotes homeschooling, remote schooling,
community-based learning and self-study, but does not adequately address the aforementioned
emerging issues. The study also found that the lack of consideration for emerging issues and slow
review of curriculum policies can hinder effective implementation of the framework.

The third objective aimed to identify gaps and best practices in the Learning Framework (LFW)
for 3–6-year-olds in Uganda. The findings revealed that the LFW is easy to follow and promotes
cognitive, psychomotor and affective development. However, the LFW needs improvement in
terms of providing guidance to teachers, catering to learners with special needs, and fostering local
culture. The study recommended involving teachers in the curriculum development process and
providing the required resources for extensive deliberation. The LFW is still relevant to the needs
of society and in line with national policies, but challenges in ECD provisioning still exist owing to
inadequate resource structures and high costs.

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Conclusions
The study found that regular training and support are necessary for teachers/caregivers to effectively
implement the Early Childhood Development (ECD) Learning Framework. While teachers/caregivers
were equipped with the framework and teaching skills, they still required regular support from
District Inspectors of Schools, DEOs and CCTs in implementing the framework. Additionally, support
from other teachers and parents is crucial for effective implementation. The study highlighted
the importance of involving caregivers in children’s learning from the age of three, which can be
empowering for parents. While teachers/caregivers had the necessary materials and teaching skills,
they needed further support in integrating personal/emotional/social/behavioural aspects into the
different learning areas and addressing implementation challenges in the classroom environment.

The study found that the LFW promotes various learning approaches, including homeschooling,
remote schooling, community-based learning and self-study. It also highlighted the need for the
LFW to include information on emerging issues, such as ICT, disaster risk management, HIV/AIDS,
pandemics, Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) and global citizenship education. The study
further emphasised the role of ICT in teaching and learning as well as in administration. Additionally,
the study identified that the language policy, continuous assessment, and thematic approach to
teaching and learning had helped teachers/caregivers use the LFW. However, the study pointed
out that teachers/caregivers need to be more mindful of emerging issues at the regional and global
levels when implementing the LFW.

The study found that the developmental activities in the LFW were presented according to different
age groups, making them easy to teach, and that the learning outcomes were relevant to the needs
of society in Uganda. The study also showed that the competencies were clear and well-stated,
easy to interpret, promoted holistic development, and developed a positive attitude in learners.
However, the study discovered a limited focus on the competencies of learners with special needs.
The development activities in the LFW were found to be flexible and to leave room for teachers’
creativity and innovation. The learning methods in the LFW were relevant in achieving the learning
outcomes, and the LFW clearly explained how to assess learners and promote monitoring of their
achievements. The LFW also guided teachers/caregivers on how to use the results of assessment
to improve learning and give feedback to learners, parents and the administration, promoting the
achievement of competencies. However, there is a need to cater for the guidance to teachers in the
LFW on teaching learners.

Recommendations
The study aimed to identify gaps in the Learning Framework for children aged 3–6 years in Uganda
and make recommendations for its improvement. The researchers recommended instant review
of the framework, as it has not been updated for 17 years. They also suggested increasing regular
support and improving the skills of teachers and caregivers in implementing the framework, as
well as providing them with ICT equipment and increasing guidance and monitoring from CCTs and
DEOs. Additionally, there is a need to increase the frequency of professional development training
for teachers and caregivers and to maintain the usage of the framework while improving the guides
to its implementation. Furthermore, teachers and caregivers should be trained on how to integrate
personal, emotional, social and behavioural aspects into the different areas of learning. Lastly,
they should be given more opportunities to attend conferences, exchange visits, seminars and
workshops on ECD that can be helpful in using the Learning Framework. These recommendations
aim to provide constructive insights to the National Curriculum Development Centre as well as the
Ministry of Education and Sports.

The findings suggest that curriculum developers should ensure that learners with special needs
are included in the curriculum.

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They also recommend the provision of digitalised materials and a competence indicators
framework to support teachers and learners. Additionally, the study emphasises the importance
of using local languages to engage learners and promote an interactive learner-centred approach.
Starting school in a new language can lead to passiveness and inhibit creativity and expression.
Additionally, the LFW should provide clear guidance to teachers, and curricula should support
teachers in understanding and implementing appropriate practices for learners.

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Child to Child Pedagogy and Transition Readiness from

Home Based Centres to Primary One
Adela Rucecerwa
National Curriculum Development Centre

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to see how Child to Child pedagogy can be efficiently used so as to
support transition readiness of preschool children from Home based centers to primary one through
an innovative and cost-effective play way. Child to child pedagogy is an education practice about
how children build knowledge as they relate with one another. In this pedagogy, older children from
the locality known as young facilitators, take preschool children through interactive learning games
over a period of one year to prepare them for early grades of primary school. Objectives of the study
were: To establish whether child to child pedagogy could be used to enhance transition readiness in
Early Childhood Education; To identify child to child activities that could be used to enhance transition
readiness in Early Childhood Education. The study used cross sectional design, In-depth interviews,
participant observation, focus group discussions with parents, document analysis and participant
narratives supported triangulation. The overarching research question was: How can an effective
child to child pedagogy be adopted and scaled up to improve transition readiness from pre-primary
to early grades of primary school. Data was collected by the use of Questionnaires interviews and
Observation method. The collected data was analysed by use of descriptive methods of data analysis.
Results indicated that the advocated for methodology prepares children to be able to transit smoothly.
In conclusion, from the findings of the study, use of child-to-child pedagogy enables children to get
ready for transition through engaging in useful play with other community members with whom they
may go to the same school when they transit. The researcher thus recommends that stakeholders
should embrace child to child pedagogy so as to enable children’s transition readiness.

Keywords: child to child; home based centres; pedagogy; readiness; transition

Background
Children start preschool learning from home with basic skills such as self-care, communication,
socialization and mobility. These extend throughout life as critical stepping stones for transition
from home-based centres to early grades of primary (Ernst et.al 2021). Davis, & Elliott (2014) urge
practitioners to recognize the competences of young children as “thinkers, problem-solvers, and
agents of change. They need to be prepared for challenges ahead of them by equipping them
with the foundational knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values to understand and respond to
these challenges. Development of environmental values, attitudes, skills, and behaviours begins
in childhood. Constructing understanding about environmental and sustainability content, as
well as developing the skills for meeting the needs of future generations by peacefully living in
the environment is another vital aspect in early childhood. This is done best when children are
given opportunity to attend pre-primary and later transit to primary. Transition from pre-primary
to primary school is one of the major steps that each child has to take in the education continuum.

Transition to the first year of primary school is very important for the child’s future physical,
emotional and intellectual development according to research. For example, OECD, (2017) asserts
that managing this transition well is important for children’s well-being and to help them achieve
their potential at school. O’Connor (2018) agrees that a child’s first transition into compulsory
schooling is usually a positive experience, enabling them to settle into new routines, expectations
and environments. Much as it may be simple for some children who have gone through pre-primary
to transit, there are some who need longer to settle in and make the transition successful (Kinkead-
Clark 2015).

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Such learners need to be given extra help so as to grasp the concepts they missed out on. This can
be done through enhancing child play and considering it to be key in childhood education because
it strengthens learning outcomes while enhancing children’s mastery of academic concepts and
builds motivation to learn (UNICEF 2013).

Preschool transition into first grade has been internationally recognised as an important process
not only in children’s personal but also academic life (Perry, Dockett & Petriwskyj, 2014). It enhances
children’s discovery of knowledge hence preparing them for early grades of primary school (UNICEF,
2014). (Grieshaber, 2009; Petriwskyi, 2010; 2013) (Mascareño, 2014; Lau, 2014). For transition to be
successful, there must be transition readiness.

There has been effort to define the concept ‘Transition readiness’. For example, Sandilos (2017)
defines it as the ability to succeed academically, while Morgan (2016) considers it to be the ability to
socialise with others. In this study, children’s transition readiness was conceptualised as children’s
acquisition of the emotion regulation skill (Goodrich et al. 2015) which enables them to not only
socialise with others (Harper 2015; Morgan 2016) but also to succeed in school academically
(Sandilos 2017; Shala 2013). Transition readiness must not be taken lightly due to the role it plays.
For example, Mascareño (2014) believes transition readiness from preschool to first grade is a
developmental milestone in children’s lives while Lau (2014) contends that, transition readiness is
very important for children and should be given great attention because of the drastic change of
contexts, identities, roles and social interactions to be encountered at a later stage.

As contended by Mariano, Santos-Junior, Lima, Perisinotto, Brandão, Surkan, & Caetano,

(2019) aspects of school readiness such as early reading and math skills, social skills, attention,
internalizing and externalizing behaviour predict both future math and reading skills. Enhancing
children’s transition readiness skills is really crucial for recently, Thomson et al. (2019) examined
a population cohort of 34,552 children and found that children exhibiting poor social emotional
functioning at school entry had at least two times the odds of a subsequent mental health condition
by age 14, including depression, conduct disorder, anxiety and attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) integrated development of children. Transition readiness offers young children an
alternative means of expressing their needs and desires as well as an additional tool for regulating
their behaviour in the form of self-talk and other strategies (Woodward et al., 2016).

Different countries promote transition readiness in different ways. In Sierra Leone, it’s done through
the child-to-child model and findings indicate an increased access, retention and performance in
primary education (UNICEF, 2014). In Yemen, children are helped to get ready to transit through
the child-to-child programme and they show significantly higher rates of on time enrolment (83%
vs 34%), better social and emotional development, and higher academic performance in literacy
than their peers not involved in the programme (American Institutes for Research, 2013). In Malawi,
they have established community-based child care centers that draw strength from child-to-child
approach so that children are prepared to go to primary school (Shalwon, 2013).

In Uganda, LABE’s Home Learning Centres (HLCs) and UNICEF’s integrated Early Childhood
Development Centre (iECD) in Mirambo use the child-to-child approaches to support literacy
development (UNICEF, 2017). They support parents to; provide an oral rich language and home
literate environment and appreciate their role in preparing and supporting their pre-school children
(LABE, 2020). Learning is based on the preschool education curriculum with pedagogy built on
traditional child-care practices facilitated by parent educators and young facilitators from the
community for at least 3 hours a day, 3 days a week (LABE, 2020). Children’s learning experiences
need to be stimulated through play activities that can better be developed through child-to-child
approach to ease transition readiness (UNICEF, 2018).

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However, in many countries in Africa, pre-primary education does not adequately prepare children
to transit to primary school. Children are viewed by teachers as recipients of knowledge who cannot
actively participate in their own learning (Gray, 2016). In all the G20 countries, children are helped
to get ready to transit through the use of child-to-child pedagogy.

Child to child pedagogy began as a movement to improve the health of children and their
communities through teaching children in primary schools to pass on health messages. There
has been effort to explain the meaning of “child to child pedagogy” For example, on their part,
(Inalhan 2017; Feder 2019; Vaslou et al. 2021; Yamada 2019) say that it is a way of teaching which
places children and their rights at the core of a design process to elevate their voice, (Inalhan
2017); psychologically and physically empower them (Vaslou et al. 2021) and uncover their unmet
requirements and desires (Yamada 2019). While Hadem (2018) asserts that it is the kind of teaching
where children are guided to use a variety of formal and informal activities to teach peers through
the use of games. Abhiyan (2022) considers it to be the involvement of children already in primary
school (Young Facilitators) in planning how to use transition activities to actively engage with pre-
primary children (Young Learners) in their community in a play way. Child to child (2023) defines
it as the involvement of children in activities that interest, challenge and empower them. In this
study, child to child approach means guiding children on how they can use a variety of formal
and informal activities to teach peers Hadem (2018) by involving the children in planning how to
use these transition activities to actively engage with pre-primary children (Abhiyan 2022) so as to
enable them to actively participate in their own learning (Bahay 2022).

Using this child-to-child pedagogy, enhances children’s discovery of knowledge hence preparing
them for early grades of primary school (UNICEF, 2014). The proposed child-to-child pedagogy
has received significant results in different places where it is used. According to Jung (2021), in
the child-to-child approach, young facilitators in Botswana, take through preschool children
interactive learning games over a period of one year to prepare them for early grades of primary
school. In Sierra Leone, the child-to-child pedagogy has been adopted and findings indicate an
increased access, retention and performance in primary education (UNICEF, 2014). The use of
home based learning helps to increase access and engage parents more in education of children
but lacks in quality (Brookes,et al,2006; Wagner & Clayton,1999). To cover for quality, play based
curriculum implemented in home learning centres is used to enhance children’s school readiness
(Jung, 2021). However, the child-to-child model that supports learning through play needs to be
scaled to improve the quality of early childhood education.

Problem Statement
Child to child pedagogy enhances transition readiness (UNICEF, 2018) by allowing children to learn
through play. Wong (2019) contends that while playing, children not only acquire knowledge, skills
and the rules of polite behavior but also learn to be patient, share, respect others and create a
positive self-image which prepares them for transition.

However, in Ugandan primary schools, children’s time for play is limited, the curriculum is different,
there are new rules which they need to obey and relationships with classmates and adults in school
are different (Wong & Power, 2019). If children are not fully prepared for this, there’s a likelihood
they will fail to cope up and even those who can, do so with a lot of difficulty.

Children in Kalaki District where the study is to take place are taught following this academic
oriented curriculum, so there is no good transition of children from Home Based Centers to primary
one thus, action must be taken to help teachers use this pedagogy.

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Objectives of the Study

1. To understand whether child to child pedagogy can be used to enhance transition readiness
from home-based centres to lower primary.
2. To identify child to child activities that can be used to enhance transition readiness from home-
based centres to lower primary
Research Questions
1. Can child to child pedagogy be used to enhance transition readiness from home-based centres
to lower primary?
2. Which child to child activities can be used to enhance transition readiness from home-based
centres to lower primary?

Literature Review
The child-to-child pedagogy is an education methodology about how children build knowledge
as they relate with one another. Different scholars have defined it too. (Bahay 2022; Abhiyan
2022) For example, Bahay (2022) advances that it is the guiding of children to actively participate
in their own learning through the use of practical activities while Abhiyan (2022) considers it to
be the involvement of children already in primary school (Young Facilitators) in planning how
to use transition activities to actively engage with pre-primary children (Young Learners) in their
community in a play way so as to enhance a smooth transition to lower primary.

In Malawi, community-based child care centres that draw strength from child-to-child approach
have been established so that children are prepared to go to primary school (Shalwon 2013).
Children from different backgrounds, ethnicities, religious and those with disabilities are taught in
these centres. The challenge however, is that the pedagogy is localised to specific NGO areas.

In Ethiopia, the child-to-child pedagogy is organized by the Regional Education sectors, starting
with a pilot in 2008 and now implemented in all regions as of 2009 (Mundy et al., 2014). It involves
older children of grade 5 to 8 as facilitators to help young children (age 4-6 years) to acquire school
readiness skills, literacy and social skills (Ministry of Education, 2010. The facilitators (old children)
are guided and supervised by teachers. It aims to improve children’s transition readiness in
educational development in communities where formal preschools are unavailable (Ministry of
Education, 2010). The duration of the program is 36 weeks that is conducted in children’s villages,
near their home, under a tree, in the shade of home, or in a child’s home (Mundy et al., 2014).

In Uganda, LABE’s Home Learning Centres (HLCs) and UNICEF’s integrated Early Childhood
Development Centre (iECD) in Mirambo are home-based preschool centres that use the child to
child approaches to support literacy development (UNICEF, 2017). They support parents to; provide
an oral rich language and home literate environment and appreciate their role in preparing and
supporting their pre-school children (LABE, 2020). Learning is based on the preschool education
curriculum with pedagogy built on traditional child-care practices facilitated by parent educators
and young facilitators from the community for at least 3 hours a day, 3 days a week (LABE, 2020).
The challenge however is that the children of Primary one and two may associate with children in
home-based centres better than those in upper classes which are the classes LABE uses.

From the literature, we note that although learning through play foster’s children’s increased
readiness for primary school, its use is still limited. This demonstrates the added value of the child-
to-child approach, rather than a home-based model alone. This study demonstrated evidence of
the effectiveness and innovative use of the home-based play child to child model in increasing
transition of young children from pre-primary to early grades of primary school.

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Methods
This study adopted the cross-sectional research design under the qualitative approach. For the
action research, in-depth interviews, participant observation, focus group discussions with parents,
case study, document analysis and participant narratives were used to support triangulation
(Patton, 1999). Quantitative methods, such as surveys, checklists, , and report cards were used
to provide another perspective, and particularly when doing impact evaluation. A total of 1,400
children participated in this study. While the centres were purposively selected, 25 children were
randomly selected from each of the four centres.

Results/Findings
Responses from the Children
Based on the responses provided, it seems that football is the most commonly mentioned game
that can be taught. Additionally, skipping and bolingo also received multiple mentions. Other
games mentioned include netball, counting games, rolling bicycle wheels and tires, and recitation
and singing games. It’s worth noting that some responses were unclear or not specific enough to
determine which game was being referred to. Also, one response mentioned cooking using clay or
plastic containers, which is not a game but an activity. Overall, it appears that football, skipping,
and bolingo are the most popular games that people feel confident teaching.

Based on the responses provided, it seems that many of the strategies for teaching involve
demonstration or modelling of the activity. This includes demonstrating with hands, drawing,
playing with the children, singing or clapping, and rolling objects to show how to do it. Other
strategies mentioned include dividing the children into groups, using counting sticks or other props
to show how to count, and using the rote method (repetition and memorization). Some responses
also mentioned the importance of following the children’s lead and asking questions to understand
their level of knowledge and skill. It’s worth noting that a few responses did not provide a specific
strategy for teaching, or simply stated that the person will play with the children or demonstrate
first before asking them to do it. Overall, it appears that demonstration and modelling are key
strategies for teaching in this context, along with engaging the children through play and song.

Based on the responses provided, there are several ways to tell whether the children have learned
what has been taught. Some of these include observing their behaviour, seeing their work (such
as clean plates or a clean compound), checking whether they can count, and asking them to
demonstrate what they have learned (such as singing a song or playing a game). Other responses
mentioned listening to the children (such as when they are singing or playing), marking their work
or exercises, and watching them jump or handle each other. A few responses did not provide a
specific way to tell whether the children have learned, or simply stated that the person will see
them or listen to them to determine whether they have learned. Overall, it seems that observation
and assessment of the children’s performance are key ways to tell whether they have learned what
has been taught.

The qualitative findings from the interviews with the community members indicate that there is
a need for more education and support for the children in the community. The majority of the
community members expressed a desire for the children to have access to educational materials,
such as books, pencils, chalk, and chalkboards. They also expressed a need for play materials,
particularly balls, and materials for music, such as drums and shakers. Many community members
also expressed a need for support in teaching the children. Some requested assistance in developing
teaching skills, while others requested specific materials or tools, such as counting sticks or
skipping ropes. A few community members expressed a desire for financial support to cover school
fees or to purchase materials for themselves or their children. Overall, it is clear that there is a need
for more resources and support for education and play in the community.

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Providing access to educational materials, play materials, and support for teaching skills could
help to improve the educational opportunities and outcomes for children in the community.

Responses from parents

Children have the ability to be teachers and guides for other children in a variety of ways. For
example, they can lead activities in the centre, play together, and use the knowledge and skills they
have acquired to teach other children. Younger children can learn from older children who still have
a childlike mentality, making it easier for them to interact well and learn from each other. Children
can also teach modelling, create materials using local resources, and teach local languages. They
can teach younger children about sanitation and home activities, like bathing and washing utensils.
They can also look after domestic animals and teach counting and drawing to young ones.

In addition to these practical skills, children can also teach manners, direct play activities, and
support physical exercises. By freely mixing with each other, they can learn from their peers and
share ideas. Children can teach names of things and ask children to repeat, teaching young children
about their environment.

Children can also teach new languages, draw and model play materials, and play games like
skipping. By teaching each other, they can develop a sense of responsibility and leadership. It is
important to recognize the unique skills and knowledge that children possess and to encourage
them to share and teach these to their peers in a safe and supportive environment. Children have
a lot to offer each other and can learn from each other in meaningful ways.

After analysing the responses of the participants, it was found that children can engage in a variety
of activities that can be used to teach other children. These activities range from playing football,
modelling, singing, washing plates together, to playing in the form of cooking and sweeping the
centre. Children can also build their playing houses, practice leadership, parenting, and teach each
other as they play.

In terms of teaching academic skills, children can teach their peers how to sing the alphabet, interact
with others, write and speak English, and play local games. They can also teach them how to write
letters and numbers, draw pictures, and learn numeracy and writing skills. In addition, children can
share ideas, write stories, and play different games to enhance their skills and knowledge.

The children can also engage in role-playing activities like cooking, counting numbers, and
sharing how to write. They can be taught how to read and write small words, letters, and numbers.
Additionally, they can model and draw play materials, sing songs, and engage in drama, riddles,
and news activities. Children can also play different games and practice physical activities such as
jumping ropes, swinging, playing football, and skipping.

It was also observed that children are happy and enthusiastic when being taught by their peers,
with some even referring to them as “teacher.” Overall, it is essential to recognize the value of peer-
to-peer learning and encourage children to share their knowledge and skills with their peers in a
supportive and safe environment. Through these activities, children can develop their leadership
and teaching skills while enhancing their academic and social abilities.

The respondents provided various ways to support children in their teaching roles. One way is
to encourage them to come to the learning centre whenever they are scheduled to teach, and to
motivate them by thanking them for their efforts. Additionally, parents and guardians can advise
children not to be harsh to other children and to make friends with the young learners.

Parents and guardians can also guide their children by advising them to do exactly what they have
been asked to do and to dress in uniform.

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They can also encourage children to use English so that younger learners can also learn the
language. It is essential to advise children to have respect for younger children and concentrate on
studying rather than playing. Providing scholastic materials, supporting youth facilitators (YF) to
encourage ECD children to attend school, and providing food rations can also be helpful.

Guidance and support for YF can also be beneficial. Parents and guardians can guide and support
YF in locating and collecting local resources for making resources and provide scholastic materials
like textbooks to support young learners. They can also train YF in basic teaching skills, morals, and
children management skills.

Another way to support children is by providing playing materials and buying them scholastic
materials. Parents and guardians can also encourage and tell the child they are now a teacher,
which will motivate the child. Giving ideas and a token of appreciation can also encourage children
to continue teaching.

Parents and guardians can also guide their children on how to relate to others and teach new songs
and alphabets. Additionally, they can advise children to handle other children with care and provide
them with the necessary support to continue their teaching role, such as buying them scholastic
materials or giving them money to boost their morale.

The participants were asked how they would like their children to be supported in their education.
One of the common suggestions was to teach the children how to teach others, which would improve
their leadership and communication skills. Some also suggested visiting and observing their
children’s progress in school and designing activities specifically for them. Others recommended
giving simple gifts like sweets, books, and pencils to appreciate their effort in learning.

Many participants emphasised the importance of providing basic scholastic materials such as
books, pens, and mathematical sets. Some suggested buying the children uniforms to make them
feel proud and more confident in school. Others recommended paying school fees up to a certain
level depending on the one sponsoring the child.

The idea of providing scholastic materials and paying school fees was popular among the
participants. Some suggested educating the child and supporting the young learner to continue
their education. The participants also recommended giving guidance and counseling to the
children, which would help them to have a clear direction in their studies.

Participants also suggested offering rewards and incentives to motivate the children. Some
recommended giving money or edibles to make the child feel good about their efforts. Others
recommended buying a cake or soda to celebrate their achievements. Overall, the participants
showed a strong desire to support their children’s education in any way they could.

Response from teachers

“We haven’t collaborated with any other schools yet, but we do have a good system for bringing
children to our school for learning. However, we are open to exploring exchange visits and sharing
learning materials with other schools in the future.”

“There are various types of collaboration that we can engage in to improve the learning experience
of our children. We can have joint activities such as sharing meals, attending the same liturgy, and
holding events that make them get used to each other. We can also have exchange visits, introduce
lower primary school teachers to the young children and take children from the centre to visit the
children in the primary school. Additionally, we can continuously assess the children’s progress
and share learning materials such as games, music, and drama competition. It’s important to
involve parents and mobilize them to enrol their children for ECD to ensure a smooth transition.

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Ultimately, both the teachers and children from both the nursery and primary schools need to
associate and interact with each other to promote effective learning. We follow the pre-primary
syllabus and pupils are encouraged to come and share with others, teach each other games and
songs, and learn how to read and write.”

“There are several child-to-child activities that we encourage to promote socialization, creativity,
and learning among our children. For play activities, we encourage playing together, sorting games,
shading pictures, and teaching each other in doing household chores. Children can engage in free
modelling, free drawing, use of charts on their own, and making toys. We also have modelling and
playing, sand and water play, gardening that involves watering and caring for plants, and playing
games, some lessons such as health habits and knowing the environment. In terms of learning
activities, children can engage in story-telling, news, constructing using play materials such as
bottle tops, and activities that involve singing, reading, writing, sharing, and counting. We provide
play/learning materials and encourage football for boys, rolling wheels, and playing with dolls.
Additionally, we have group work in class, grouping in Art and craft according to ability, and good
readers helping the time takers. We also encourage role-playing, demonstration, and drama/role
playing to enhance the children’s communication skills and creativity.”

“Parents can provide various forms of support to enhance their children’s learning experience. They
can contribute playing materials and learning materials such as crayons and other writing materials.
They can also talk to their children, provide scholastic materials, and feed the children. Parents
can come and talk to the children during assembly to provide encouragement and motivation. In
addition, parents can teach their children weaving, stories, making dolls, riddles, and singing. They
can also allow their fellow elder children to associate with children in the center, escort children
to and from school, and convince their children to help each other. Parents can provide firewood,
porridge, and time to assist in the children’s learning process. Furthermore, parents can provide
readers and materials to use at school. They can teach their children rhymes, riddles, and stories
and help them to scribble to enhance their writing skills. Ultimately, parental support is crucial in
promoting effective learning and development of their children.”

“As a teacher or educator, there are various roles that I can play to promote effective learning
and development of children. I can supervise the children as they do the activity, encourage their
participation, teach them how to socialize in the centre, and provide them with the necessary
materials to do the activities. I can also mobilize primary school children and identify primary
children to support HLCS. Additionally, I can guide and counsel the children on the benefits
of education through role-playing. Furthermore, I can teach sharing, playing together, and
storytelling. To promote a conducive learning environment, I can welcome other children to the
centre, encourage bright learners to help slow learners, and ask children with skills such as making
brooms, pots, and weaving to teach other children who do not know. I can also encourage parents
to avoid absenteeism of their children. Moreover, I can give materials, provide activities, and make
materials available to the children. Using a child-to-child approach, I can create an activity and
involve the children, demonstrate games to them, and illustrate how to write to enhance their
learning experience.”

“We can work together to ensure that children receive the necessary support for their education.
This includes providing enough play and learning materials at the centre, mobilising parents to
enrol their children in ECD centres and primary schools, sensitizing parents on the importance of
education, and ensuring that children have access to learning materials. We can also work together
to encourage child-to-child learning and to monitor children’s attendance and progress in school.
By supporting each other, we can create a better future for our children.”

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Conclusion: From the findings of the study, use of child-to-child pedagogy enables children to get
ready for transition through engaging in useful play with other community members with whom
they may go to the same school when they transit.

Recommendations: Stakeholders should embrace child to child pedagogy so as to enable

children’s transition readiness.

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Sub-Theme 2 :
ICT Revolution in Education

Unpacking ICT Readiness and Students’ Preparedness for National

Examinations During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Uganda: A Case of Kamuli and
Jinja Districts of Uganda
Peter Lwanga Kayizzi; Brandt Hermus Ssemwatika

National Curriculum Development Centre

Abstract
Although the advent of the novel COVID-19 pandemic led to disruptions to education in Uganda, it
also widened the scope and role that information and communication technology (ICT) can play in
education. There was always a negative attitude towards embracing technology in teaching and
learning, for purported reasons such as financial constraints, insufficient technical skills, insufficient
equipment, inadequate management support, school culture, perceived usefulness, it is time-
consuming, and others. This study set out to establish the extent of readiness to use ICT in the absence
of physical class interaction that was not possible owing to intermittent total lockdowns. The objectives
of the study were: to examine the relationship between ICT infrastructure and student preparedness
for national examinations; to investigate the relationship between technological skills and student
preparedness for National examinations; and to assess the relationship between management
support and student preparedness for national examinations. The study employed a cross-sectional
research design, data were collected and analysed quantitatively using descriptive and inferential
statistics by means of the Pearson chi square analysis of independence. The key findings revealed that
the students’ performance was independent of ICT infrastructure (P value=0.992>0.07), technological
skills (P value=0.143>0.07) and management support (P value=0.075>0.07), which implies that the
students were not prepared to use ICT as part of their preparation for national examinations. The
study may be of significance to curriculum developers, the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES)
and policymakers, society and school administrators. The study thus recommends that MoES and
curriculum developers should embed and embrace the uptake of ICT as part of instruction in the
schools of Uganda to prepare for similar education disruptions.

Keywords: ICT infrastructure, ICT readiness, lockdown, management support, student

preparedness

Introduction
Education is a continuous process that is evidenced by progression from one class to another and
from one cycle/level to another. This means that the education trajectory should not be disrupted
regardless of any circumstance. There should be a possible creative or innovative mechanism to
ensure that education continues amidst disruptions. Jinja and Kamuli district , where this study
was carried out, are among the twenty-two district found in the Eastern Region of the Republic of
Uganda. They border the Buganda Region and are separated by the Nile River.

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They form an urban setting but with secondary schools that possess the characteristics of both
urban and rural settings. The variations in the state of secondary schools (rural-urban settings)
facilitated the selection of samples from these districts without compromising the quality of the
findings. The study, therefore, aimed to establish if the innovative ICT learning mode helped the
students to proceed with learning during the lockdowns and to show if the students were prepared
for the introduction of such a learning mode ahead of sitting for their Uganda Certificate of
Education (UCE) national examinations.

Background
Globally, ICT is recognised as a tool for improving teaching and learning (Midila, 2021). ICT usage
includes, but is not limited to, both new and old communication technologies such as radios,
televisions, computers, fax, scanners, print media and the internet (Mukhula, Manyiraho, Atibuni &
Olema, 2021). However, in the past, there has been continuous neglect and fear surrounding the use
of technology-enhanced teaching and learning, especially in Uganda’s education system (Kizito,
2019; Nyakito et al., 2021). Some teachers have always had insufficient ICT devices, and harboured
a negative attitude towards learning and using ICT skills in teaching (Keirungi, 2021). Technology-
enhanced learning was only left to the international schools and some higher education systems,
but these institutions had the intention of attracting more students and ensuring convenience in
learning for those who were not able to physically access the institutions.

Students’ preparedness to use ICT-enhanced learning can be assessed from equipment capability,
technology skills, self-directed learning skills and motivation (Widodo, Wibowo & Wagiran, 2020).
The readiness of the institution and the management as a whole is also critical when introducing
ICT as a learning mode. The institutional readiness must be considered before considering the
adoption of e-learning and ICT usage, as this will determine its likelihood of success (Blacer-
Bacolod, 2022). The lack of integration of ICT has greatly affected the elementary levels of learning
as well as the secondary levels. This became glaring at the advent of the novel Covid-19 pandemic
which hit the whole world and all businesses, including schools. This sent the schools and other
education institutions into forced recess precipitated by unprecedented and intermittent total
lockdowns, which were enforced in an effort to curb the spread of the deadly and contagious
virus. It is estimated that 64.6% of the world student population was affected by the lockdowns
(UNESCO, 2020) and in Uganda about 73,000 education institutions, 548,000 teachers and 15
million learners were directly affected by the school closures (MoES, 2022). There was a need to
continue with learning and teaching in a remote way because it was not clear when the education
institutions would re-open, given that the virus was still spreading and the education calendar
would be disrupted. Some parents even feared that their children were over-growing, surpassing
the age which they presumed to be appropriate for the given classes. It was evidently safer to study
using ICT devices that allowed real-time interaction between the teacher and the learners.

After receiving clearance from the education ministry, it was determined that the innovative way
to continue with the education processes despite the halt to education, was to use technology-
enhanced learning for schools, colleges and universities because it was possible without necessarily
having learners converge in schools. However, the first anticipated and relatively cheaper strategy,
which was to use radios and television to deliver lessons to these affected learners, hit a dead end
as some regions purportedly did not have access to a radio or television set, while others claimed
that they lacked electricity and network reception for the radios and televisions in their areas, and
still others feared the lack of concentration on the lessons aired on such devices. In June 2020,
the Government of Uganda (GoU) through the Covid-19 Emergency Education Response Project
(CERP), sought a $14.7 million grant from the Global Partnership for Education (GPE) to cushion
and mitigate the impact of Covid-19 through supporting continuity of learning during lockdown in
the pre-primary, primary and lower secondary levels of education (MoES, 2022).

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To the National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC), the integration of ICT in teaching and
learning is one of the aspirations for the new reforms in the education curriculum, especially at the
lower secondary level. This, therefore, was a blessing in disguise regarding the implementation of
such reforms in view of the technophobia that has permeated in the teaching fraternity. However,
in this paper we hypothesise and argue that the use of ICT to enhance teaching and learning,
especially at the lower levels of learning such as secondary schools, did not favour the entire school
system equally and, therefore, undermined inclusivity as a critical principle for education access
across the globe. In fact, as Atwine (2021) posits, the reality was that most school children were not
learning. Could this be attributed to internet accessibility and ICT issues? For example, according
to the Uganda Communications Commission (UCC), Uganda has the highest priced internet in the
East African region. In Uganda, for instance, buying a gigabyte of data costs approximately $2.75,
as compared to Kenya ($2.48), Rwanda ($2.25) and Tanzania ($2.25). This makes the application of
ICT very difficult for learning, especially in the rural schools. Some of the critical questions that one
should be asking are: Were the learners ready for the uptake of ICT in learning at that time? This
includes the resources, the physical ICT infrastructure, the internet connectivity and/or the general
acceptance of this approach to teaching. Or was there continuity and/or sustainability of the ICT-
led education drive in the schools even after the restrictions and lockdowns were lifted or eased?
These questions inspired taking up such a study in the selected distrICT of Jinja and Kamuli and,
alongside the research questions, informed the analysis and interpretation of the findings.

Significance of the Study

The study may be of significance to the following:

i) Curriculum developers
The component of ICT in teaching and learning is very critical. Therefore, the findings of this study
may be of significance to the curriculum developers at NCDC in the light of the need to incorporate
ICT in all the curriculum documents, especially ICT-enhanced assessments so that the learners can
get to learn ICT and, therefore, be able to apply it in national examinations or even later in the
world of work.

ii) School administrations

The findings of this study may be of significance to the various schools, especially those where
the study was carried out. The findings may show how ready or unready their students were
prior to sitting the national examinations. This may motivate the school administration to set up
mechanisms that enhance ICT readiness on the part of students for a similar education disruption
or even for the development of ICT skills among their students and teachers.

iii) MoES and other policymakers

Introducing ICT for learning is fundamental for quality education, especially at secondary level,
but students’ readiness to use the ICT is another factor. The findings of this study may inform the
MoES and policymakers on the best ICT infrastructure that works for all regions and schools in
Uganda, taking into consideration the power and internet accessibility requirements, as well as
the skills that the teachers and students may need to implement ICT use in teaching and learning
transactions.

iv) Society
The members of the community/society may not be aware of the role and the type of ICT that
may be used for teaching and learning. For instance, society may undermine some ICT equipment
such as radios, televisions and mobile phones as potential learning equipment. The findings may,
therefore, educate the society on utilising the unknown ICT tools in education and training.

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Objectives of the study

The main objective of the study was to establish the extent of students’ readiness to use ICT in the
absence of physical class interaction in Kamuli and Jinja districts of Uganda.

The study was guided by the following specific objectives:

a) To examine the relationship between ICT infrastructure and student preparedness for national
examinations in Kamuli and Jinja districts of Uganda.
b) To investigate the relationship between technological skills and student preparedness for
national examinations in Kamuli and Jinja districts of Uganda.
c) To assess the relationship between management support and student preparedness for national
examinations in Kamuli and Jinja districts of Uganda.

The study sought to test the following null hypotheses:

H₀1 There is no relationship between ICT infrastructure and students’ preparedness for National
examinations in Kamuli and Jinja districts of Uganda.
H₀2 There is no relationship between technological skills and student preparedness for national
examinations in Kamuli and Jinja districts of Uganda.
H₀3 There is no relationship between management support and student preparedness for national
examinations in Kamuli and Jinja districts of Uganda.

Statement of the problem

In the entire world, the outbreak of the deadly Covid-19 viral disease caused disruptions to
education, which was facilitated by the total lockdowns, very strict health protocols and tight
restrictions (Blacer-Bacolod, 2022), all geared towards curbing the spread of the disease as a result
of congregation. The government thought of ensuring continuity of learning by developing and
distributing home-learning materials to the 15 million affected learners. However, only 20% of the
self-study materials for learners in P1–P7 and S1–S4 were printed and distributed (Atwine, 2021).
In order to promote real-time learning, virtual learning using ICT was the alternative to widen the
catchment area of teaching and learning. The sudden shift from conventional classroom learning
to online learning did not provide ample time for teachers and/or learners to prepare themselves
for this transition to a new learning transaction. This was marked by inadequacies associated with
high costs of the internet, limited bandwidth, shortage of skilled personnel, technological illiteracy
among the population and inadequate infrastructure (Tumwesige, 2020), for which the learners,
teachers and government were not prepared for. Although, accessibility to ICT remains a serious
global concern, the problem of phobia of new technologies is another challenge (Midila, 2021). The
National IT Survey of 2017/2018 found that 65.3% of the households owned a radio, 21.8% owned
a television, while only 5.9 % had access to a computer at home (NITA, 2018). This brought about a
digital divide between the urban and rural learners who couldn’t access the internet and electricity.
For instance, Uganda’s internet penetration is 29.4% compared to Tanzania’s 38% and Kenya’s 53%
(Why internet is so expensive in Uganda, 2022). This clearly demonstrates the unpreparedness
for the ICT-enhanced learning as an intervention to continue with learning. The problem at stake,
therefore, is to understand the ICT preparedness of students as well as the lessons learnt, from
which to draw conclusions and recommendations for future preparedness, and help redirect the
policy of education reforms in Uganda. Otherwise, the reforms may not be possible without a
robust ICT practice and culture in the schools of Uganda.

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Literature Review
COVID-19 became synonymous with technology and the gaps associated with learning during the
total lockdowns, which were attributed to the digital divide between rural and urban areas (Fanelli,
Cajuste, Cetta & Amanya, n.d.) as well as the size of the schools in terms of enrolment. During
the Covid-19 total lockdowns in the entire world and specifically in Uganda, strategies were put
in place to ensure continuity in learning, of which some turned out to be feasible while others did
not bear any fruit. This was allegedly and mainly attributed to insufficient students’ readiness for
e-learning.

In this paper, we conceptualised ICT readiness as the perception and experiences that the learners
got after exposure to this kind of learning transaction, which the majority were going through
for the very first time. For instance, Bhaumik and Priyadarshini (2020) carried out a study using
quantitative descriptive survey on 100 students in Delhi to establish their e-readiness for online
learning during the Covid-19 lockdown. Their findings found that access to online learning was
high, but the teachers’ online delivery skills and the learners’ digital skills were lacking.

Even before the advent of Covid-19 and the subsequent disruptions to education that led to the
total lockdown and closure of education institutions, ICT was significantly associated with the
students’ academic performance. In a study by Osagie et al. (2019) on the role of ICT in the academic
performance of postgraduate students at the university of Benin, the findings revealed that there
was a significant difference between the users and non-users of ICT facilities in academic activities.
The study established that there is a positive impact of ICT on students’ academic performance.
Whereas their study poses both a contextual and knowledge gap (having conducted their study on
postgraduate students and in another country), these findings can be in concordance with the role
that ICT adoption can play in the academic performance of secondary school students in Uganda.

In a conceptual paper by Midila (2021) to establish the role of ICT-enhanced instruction during
the Covid-19 lockdown in Nigeria, the findings revealed that as a result of the use of technology-
enhanced accessibility and the quality of education, courses were taken online at a lower and
cheaper cost than in the traditional physical learning environment. However, whereas the author
states the barriers to ICT-enhanced learning, there is no finding to reflect the ICT readiness of the
students as proposed by the current study.

Mukhula et al. (2021) carried out a study to determine the level of ICT readiness and ICT policy
implementation in secondary schools in Mayuge district, using the cross-sectional survey design
and a sample of 232 secondary school teachers. The study revealed that there was a moderate level
of ICT adoption readiness and a moderate level of ICT policy implementation, and a significant
moderate positive relationship. However, in the study, the sample was comprised of teachers,
who are the implementers of the ICT-enhanced learning, wit the students and their experiences as
recipients of the ICT services not being considered at all in the study. The current study intended
to collect data on the students’ readiness for ICT during the Covid-19 lockdown. This study chose
students as a single unit of analysis because it is the students who may have faced difficulties with
the transition to ICT technology in learning during the lockdown.

The slow rate of ICT adoption prior to the Covid-19 lockdown was facilitated by the high cost of the
internet and ICT gadgets. For instance, in a study by Eton and Chance (2022) on university students
to illustrate how e-learning is used in Uganda, the findings revealed that e-learning approaches
at universities favourably correlated with financial implications, and some academic staff lacked
e-learning training. However, the students reported that e-learning eased communication between
them and their lecturers, although they reported that the internet and ICT gadgets were expensive.

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A study carried out by Kagoya (2020) in Uganda and Tanzania on the use of digital transformation
to address the education challenges brought by Covid-19 revealed that there was an increase in
digital transformation in home and personal learning among students who had earlier on faced
challenges of technophobia. It is pertinent to establish the extent to which students were ready
for ICT integration during the Covid-19 lockdowns. For instance, in an effort to establish whether
ICT was being integrated in the teaching and learning process in secondary schools in the Kigezi
Region, Mbabazi and Nafizi (2022) carried out a study to establish the integration of ICT in teaching
and learning. The study employed a quantitative approach and was guided by the MICTIVO model
of ICT integration. The results revealed that ICT was not being used in the teaching and learning
process and that most of the ICT infrastructure was not available in the schools and most of the
respondents lacked ICT skills. On the other hand, Baluku and Kasujja (2020) carried out a mixed-
methods study to establish ICT usage and its influence on students’ academic performance in
UCE in Kasese district. Using a sample of 291 respondents, a cross-sectional research design and
a chi square test for analysis, their study established that accessibility to ICT resources in teaching
influences the academic performance of students. Their study also revealed that the utilisation of
ICT infrastructure influences students’ academic performance in UCE secondary schools in Kasese
district.

This, therefore, accounts for the perceived low readiness in some schools at the advent of the total
lockdowns which were facilitated by the Covid-19 disease outbreak. The study by Mbabazi and
Nafizi was in concordance with the one by Keirungi (2021) which posits that inadequate devices,
fear to use ICT and lack of interest to learn ICT skills hindered the ICT integration and, therefore,
uptake of ICT as a mechanism for teaching in preparation for national examinations during the
Covid-19 total lockdown.

Methodology
Research Design
The study employed a cross-sectional research design to establish the associative relationships
between the variables of the study, utilising the quantitative approach of inquiry. According to
Creswell (2009), a research design is a plan and procedure for research that span the decisions from
broader assumptions to detailed methods of data collection and analysis. Creswell stresses that
the orientation, type and nature of a particular study determine the choice of a particular research
design. In this case, we aimed at establishing the relationship between the different variables
conceptualised in this study to come up with conclusions on future students’ ICT readiness and
preparedness for unprecedented situations that may lead to education disruption.

Research Approach
The study took a quantitative approach to data collection and analysis. The approach was chosen
because it aided the researchers to collect plentiful data in real time, and to establish a statistical
relationship between the study variables which helps in the generalisation of the research findings
to the entire population under study.

Data Collection Instruments

A five-point Likert scale self-administered questionnaire was administered to the students in the
selected schools and the respondents filled them in and they were collected immediately.

Sampling and Sampling Procedure

The study utilised the simple random sampling technique of schools and respondents in order to
minimise the possibility of bias during data collection.

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Target Population
The study targeted ‘A’ level students in Senior Six from schools that were randomly selected in
Kamuli and Jinja districts of Eastern Uganda. These were targeted because they were the ones
affected directly by the lockdown and subjected to the virtual technology mode of learning prior to
sitting their UCE examinations. This is justified by a study by Mukhula et al. (2021), which concluded
that secondary schools in Mayuge (one of the Eastern Region districts) were in the early stages of
domestication of ICT and ICT policy implementation.

Sample Size
The size of the population of the students was unknown at the time of carrying out the study.
Therefore, the study utilised the Cochran formula (1977) for determining the sample size of an
unknown population. If the population size is unknown, the population proportion is also unknown
(Uakarn, Chaokromthong, & Sintao (2021).

Where: n = sample size

z = 1.81 (z score at 93% confidence level)

e = 0.07 (desired level of precision)

= 167 students

Data Processing
The data collected was cleaned for inconsistencies, coded and entered into the computer for
analysis.

Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the demographic data, while inferential statistics of a
chi-square test of dependence and multiple regression analysis were used to analyse and establish
the associative relationships with the aid of STATA version 15.0 statistical computer software.
Because the data was categorical in nature, this justified a chi-square test of independence and
later multiple regression analysis to establish the level of dependence between the variables in the
study.

Response Rate
Out of the sample of 167 students supplied with questionnaires, 153 returned the questionnaires,
representing a response rate of 92%. The high response rate was attributed to guided supervision
when filling in the questionnaires. According to Nulty (2008), a response rate of 60% or higher is
appropriate. Creswell (2012) also concurs that survey researchers seek high response rates from
participants so that they can have confidence in generalising the results to the population they are
studying.

Descriptive Analysis
The respondents were asked the grade that they scored at their UCE level to establish if the
lockdown and the subsequent introduction of ICT as a teaching and learning strategy had affected
their performance. The following were the findings based on the items measured during the study:

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Performance at UCE Level Examinations

The respondents were asked to respond to the grade that they scored during their UCE examinations.
The purpose of this was to establish if the lockdown had affected their performance in the
examinations. This was also intended to establish if the innovation of ICT as a mode of learning in
preparation for their examinations had any influence on how they performed.

Figure 1: Pie chart showing the performance of the students at UCE level

From a total of 153 respondents, the results reveal that 61.84% reported to have attained a 1st grade
at their UCE examinations sat in 2021. This was followed by 30.92% of the students who reported to
have scored a 2nd grade, 6.579% scored a 3rd grade, while only 0.66% of the students reported to
have scored a 4th grade in the examinations.

This led to further investigation of what ICT resources they had used during the lockdown for
purposes of learning ahead of their preparations for the UCE examinations.

Usage of ICT resources

Table 1: The responses on the ICT resources that the students used during the lockdown

ICT Resources Frequency Percentage

Radio 54 16.36
Television 86 26.06
Phone 89 26.97
PC / Laptop 28 8.48
Internet 57 17.27
None 16 4.85
TOTAL 330 100.00

Source: Field data, 2023

The respondents were asked about the ICT resources they used during the lockdown for purposes
of learning in preparation for the national examinations. The responses were based on a multiple-
response question. The findings revealed that television and the phone were the most widely used

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ICT resources by the students, at 26.06% and 26.97%, respectively. There was also a negligible
difference between access to the internet and access to radio as ICT resources, which were reported
at 17.27% and 16.36%, respectively. A few of the respondents had used personal computers or
laptops for learning purposes, at 8.48%, while 4.85% of the respondents reported not having had
access to any ICT resources during the lockdown for learning purposes.

Chi square test of independence

A chi square test of independence was run between the two categorical variables performance of
students at UCE and access to ICT – resources to test for the presence of a relationship between the
two. The results are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: The chi square test of independence between access to ICT resources and students’
performance at UCE

Performance of Students At Access to ICT Resources for Learning Purposes During the
UCE Lockdown
NO YES Total
1st Grade 6 88 94
2nd Grade 7 40 47
3rd Grade 2 8 10
4th Grade 1 0 1
Total 16 136 152

Source: Field data, 2023

Pearson chi2(3) = 12.1181 Pr = 0.007

According to Table 2 above, the results of the test revealed a P value of 0.007, which is less than
0.07 (P value =0.007<0.07) at 93% level of significance. This indicates that there is a statistically
significant relationship between performance and access to ICT resources. This was in line with
the study by Osagie et al. (2019) that there is a positive impact of ICT on student performance. This
calls for MoES and the school administrations to endeavour to integrate ICT in all learning activities
if the students are to be ready for its use and preparation for national examinations. This was also
similar to the findings by Baluku and Kasujja (2020) that accessibility to ICT resources in teaching
influences the academic performance of students.

Binary logistic regression

Binary logistic regression was run at the multivariable level. It is a model that shows whether
performance of the students in UCE national examinations was dependent on all or any of the
three variables in the study, that is ICT infrastructure, technological skills and management
support. However, the findings after further analysis revealed that performance of the students
was independent of ICT infrastructure, technological skills and management support.

Table 3: Logistic regression between student preparation and ICT readiness for national
examinations

Logistic regression Number of obs = 153

LR chi2(3) = 5.35
Prob > chi2 = 0.148
Log likelihood = -48.584433 Pseudo R2 = 0.052

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Access to ICT resources for purposes Coef. Std. Err. Z P>z [93% Conf.
of learning in preparation for UCE Interval]
examinations
ICT INFRASTRUCTURE
Yes 0.0077 0.8129 0.01 0.992 -1.5856 1.6010
TECHOLOGY SKILLS
Yes 1.5815 1.0810 1.46 0.143 -0.5371 3.7002
MANAGEMENT SUPPORT
Yes -2.1408 1.2005 -1.78 0.075 -4.4937 0.2121
_cons 2.6706 1.0464 2.55 0.011 0.6198 4.7215

The model revealed that ICT readiness explains only 5% of the variations in the performance of the
learners during the UCE examinations of 2021. This implies that ICT had a very minimal impact on
the students’ performance at UCE examinations. However, the study by Mukhula et al. (2021) to
determine the level of ICT readiness and ICT policy implementation in secondary schools in Mayuge
District revealed that there was a moderate level of ICT adoption readiness and a moderate level of
ICT policy implementation. Therefore, the hypothesis was tested as follows:

H₀1 There is no relationship between ICT infrastructure and students’ preparedness for national
examinations in Kamuli and Jinja districts of Uganda.

The study revealed that the P value was 0.992, which is greater than 0.07 (P value 0.992>0.07) at
93% confidence level. Thus, we accept the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between ICT
infrastructure and students’ preparedness for national examinations in Kamuli and Jinja districts of
Uganda. This implies that there is no statistically significant relationship between ICT infrastructure
and students’ preparedness for national examinations. However, this was inconsistent with the
finding by Baluku and Kasujja (2020) in a study to establish the influence of ICT infrastructure on
academic performance in Kasese district that revealed that the utilisation of ICT infrastructure
influences students’ academic performance at UCE in secondary schools.

H₀2 There is no relationship between technological skills and student preparedness for national
examinations in Kamuli and Jinja districts of Uganda.

The study revealed that the P value was 0.143, which is greater than 0.07 (P value 0.143>0.07) at
93% confidence level. Thus, we accept the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between
technological skills and students’ preparedness for national examinations in Kamuli and Jinja
districts of Uganda. This, therefore, implies that there is no statistically significant relationship
between technological skills and students’ preparedness for National examinations in Kamuli and
Jinja districts of Uganda. This implies that there is no statistically significant relationship between
management support and students’ preparedness for national examinations.

H₀3 There is no relationship between management support and student preparedness for national
examinations in Kamuli and Jinja districts of Uganda.

The study revealed that the P value is 0.075, which is greater than 0.07 (P value =0.075>0.07) at
93% confidence level. Thus, we accept the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between
management support and students’ preparedness for national examinations in Kamuli and Jinja
districts of Uganda. This implies that there is no statistically significant relationship between
management support and students’ preparedness for national examinations.

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This is further indicated by the independence of performance on ICT infrastructure, technology

skills and management support, whose P values were all greater that 0.07 at 93% confidence level
i.e., P value = 0.992, P value = 0.143 and P value = 0.075 respectively. This is an indication that the
students were ill prepared to use ICT for learning purposes during the lockdown in preparation for
UCE examinations. The detailed analysis of the models is presented in the following tables;

Table 4: Logistic regression between ICT infrastructure and access to ICT resources for learning
purposes during the lockdown

Number of obs =
Logistic regression 140
LR chi2(4) = 11.69
Prob > chi2 = 0.0198
Log likelihood = -39.667596 Pseudo R2 = 0.1284

Access to ICT resources for learning Coef. S t d . Z P>z [93% Conf.

purposes during the lockdown Err.
Interval]
The integration of ICT in teaching and
learning impacted my performance in
UCE examinations.
Yes 0.2861 0.6851 0.4200 0.6760 -0.8408 1.4129
Access to ICT resources improved my
critical thinking skills and problem-
solving abilities in preparation for UCE
examinations
Yes -2.2379 0.7219 -3.1000 0.0020 -3.4253 -1.0505
Access to ICT resources positively affected
my motivation to learn and preparation
for UCE examinations
Yes 0.7281 0.7037 1.0300 0.3010 -0.4294 1.8857
Students in schools with ICT infrastruc-
ture were better prepared for UCE exams
than those without
Yes -0.1944 0.6212 -0.3100 0.7540 -1.2162 0.8274

_cons 3.0081 0.6204 4.8500 0.0000 1.9876 4.0286

Table 3 above indicates that ICT infrastructure accounts for only 12.84% of the variation in
students’ performance. There is a statistically significant relationship between access to ICT
resources for purposes of learning and an improvement in their critical thinking skills and problem-
solving abilities in preparation for UCE examinations since its P value was less than 0.07. (P value=
0.002<0.07) at 93% confidence level. An increase in access to ICT resources for purposes of learning
would lead to a 2.2379 reduction in the critical thinking skills and problem-solving abilities of the
learners. Owing to the presence of opportunities to access ICT resources, the students may not
create room to think and enhance their problem-solving skills.

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Table 5: Logistic regression between technological skills and access to ICT resources for learning purposes during the lockdown

Logistic regression Number of obs = 136

LR chi2(4) = 10.77
Prob > chi2 = 0.0956
Log likelihood = -32.818017 Pseudo R2 = 0.1410

Access to ICT resources for learning purposes during the Coef. Std. Err. Z P>z [93% Conf.
lockdown
Interval]
I was confident using technology for studying and preparing
for UCE exams
Yes 1.0654 0.7811 1.3600 0.1730 -0.2195 2.3502
I used technology for educational purposes even before
covid-19
Yes -0.5626 0.7068 -0.8000 0.4260 -1.7252 0.6001
I received formal training on the use of ICT in preparation for
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learning during covid-19 lockdown

Yes -0.1601 0.7051 -0.2300 0.8200 -1.3198 0.9996
Knowing how to use ICT helped me to study and prepare for
UCE exams
Yes -1.1637 0.7298 -1.5900 0.1110 -2.3641 0.0366
Students who were able to use ICT had an advantage in
preparation for UCE exams
Yes -1.4301 0.8433 -1.7000 0.0900 -2.8171 -0.0430
Technology will impact education and exam preparation in
the future
Yes -0.4492 0.8676 -0.5200 0.6050 -1.8763 0.9779
_cons 4.4258 1.1483 3.8500 0.0000 2.5370 6.3146

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Table 4 above indicates that technological skills account for only 14.10% of the variations in
students’ performance. It further revealed that the students’ performance is independent of the
presence of technological skills among the learners. This was based on the fact that there is no
statistically significant relationship between technological skills and students’ performance at
93% confidence level. That is, all the P values were greater than 0.07. Regardless of the students
having not had technological skills, they still performed well in the UCE examinations, considering
that the majority passed in 1st and 2nd grades, i.e. 61.84% and 30.92%, respectively.

Table 6: Logistic regression between Management support and access to ICT resources for purposes
of learning during the lockdown

Logistic regression Number of obs = 150

LR chi2(4) = 7.78
Prob > chi2 = 0.1685
Log likelihood = -47.031223 Pseudo R2 = 0.0764

Access to ICT resources for learning Coef. Std. Err. Z P>z [93% Conf.
purposes during the lockdown
Interval]
The school management offered ICT
support towards preparation for UCE
exams
Yes -0.1718 0.6700 -0.2600 0.7980 -1.2739 0.9302
Special assistance or ICT resources
were provided by the school
management to aid in learning for
exam preparation
Yes -0.4934 0.6793 -0.73 0.468 -1.6109 0.624
The school management frequently
communicated updates and
information related to ICT in
preparation for UCE exams
Yes -0.7923 0.6694 -1.1800 0.2370 -1.8934 0.3088

I noticed improvement in my learning

abilities in preparation for national
exams since the school management
was supportive in terms of ICT
Yes 0.2188 0.7008 0.3100 0.7550 -0.9339 1.3715
Students who received more support
from their school management
performed better in National exams
Yes -0.9771 0.7049 -1.39 0.166 -2.1366 0.1824
_cons 3.3818 0.6604 5.12 0 2.2955 4.4681

Table 5 above indicates that management support accounts for only 7.64% of the variations in
students’ performance. It further revealed that the students’ performance is independent of the
management support in ICT to the learners.

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This was based on the fact that there is no statistically significant relationship between management
support and students’ performance at 93% confidence level. This is because all the P values were
greater than 0.07. Therefore, regardless of the students having not been supported by their school
management, they still performed well in the UCE examinations, considering that the majority
passed in 1st and 2nd grades, i.e. 61.84% and 30.92%, respectively.

For all the three models, the R-squared was not a good fit and thus there are various factors
that could have accounted for the variations in the performance of the learners other than ICT
readiness. The positive impact of ICT on students’ performance is something which can be realised
with time through further investment in the integration of ICT in learning to better prepare learners
for unprecedented disruptions to learning/education.

Conclusion
From the findings in the study, we established that the students were ill prepared for the use of ICT
for learning, probably owing to the fact that they were not using ICT-based learning. The advent
of the Covid-19 disease and the associated total lockdowns forced the MoES and the schools to
continue with learning in a remote way. ICT-based learning was the prevailing alternative and
there was a variety of ICT resources that the students had to choose from to continue with learning
amidst the lockdown and tough restrictions and health protocols.

Recommendation(s)
We recommend that MoES should ensure that ICT-integrated learning is part of the pedagogies in
all schools at all levels, not only to develop the learners’ technological skills, but also to keep both
the learners and teachers ready and prepared for any unprecedented disruptions to education
which could affect the learners’ performance if they were not ready for ICT use.

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Information Communications Technology (ICT) Revolution and the

Implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Primary
Schools in Warren Park Mabelreign District
Mildred Shingirirai Nyamayedenga
University of Rwanda
Email: [email protected]

Abstract
The need to improve learners’ proficiency in Zimbabwe has resulted in primary school teachers
using ICT to implement the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach in English Language
teaching. The current Zimbabwean education policy encourages the use of ICT across the curriculum
but teachers are not skilled to use digital tools. The purpose of the study is to explore teachers’ voices
on the ICT revolution in the implementation of CLT. The study used a qualitative approach which is
interpretive in nature. An exploratory case study design with five purposively selected participants
was utilised. Data collection was done using semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions
and non-participant observations. The study found that the digital ICT platform mostly used by the
teachers are social media handles, namely YouTube and WhatsApp. Teachers also highlighted that they
used the Microsoft Word applications, for example PowerPoint. The ICT revolution has led to the use
of these digital connection platforms and applications to implement CLT to teach English Language
to primary school learners. Teachers highlighted that if ICT is well utilised in implementing CLT, it may
improve learners’ proficiency in English Language. The study recommends that all teachers should
be trained in ICT pedagogical skills so that they may use them to teach effectively and creatively
when implementing CLT. In addition, the implication of the study is that the Ministry of Primary and
Secondary Education (MoPSE) needs to make adequate ICT resources available in schools as well as
carry out staff development programmes on ICT pedagogical skills to make the implementation of
CLT in the teaching of English much easier.

Keywords: communicative language teaching approach, digital tools, information and

communication technology, proficiency, teaching
Introduction
Information and communication technology (ICT) has revolutionised the education sector,
although the teaching and learning activities in some schools remain traditional and may not
have embraced it. Education in the 21st Century now requires teachers to use multiple sources
for effective teaching and learning (Bhattacharjee & Deb, 2016). For the aforementioned reason,
the use of ICT is invaluable and it is important for today’s teacher to adopt it. Consequently,
the study was conducted to explore how the ICT revolution has enhanced the Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) at primary schools in Warren Park, Mabelreign District in the teaching
of English Language. As alluded to before, ICT is now viewed as one of the answers to improved
education in all modern societies. Also in Zimbabwe, CLT is the recommended teaching approach
in the syllabuses for all grades at primary school (Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture,
1986; Nyamayedenga & de Jager, 2022). The CLT approach is a child-participatory method that
allows learners to interact among themselves while the teacher is the facilitator (Ounis & Ounis,
2017; Muliani, 2022). The main aim of the Ministry of Education in Zimbabwe is to ensure that CLT
enhances learners’ communicative competence in the learning of English (Littlewood, 2013:1).

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Activities that may be used to implement CLT are role-play, discussions, dialogues, as well as pair
and group work, among others (Asl, 2015; Parvin, 2016; Richards, 2006; Ounis & Ounis, 2017). These
activities are interactional and they may be facilitated by the use of ICT, hence the great emphasis
by the new curriculum for teachers on using ICT tools to teach effectively and interactively.

ICTs have been evolving swiftly in current years. Since the 1960s the most common technology used
as teaching tools were televisions, tape recorders and video (Salehi & Salehi, 2012). According to the
International Institute for Communication Development (2007), four periods of ICT revolution are
highlighted. Firstly, ICT was adopted in the 1970s and 1980s for important educational purposes.
During the aforementioned era ICT was meant to assist learners develop their cognitive skills
(Yermekkyzy, 2022). The second phase saw the coming of multi-purpose computers in the 1980s
and early 1990s. This phase assisted learners to improve their reading and writing skills. The third
phase that saw the picking of the ICT revolution in education was in the early 1990s with the growth
of the World Wide Web. The growth of internet introduced e-learning in primary schools which mixed
computer-based and web-based learning tools. Thus, teachers who had access took advantage of
ICT tools to implement CLT as these assisted teachers and learners to interact effectively.

We are now in the fourth phase of the ICT revolution that is witnessing the use of electrical gadgets
that may have internet connections being used to handle and communicate information for
learning purposes (Twinning, 2014; Priyadarshni, 2018; Rachamalla 2021). These gadgets may
include laptops, smartphones, tablets, desktop computers or software such as Microsoft Word,
PowerPoint (Wang & Woo, 2007; Muslem, Yusuf & Juliana, 2018). The significance of the ICT tools as
a global development programme was emphasised by the United Nations, through its Millennium
Development Goals in 2000. In this programme, Goal 8 underscored the importance of making
available and accessible new technological innovations to the whole world (World Summit on
Information Society, 2003). The Zimbabwean Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education is
required to ensure information is distributed and produced for teaching and learning purposes.
The distribution and production of information will ensure that teachers and learners are part of
the revolution as they will fit in today’s modern demand of technology

Despite the recommendation by the new curriculum to use ICTs in the implementation of CLT, English
Language teaching remains traditional. Before COVID-19 hit Zimbabwe, the majority of primary
schools had failed to embrace the ICT revolution. Categorically, the advent of the pandemic forced
most institutions of learning in Zimbabwe to utilise ICT to avoid losing the academic year. School
head teachers had to choose ICT platforms that were affordable and convenient for their teachers,
learners and parents. One such platform was the YouTube social media platform, WhatsApp social
media platform, customised Teams platforms like Moodle, Google Teams, and many others. Now
that the COVID-19 pandemic is over, most schools could have come to realise that ICT may provide
effective, efficient and innovative ways of implementing CLT in the learning of English Language to
learners even when they are in school. The study seeks to explore how the primary school teachers
have embraced the ICT revolution to implement CLT in language learning.

Research Questions
The overarching research question is: How do primary school teachers embrace the ICT revolution
in implementing CLT?

The main research question is supported by the following sub-research questions:

i) What is the role of ICT while implementing CLT in Zimbabwean primary schools?
ii) What challenges are encountered by primary school teachers in embracing the ICT revolution
when implementing CLT?

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Literature Review
The Role of the ICT Revolution in Learning English
Technology has created opportunities and challenges for the teachers and learners of English
Language in the education sector. The current rise in the use of ICT has a great role in influencing
how English Language and other subjects are taught and learnt (Warschauer& Ware, 2008; White,
2003). In actual fact, the role played by the ICT revolution has given learners unparalleled benefits
that allow them to include themselves and use the English language in environments they are
familiar with (Kramsch & Thorne, 2002). For example, students may interact on Skype (Dalton-
Puffer, 2011) or zoom, Google Meet, or Teams. They may choose to interact on social network sites
such as Facebook or Twitter, Instagram and WhatsApp for writing practice (Bai, Zhu & Cheng, 2012).
The teachers may choose to use YouTube or any other platforms that need an internet connection.

Utilisation of ICT social media platforms, digital communication platforms or YouTube plays a role
in the implementation of CLT. Using ICT is important in that learners’ attention is captured and they
are able to express themselves as they seek information (Mubarak, 2016; Shava Chinyamurindi,
2017). ICT may be viewed as an enabling tool which provides teachers and learners with access
to opportunities and choices for grammar exercises and activities (Rachamallia, 2021). Moreover,
ICT can boost the learners’ language skills by inspiring them to read and write (Muslem & Abbas,
2017; Adonis, 2006). The role played by ICT also resonates well with the implementation of CLT
and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory because of its ability to make learners interact as well as
scaffolding them to improve their reading literacy skills (Saputri, Fajri, & Qonaatun, 2020). The
role of ICT in implementing CLT assists learners in browsing the internet to get content, copy it and
find additional learning material. Learning may become autonomous and it may assist learners in
becoming independent and motivated critical thinkers, which is an expectation of CLT. Interaction
and collaboration which are tenets of CLT may be achieved using ICT (Saputri, Fajri, & Qonaatun,
2020).

Hennessy (2005) also found that another role of ICT is to act as a catalyst in stimulating teachers
and pupils to work in new ways. ICT provides the communicative language tenets that are needed
in lessons. These are teacher-learner and learner-learner discussions, exploration, analysis and
reflections, probing, assistance and feedback. Hennessy notes that as learners become more
autonomous, teachers feel that they should encourage and support them in acting and thinking
independently.

Warschauer (2000) identified two distinct approaches to integrating technology into the classroom.
The cognitive approach allows learners to maximize their exposure to language in a meaningful
context, helping them construct their own knowledge. Technologies in this approach include text-
reconstruction software and multimedia simulation software, which allow learners to immerse
themselves in computerized micro-worlds, where they are exposed to language and culture in an
engaging audio-visual context. The best programs provide learners with significant control and
interactivity, enabling them to better manipulate linguistic input. In contrast, the social approach
emphasizes the social aspect of language acquisition, viewing it as a process of socialization. From
this perspective, learners need opportunities for authentic social interactions to practice real-life
skills, which can be achieved through student collaboration on authentic tasks and projects.

Numerous studies have examined the role of ICT in teaching English, both in Zimbabwe and other
countries. For example, Rodrigues (2002) found that ICT facilitates effective learning by engaging
learners in interactive activities. Another study in Bangladesh by Charpentier Jiménez (2014)
highlighted the importance of ICT in developing the four macro skills in English—listening, writing,
reading, and speaking. However, in Zimbabwe, there is limited information on the impact of the ICT
revolution on the implementation of CLT at the primary school level.

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Challenges of ICT
The integration of ICT in implementing Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has posed
significant challenges for primary school teachers. Despite the apparent progress brought about
by the ICT revolution, various obstacles persist for teachers, learners, and the Ministry of Primary
and Secondary Education in Zimbabwe. Habibu, Abdulla, and Chekun (2012) identify one of these
obstacles as material conditions, which include the availability of resources such as computers,
software, and network connectivity (Pelgrum, 2001). While some schools are eager to adopt
CLT using ICT tools, success is not always guaranteed. Granger (2012) found that simply having
connectivity and access to technology does not ensure the effective or productive use of ICT.
Similarly, Al‐Alwani (2005) reported that issues such as lack of network connectivity during school
hours and insufficient hardware were major barriers to technology integration in Saudi schools.

Teacher experience and age also contribute to the challenges of using ICT in CLT implementation
(Yermekkyzy, 2022; Bingimlas, 2009). Some teachers may lack confidence, practical knowledge, and
technology-supported pedagogical skills (Brush, 2008). Moreover, teachers who are not proficient
with computers may hesitate to expose their inadequacies in front of students. Another challenge
is the overwhelming amount of content accessible through ICT. Without the ability to effectively
process this information, both teachers and students may experience confusion in the classroom
(Yunus, Lubis, Lin, & Wekke, 2009). It is crucial that teachers develop the skills to access, process,
and utilize online content effectively.

Research conducted in other regions highlights similar obstacles to ICT adoption in education.
Smerdon, Cronen, Lanahan, Anderson, Iannotti, and Angeles (2000) identified inadequate time
and outdated resources as significant barriers for teachers. In the United Kingdom, Pelgrum (2001)
found that insufficient resources hindered ICT use in schools. A study in Iran revealed that teachers
struggled to find enough time to teach using ICT. In Zimbabwe, Nyamayaro (2016) found that poor
electricity supply and lack of computer literacy were major barriers to the ICT revolution in rural
education.

In examining how primary school teachers in Zimbabwe have embraced the ICT revolution, it
is essential to consider the barriers to ICT in teaching. There is limited literature in Zimbabwe
specifically addressing the intersection of the ICT revolution and CLT implementation in primary
schools. This study, therefore, seeks to explore how teachers understand and navigate the roles
and challenges of ICT in education.

Methods
This research was a qualitative, descriptive case study. The researcher used the qualitative research
approach to understand the attitudes, opinions and behaviour of the teachers regarding the ICT
revolution and the implementation of CLT as well as to comprehend the phenomenon under
study in its normal setting. The researcher interacted with the participants to get an in-depth
understanding of the ICT revolution and the implementation of CLT (Cohen, Manion & Morrison,
2011; Silverman, 2016). The research design used in this study is a single case study. The single case
study assisted the researcher to choose gather, analyse and present data from the participants in
a specific way (Yin, 2016). The research process comprised of choosing participants and research
sites, collecting and processing data as well as analysing it.

In a quest to explore how teachers have embraced the ICT revolution to implement CLT, the
researcher used purposive sampling to choose participants. The selection was influenced by the
following criteria: chosen schools are in the middle density suburb and the assumption was that
most parents earn a middle income. The other condition was that there was network connection in
the schools and teachers were aware that the new curriculum expected them to use technology in
teaching and learning of English.

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The selected participants were Grade 7 teachers who have taught for not less than five years and
have a Diploma in primary school education.

In connection with ethical consideration, the researcher selected teachers who were willing to
participate voluntarily. Consent forms were completed by the participants (Behrman & Field 2004).
Although learners were not the primary participants, the researcher had to seek their consent as
they would inadvertently be included in the analysis of the digital platform that they participated
in. The researcher also explained the purpose of the study to the participants before they signed
the informed letters of consent. Furthermore, participants were informed that they were free to
withdraw from the study at any time. Anonymity and confidentiality in this study were maintained
by using pseudonyms for the participants and their schools. Data was collected through semi-
structured interviews and document analysis. Teachers were interviewed in their offices. For
document analysis the researcher looked at the discussions made on digital platform for each
class that indicated learner’s participation and interaction which are tenants of CLT.

Theoretical Framework
The study was hinged on the socio-cultural theory (SCT) by Vygotsky (1978). The SCT purports
that language learning takes place through knowledge construction during interaction in different
settings. Learners build knowledge through mental activity involving the combination of old
knowledge and new knowledge to come up with a variety form of knowledge which they can
use to solve related problems. Furthermore, Vygotsky (1978) claims that there is a link between
language, understanding and the learners’ environment, hence the need to create concepts
relevant to classroom contexts during lessons. SCT assists in exploring tools that teachers use
when implementing CLT, activities that they use, and the extent to which they provide mediation
allowing learners to learn. Abbas, Lei-Mei and Haruil (2013) hold the view that the constructivist
perspective may support the use of ICT to implement CLT in a language learning class.

Results and Discussion

The main research question required an understanding of how primary school teachers embrace
the ICT revolution in implementing CLT. The analysed data and findings attempt to answer the
main research question using two sub-research questions. In view of the setting and emphasis of
the study, the themes that the researcher used came from the research questions, which are role
of ICT and the barriers to ICT. Under the role of ICT, the study came up with two sub-themes, which
are ICT facilitates interaction between learners and teachers in a CLT class and ICT helps learners
to improve in the four macro-skills of language in a CLT classroom. Under the barriers to ICT, the
researcher came up with two sub-themes. The two themes will bring out the importance of the ICT
revolution. The two themes and their sub-themes are briefly discussed in an attempt to provide
insights into how the teachers have embraced the ICT revolution in the implementation of CLT.

The Role of the ICT Revolution in Implementing CLT

The findings show that the ICT revolution comes with many benefits in the implementation of CLT.

ICT as a resource in the implementation of CLT

Another outstanding role played by ICT when implementing CLT is its speed in assisting the teacher
in delivering a lesson using learning aids. When compared to the traditional method of teaching,
ICT makes learning fast and easier. One of the participants gave the following view:

Teacher 5: It is unfortunate that I cannot fully utilise the ICT but each time I use the PowerPoint I
deliver my lesson fast and my learners seem to understand better as compared to chalk-and-talk,
which is traditional

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From the finding, the researcher can confidently claim that the use of ICTs PowerPoint is effective
in that it promotes open learning which is fast. Although the use of PowerPoint presentations is fast
and speeds up the presentation of learning aids, teachers may need to cater for the slow learners
and match their speed. This finding is supported by Ghavifekr and Rosdy (2015:176), who states
that the use of PowerPoint is fast and “---can be used to present the topic in a fast innovative and
creative way that will lead into discussion and exchanging ideas and thoughts”. At the same time,
participants also pointed out that the innovative use of ICT assisted them in getting resources for
teaching. Participants had this to say:

Teacher 1: Sometimes we do not have enough textbooks for learners to use. When there is a network
and there is a free lab, I go on YouTube to get a comprehension passage for my learners.

Teacher 3: There is plenty of learning content on the internet. This helps us as we experience a lack
of resources ICT has become handy for those who are privy with technology

The findings show that the use of ICT assists in covering the gap when there are no adequate
textbooks. Learning and teaching was made easy as teachers would get learning content from
the internet, which would enable learners to interact and discuss. This finding is supported by
Chouthaiwale and Alkamel (2018), Isaacs (2007), Akinbode (2007) and Musarurwa (2011), who found
that the use of ICT has the potential of changing the traditional method of teaching to contemporary
methods which allows learners to interact, thus aiding the implementation of the communicative
language teaching approach which is required by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education
in Zimbabwe. Besides making interactive learning content available, teachers also pointed out
that ICTs assisted them with learning aids that helped learners learn in their natural environments.
Chouthaiwale and Alkamel (2018), Akinbode (2007) supports this finding and states that technology
has become a learning aid in learners research works.

ICT making learners independent and collaborative in CLT classroom

The findings also indicated that the ICT revolution assisted teachers in implementing CLT as it
made learners become independent as they interacted among themselves. Independent learning
increases the learner’s self-worth and confidence (Akintunde & Danlami, 2015). The ICT revolution
saw learners being interested in their studies and taking charge while the teacher facilitated their
learning. One of the participants gave the following sentiments:

Teacher 4: My learners get excited and motivated each time I go to teach them in the lab. They
become so independent and I am only there to guide them.

From the above view it may seem participants are of the view that ICT assist learners in becoming
motivated. The learners get excited and they engage themselves in doing their work. Teachers
pointed out that their learners got excited because of the new learning aid and the interactive
content that they were given. Participants also pointed out that the excitement that learners had
made it much easier for them to implement CLT because of the interaction that took place among
the learners. The following statements from the teachers supported the aforementioned views:

Teacher 1: I use ICT to teach quiz and usually my learners interact a lot and I am only there to assist
when they have problems.

Teacher 3: On the application I am familiar with, learners share knowledge with their peers using
ICTs on given exercises. During lessons learners also ask each other questions and I guide them
while they participate fully.

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In view of the participants’ comments, the researcher observed that the use of ICT makes learners
participate fully. This idea is supported by Mubarak (2016), who opines that the use of ICTs makes
learners interact to share ideas, solve problems, explore opportunities and understand the content
they are learning in a better way. Mubarak (2016) goes on to support the use of ICT to implement
CLT as it offers more adaptable language learning practices through constructivism.

ICT making learners proficient

The findings also indicate that one of the roles played by the ICT revolution was that of making
learners proficient in English language. Teachers indicated that it was so difficult to implement CLT
when learners are not proficient in English because there is need for them to communicate and
interact with one another either in pairs or in groups. Teachers had this to say:

Teacher 2: I take my learners to ICT lab during my reading lessons. I always encourage them to surf
and read stories that interest them on the internet.

Teacher 4: We do not have software but I noticed that my learners can go on YouTube to watch
educational cartoons like ‘Everything Rosie’. After the lesson they are able to summarise what the
cartoon is about while it sharpens their speaking and listening skills.

The above finding is supported by Saputri, Fajri and Qonaatun (2020), who state that the use of
stories from the internet assists learners in improving their reading and communication skills. Amir
and Anggitasari (2021) sum up the role played by ICT in the implementation of CLT by stating that
it can assist the teacher in teaching vocabulary development, communication among teachers
and learners, use of language in the context of communication in general, use of argumentation
abilities, non-verbal skills, and group networking skills.

ICT barriers to ICT revolution to implement CLT

Findings from the collected data show that there are barriers that hinder the ICT revolution to
implement CLT. Some of these challenges require the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education
to intervene and make the ICT revolution complete.

Teacher incapacitation to teach ICT

The study found that teachers are incapacitated to teach using ICT. Teachers indicated that they
were not yet ready to teach using ICT. They suggested that the ministry should employ teachers
who are specialised in using ICT. The teachers had this to say:

Teacher 1: We were trained with basic computer skills at college. Although it is so difficult for us to
teach using ICTs as it needs additional intensive training.

From the findings, teachers are ill prepared to use ICT. Scholars contend that the success of teaching
using ICT is a challenge if the teacher has a dearth of knowledge about technology (Dondofema
& Shumba, 2018; Ihmeideh, 2009 & Bordbar, 2010). Participants also argued that the little ICT
knowledge that they acquired at college affected how they apply it in their classes. They hinted
that they needed to have technical knowledge to use some of the computer software packages that
assist learners in interacting during a lesson. One participant had the following to say:

Teacher 2: We also lack creativity when using ICT to implement CLT. Teaching learners in a
communicative way needs a lot of creativity on our part as teachers.

This finding resonates with Henriksen and Fitriah (2018) and Mishra and Fisser (2016), who found
that the ICT revolution may be facilitated by the teachers’ creativity; and the teachesr, in turn, can
provide learners with new contexts and tools for creative output.

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The aforementioned scholars call upon teachers who are creative and have excellent design
capabilities to adapt as well as create learning materials that suit the needs of the learners. From
the observations made, it was clear that teachers lack this capability. Concerning this issue of lack
of creativity, the following remark was made:

Teacher 1: In our cluster of schools, we attended a workshop to develop all the teachers in their ICT
skills. We look forward to having another one that can equip us with ICT teaching skills because
that is what we are lacking.

Salehi and Salehi (2012) say another barrier to the ICT revolution is because schools do not have
spare time to professionally develop their teachers in connection with new technologies and
explore technologies such as the internet and social networks. This shows the importance of
professional development in the learning-and-teaching environment. Teachers also pointed out
that they only use certain ICT applications that they are familiar with to implement CLT in teaching
language. Participants echoed the following sentiments:

Teacher 1: I only use the application I am familiar with like quizzes

Teacher 2: When I go to the lab, I only use PowerPoint because that is what I am familiar with. I do
not know other applications.

Teacher 3: My learners know a lot of games that they can use to improve their language, for example
British Council Games. This game allows me to implement CLT as it helps my learners to interact
during play.

Teacher 4: It is the Ministry’s policy that we use ICT to implement CLT during English Language
teaching. As a result, I am expected to take my learners to the lab and I make sure I have evidence of
using ICT. I created a WhatsApp group where I send my learners homework and I also communicate
with their parents/guardians.

From the findings, it is evident that the teacher plays a key role in the ICT revolution. For ICT to
be fully assimilated into the education curriculum, teachers should be technically capable,
competent and encouraged to develop the use of ICT for the teaching and learning of English in a
communicative way (Tsai & Chai, 2012).

Inadequate resources and faulty infrastructure

Another challenge that was highlighted by the teachers was that of shortage of resources and faulty
infrastructure. The teachers had this to say:

Teacher 3: We have a shortage of resources in terms of labs and computers. Our school has only
three computer labs which should cater for all the learners and I am given only one 30-minutes
lesson to use the lab.

Another teacher also pointed out that there were outdated computers in the labs. The teachers
also admitted that their schools had computers that were donated by the government but needed
upgrading to stay relevant.

Teacher 4: I can implement CLT and teach my learners communicatively using ICT but the problem
is sometimes when I have the turn to use the computer lab there will not be electricity. As a result,
I resort to my usual methods of teaching, which is the traditional method of teaching.

From the findings, the researcher is of the opinion that inadequate resources and infrastructure
in ICTs slow down the ICT revolution. It is becoming difficult for schools to fulfil the government’s
initiative to embrace ICT learning. This finding is similar to the claims made by Smerdon, Cronen,

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Lanahan, Anderson, Iannotti and Angeles (2000) that inadequate resources are a barrier to the
implementation of CLT using ICT. One of the participants had this to say about the infrastructure:

Teacher 5: I always try to overcome the challenge of a shortage of the lab by teaching my learners
after hours. I encounter problems with the lab technician who wants to close the lab and go home
soon after working hours. Sometimes the lab technician may want to stay but electricity becomes
a challenge as the school cannot afford to run a generator for us to get power.

The findings show that shortage of electricity in the country is also a big hindrance to the ICT
revolution. While teachers may be willing to work after hours to use the few available ICT resources,
sometimes the electricity goes off. The teachers suggested substitutes to complement electric
power cuts such as the use of generators and solar power. The problem was that the alternatives
to power are expensive to install and maintain, considering the economic situation. Weak internet
is also another barrier to the ICT revolution that the teachers indicated. They highlighted that
sometimes electricity may be available but the bandwidth that schools can afford gives them a weak
connection which is unstable and slow. The WiFi ends up eating their time. The teacher highlighted
that they will end up teaching without the use of ICTs so that they are not found wanting with their
head teachers as they are required to produce a certain amount of work per day.

Conclusion
The assimilation of ICT for implementing CLT has revolutionised the education system at a global
level, including the teaching of English Language, though it has its problems. Major highlights show
that the major focus of the ICT revolution was to make the learning and teaching of English easy
using the CLT approach. The findings of the study indicate that teachers know and understand the
role played by ICT in implementing CLT, like offering resources which make teaching contemporary,
encourage learners to collaborate, interact, initiate, be creative, self-directed and motivated.

Suffice to say that the challenges that teachers face with ICT to implement CLT cannot be
underestimated. Findings show that teachers are incapacitated to reap the full benefits of the ICT
revolution to implement CLT. Teachers pointed out that they lacked pedagogical skills and they
ended up using the applications that they are familiar with. Lack of creativity made it difficult
for them to implement CLT and they ended up reverting to the use of the traditional methods of
teaching, which are not learner centred. The other barriers were the lack of resources, outdated
computers, faulty infrastructure and erratic power supply in the country.

Recommendations
In brief, the meaningful ICT integration in the education system in Zimbabwe is an important step
towards the realisation of Millennium Development Goals set by the UN in 2005. Basing on the
findings, the study recommends the government to be fully committed to giving credible support
to all schools in the country. This can be done by expanding ICT facilities by providing the necessary
hardware like computers, adequate network, software and connectivity such as Wi-Fi in all schools.

Furthermore, the government needs to capacitate schools with technicians who will work under
the civil service to diagnose technical problems instead of schools hiring technicians to assist with
the repair of computers and networks.

The staff development programmes should train teachers to have pedagogical skills that will help
them to teach using ICT. Once the teachers have adequate skills, they will be able to use different
applications and foster their creativity.

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Sub-Theme 3:
Stakeholders’ Involvement in Education Change

Readiness for the New Lower Secondary School Curriculum

among Teacher Educators in Uganda

Dennis Zami Atibuni1,2* David Kani Olema1

Busitema University, Tororo - Uganda
1

2
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
* Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract
The government of Uganda has rolled out the New Lower Secondary School Curriculum that
emphasizes competence-based teaching as opposed to the previous one that was knowledge-
oriented. The roll-out has come at a time when the country has been grappling with an examination-
driven curriculum characterized by summative and continual assessment (also known as assessment
of learning) as opposed to formative assessment (also known as assessment for learning). Whereas
the implementation of the new curriculum is being spearheaded by the National Curriculum
Development Centre, teacher training institutions (universities, national teacher training colleges)
that are supposed to ensure the continuity of the training have not been deeply involved in the
process. This implies that the training offered in these institutions is likely to yield deficiency in the
competency of the graduates to handle the New Lower Secondary Curriculum. However, given that
the curriculum is already in force, it is likely that the teacher training institutions have adopted some
degree of readiness to train their teachers for the new curriculum. This study purposed to assess
the degree of change readiness for the new curriculum among the teacher educators. Employing
concurrent mixed methods design, quantitative data were collected from a cross-section of faculty
selected using a simple random sampling technique while qualitative data were gathered from the
institutions’ administrators. The quantitative data were analysed to determine the levels of change
readiness (acceptance and resistance) among the teacher educators. Qualitative data were analysed
using an interpretative phenomenological approach to give meaning to the level of readiness for the
change in curriculum. The findings would lend useful information for policy formulation regarding
the relevance of teacher training institutions in curriculum reform and implementation for societal
transformation.

Keywords: Acceptance, Change readiness, Curriculum reform, Curriculum review, Lower secondary,
Resistance, Teacher training,

Introduction
Globally, the availability of secondary education, its scope, duration, and age participation vary
greatly (OECD, 2018). Despite the fact that many people have an idea of what secondary education
is or should be, national perspectives on secondary education vary (Jacob & Lehner, 2012).

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Secondary education in Uganda spans six years, from Senior One to Senior Six, with pupils averaging
14 to 19 years old (National Curriculum Development Centre, 2018). It is one of the available options
for advanced education within the Ugandan educational system (Uganda National Commission for
UNESCO, 2010) including four years of ordinary secondary level (Lower Secondary) and two for
Advanced Secondary level (higher secondary) (JICA & IDCJ, 2012).

On successful completion of the ordinary level of secondary education, students are awarded the
Uganda Certificate of Education i.e. UCE by UNEB (Nuffic, 2016). Successful senior four leavers have
four possible paths through which they can attain further education: (i) they can either proceed
to an advanced level of education; (ii) join two-year crafts courses in technical institutes; (iii) join
a two-year grade III primary teaching programme (which government has now phased out based
on the new MOES requirements of all teachers to have degrees despite the level of the class to be
taught); (iv) or join any of the government’s departmental programmes such as agriculture, health,
veterinary, and cooperatives (Uganda Investment Authority, 2010). Students who successfully
complete secondary school are conferred the Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education (UACE).
Successful high school graduates attend college or enrol in two-year programs leading to an
ordinary diploma in teacher education, technical education, or business studies, or they enrol in
departmental programs.

According to Chapman et al. (2010), expanding access to high-quality secondary education is

essential for achieving the objectives of human development, political stability, and economic
competitiveness. This is only possible with ample resources for productive sector activities.
Secondary education, which is a bridge between primary and postsecondary education, prepares
students for the workforce and equips them with the social skills, competencies, and values they’ll
need to lead productive and satisfying lives as adults. Therefore, secondary education resources
must be deployed so that institutions can meet the educational requirements of these young people.
Accordingly, it has been suggested that secondary education with sound planning and funding has
the potential to equip students with the knowledge and skills necessary for greater economic and
social participation in a stable, democratic society. In addition, secondary education helps develop
the skills necessary to avoid hazardous behaviour so that individuals can live healthier, longer lives
(Venketsamy & Kinnear, 2020).

Uganda abruptly shifted from a secondary system for a limited academic class to a system for
students of all ages promoting learner-centred approaches in teaching and learning. In sub-Saharan
Africa, only South Africa has completed this transition; Botswana and Namibia are in the process.
Uganda is therefore a pioneer. In the last two to three decades, several countries with middle-
income and high-income levels have adopted this change process. This is beneficial because the
outcomes and critiques of their change initiatives are accessible online. To enhance secondary
education in Africa, it is imperative to first consider what students and institutions need to know to
confront the challenges of the twenty-first century and promote economic growth. This necessitates
a new curriculum framework, aspirational learning standards, cutting-edge evaluation tools, and
assurance that assessments measure what they’re intended to measure.

Uganda is one of the first African nations to contemplate overhauling its secondary education
system to meet the demands of the labour market and the continent’s economic development. To
make fundamental adjustments to the structure of the secondary education curriculum, there must
be consensus among key stakeholders, substantial support for educators and institutions, and a
sustained commitment from legislators. Clausen-May and Baale (2014) proposed a “dominant
pattern of expository, whole-class teaching” as a strategy to deliver the secondary school
mathematics curriculum in Uganda, which was designed during colonial times to service a small,
select group of academically gifted students. Since the implementation of the Universal Primary
and Secondary Education Policies in 1997 and 2007, the curriculum has become increasingly
ineffective and inaccessible for the majority of students.

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The curriculum for Lower Primary levels P1 to P3 was aligned with that of the Early Childhood
Development (ECD) program to ensure that the learners’ acquisition of knowledge was based
on recognizable themes and language. At this stage, the emphasis was on assisting students in
acquiring the necessary literacy, math, and social skills.

The Upper Primary Curriculum was subsequently reviewed with the intent of converting it to a
Competency-Based approach. This was implemented grade by grade, commencing in 2007 with
P1 and concluding in 2013 with P7. It places a significant emphasis on both language and content
competency acquisition. After evaluating the upper primary curriculum, it was crucial to align the
Lower Secondary Curriculum with the primary curriculum. In 2007, the Ministry of Education and
Sports (MoES) conducted research and compiled a report on the Lower Secondary Curriculum,
Assessment, and Examination, which identified the following deficiencies in the current curriculum:

i) There are too many topics, the majority of which are expensive to implement.
ii) It does not conform to international standards in important subject areas.
iii) “Book learning” is prioritized over aptitude and talent competence.
iv) When selecting learners for the subsequent cycle, academic achievement is given the utmost
priority. This disqualifies many students.
v) The test system determines what is taught and how it is taught, rather than the reverse.
The majority of examination questions are comprehension-based and require study. Tests and
evaluation methods cannot accommodate a wide diversity of skills.
vi) Existing texts are dense with information and written for readers with higher literacy levels
than the average individual.

The Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) began reviewing the lower secondary curriculum in
2008. The 1992 Government White Paper on Education, Vision 2040, National Development Plans
I and II, Education Sector Strategic Plans (ESSPs) of 2004/05 - 2019/20, NRM Manifesto 2016-2021,
East African Secondary School Harmonized Curriculum Framework, Sustainable Development
Goal 4 and subsequent studies conducted by the MoES served as the primary sources of guidance
for the review. In addition, according to UNESCO’s department of curriculum, for nations to achieve
Sustainable Development Goal No. 4 “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all,” then reforms in the curricula are inevitable.

Rationale for Lower Secondary School Curriculum Reform in Uganda

According to the Ministry of Education (1989), both the government and the general public voiced
concern about the education system’s lack of relevance and inability to satisfy societal requirements.
Among other things, education was failing to transmit the kind of science and technical knowledge,
cultural values, literacy, and sense of social responsibility that society liked to see. It also failed to
promote a sense of national unity, self-reliance, social fairness, and equality. In response to the
rapidly transforming demands of their labour markets, the majority of middle-income and high-
income countries have adopted a continuous curriculum revision process. Uganda therefore
needed to make a more fundamental adjustment to the post-primary system in order to: (a) enable
universal secondary education (USE) to develop in line with 21st century economic development
demands; (b) address the rising number of primary graduates; and (c) reduce the unaffordable
high cost of the current system.

The transformation of Uganda’s educational system from one that was exclusive to the elite to
one that is open to all and supports each person’s endeavour to advance as far as they can in their
education is a significant one that will affect every step of the curriculum-creation process.

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Long-term political choices must be made, and expert employees at all levels must undergo
a significant re-orientation process. It has frequently been noted that those nations that have
handled this shift the best and with the support of the majority of the population are those that
have also experienced other social upheavals, such as the process of recovering from a war or the
kind of social changes connected with obtaining political freedom. Both of these circumstances do
not exist in Uganda, and the challenges posed by change management cannot be overstated.

The “CURASSE Roadmap” report examined the reasons behind the need for the curriculum shift
in depth. The primary reason was the need to switch from an exclusive curriculum with high
entrance requirements and high failure rates to an inclusive curriculum that is open to everyone
and honours success. Currently, secondary education costs roughly seven times as much as
elementary education, whereas, in other nations, this ratio is closer to two times. The causes of the
high cost include the high cost of many topics currently taught and the ineffective management of
the program; the secondary PTR is reportedly around 20, which is extremely low when compared
to what is possible globally. The fact that the present curriculum does not provide the kind of skills
that the labour market needs to satisfy the country’s emerging requirements is a third crucial factor.

The current curriculum does not use instructional strategies that support efficient learning
and skill development. The teaching and textbooks focus on getting the best mark on the test
because the current programme is mainly made up of examination syllabi. For demonstrating an
understanding of how to implement information on the exams, very few points are given. Except
for a few comparatively unimportant assessments, such as practical scientific exams, skills are still
largely not evaluated—a big mismatch if we are to promote employability. As a result, skills are
rarely taught even when mastery of them is a declared curricular goal. It has been established that
thoughtful curricular design, in conjunction with efficient testing and learning resources, plays a key
role in improving teaching. The active learning strategies that distinguish successful contemporary
teaching place value on the learner’s previous knowledge and promote its incorporation with new
information. Despite being a key component of building the kinds of competencies needed by the
shifting societal and workplace responsibilities of the 21st century, it is claimed that very little of
this is presently taking place in secondary classrooms in Uganda.

The bulk of students who are now attending secondary school do not have their requirements
met by the current curriculum. The current program is exclusive; it serves as a filter to keep out
everyone but the intellectual elite. The redesign of the curriculum should be inclusive, meet the
needs of all children, and set the groundwork for better teaching (and evaluation processes) that
will help learners more fully achieve their potential, no matter how restricted it may be. In other
words, rather than simply setting norms, it should be a powerful tool for raising them.

The existing school curriculum does not adequately address the economic and social needs of the
nation. Uganda, like the rest of Africa, is experiencing a period of steady economic growth. This
will require a workforce at all levels that is adaptable and digitally proficient. Numerous pieces of
evidence indicate that the current curriculum falls short of these requirements. In full first (GDP)
growth is driven by the considerably larger groups of competent middle-level specialists, not the
academic elite. The current structure does not support these social classes adequately. When
developing the expanded secondary program, both their needs and those of the academically
privileged should be considered.

The existing curriculum is not adaptable enough to cover new areas of knowledge. It was developed
in the 1970s. Many of its ideas and the methods it supports are outdated. Periodic updating has
brought more contemporary material but little has been removed to make space for it; this is a
significant factor adding to the present overload. This process has now hit its breaking point and
is unable to adapt to the ever-increasing changes required of it to properly handle new areas of
knowledge, especially those related to technology.

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In addition to allowing for a fresh start to ensure that these areas are covered, a new curriculum
was thought to be necessary to enable a much more adaptable design so that future changes
can be more easily met. According to Muhangi (2019), the existing education system is largely
ineffective with a low-quality teaching force that lacks the required skills for effective teaching
leading to poor learning outcomes. The present teacher policies are also ineffective at luring top
talent, supporting capable head teachers, and helping teachers in their efforts to enhance teaching
(World Bank, 2018). Additionally, there is a dearth of topic expertise, and these factors all affect
how well students learn. Even though 90% of secondary school teachers in Uganda possess the
necessary formal credentials, a study by UNESCO (2014) has shown that secondary teachers lack
the necessary pedagogical skills and subject-matter expertise to effectively instruct. For instance,
only 66%, 70%, and 17% of instructors, respectively, are experts in biology, arithmetic, and English
(Ministry of Education & Sports, 2013).
To realize its promise, Uganda requires a competency-based curriculum. A competency-based
programme founded on cross-curricula or subject-bound core competencies should stress
complicated outputs like knowledge, skills, and dispositions to be implemented by learners rather
than conventional topic material. The New Lower Secondary Curriculum meets the needs of the
competence-based curriculum because it is learner-centred and flexible enough to change with
the needs of the students, instructors, and society. A program like this chooses learning activities
and environments to assist students in applying their information, abilities, and dispositions to
real-world situations.

Justification for a Change Readiness Study on the New Curriculum among Teacher Educators
Executing the CURASSE Roadmap will inevitably necessitate reflection on the roles and duties of
the various “education management actors.” The MOES and its decentralized units, as well as the
institutional framework need to ensure the quality and efficiency of the services provided and its
outputs (i.e., quality of graduates, teaching, and managers and teachers). The suggested Roadmap
would work to improve the efficiency of secondary educational and vocational services at lower
unit costs, allowing for more inclusion to be attained over time) and quality (to better support
Uganda’s economic development objectives).

Numerous institutions engaged in curriculum development, assessment, teacher education,

professional development, and quality control need to work together to create, execute, and
monitor the new curriculum. The ability of these institutions to offer the required assistance should
be evaluated, and any gaps should be filled. These institutions need new policies, guidelines, and
practices, which should be created with the aid of study tours, professional support, and other
resources. The different organizations involved—teacher education institutions, the standards
agency, the examinations council, etc.—should be completely prepared to perform their respective
roles. On the basis of foreign experience, it can also be deduced that many parts of the Ugandan
educational system will be impacted by and subject to change as a result of the Curriculum,
Assessment and Examination (CURASSE) implementation. Additionally, since curriculum changes
are ongoing, Uganda’s secondary education and training subsystem needs to continue to adjust in
order to keep up with the nation’s economic development after this more basic change. The most
able-serving aspects of the current system will not be compromised by such a change, in fact, it
should be improved. The review process should not, under any circumstances, ‘throw the baby out
with the bathwater.’

The Teacher Education curricula at Teacher Training Institutes (TTIs) and Universities need to be
reviewed in light of the shift in the new curriculum. Teaching staff need to be informed on the
revised lower secondary school curriculum, its revised material, and its revised methods through
brief training sessions. These contributions ought to be coordinated with efforts to change teacher
education programmes.

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In addition, staff development is necessary for experienced and motivated instructors as well as a
large portion of the teaching staff at teacher education institutions to plan and carry out in-service
training programs. The TTIs and Universities need to coordinate similar professional training
initiatives. Such a structure does not currently exist but is essential for the training of teachers
implementing the new curriculum. This should be done with the teacher education institutions
in a central role. In particular, the TTIs and universities are well-placed to take up this role. The
proposed staff development activities at TTIs and universities need to take into account the
creation and implementation of programs to retrain serving teachers. It is upon these arguments
that the researchers set out to investigate the readiness of the teacher educators to adapt to the
demands of training teachers to be relevant and competent in handling the new lower secondary
curriculum. In line with Nyenje and James’s (2016) postulates, we further argue that the success of
the reformed lower secondary school curriculum in Uganda will depend on the extent to which the
teachers understand the reasoning that lies behind the changes in curriculum and teaching.

Methodology
The study employed a quantitative cross-sectional survey design. This design was used to quantify
the participants’ levels of resistance to the New Lower Secondary Curriculum in Uganda. The
study participants included teacher educators in national teachers’ colleges and universities
(both public and private) in Uganda. Contacts of the participants were retrieved from the social
media platforms (mainly WhatsApp fora) of teacher educators. We used a structured questionnaire
that was translated into an online google form to gather quantitative data from the consenting
participants. Those whose contacts were not in the archives were followed by snowballing. In total,
we obtained quantitative data for this study online from 99 participants.

The online instrument consisted of three sections. Section A gathered information on the
participants’ institutional backgrounds including type of institution, regional location of the
institution, ownership of the institution, and position within the institution. Section B was an
adapted version of the Change Readiness Questionnaire containing 17 close-ended questions to
provide data on participants’ evaluation of their resistance to adopting the New Lower Secondary
Curriculum in their teacher education practices. The evaluation was based on five core aspects/
subscales of the change readiness: (i) affective, (ii) cognitive, (iii) functioning, (iv) work effectiveness,
and (v) work relationships. The close-ended items were scored on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The Cronbach α of each subscale was above 0.70. Hence
the instrument was highly reliable for evaluating teacher educators’ resistance to change in
adopting the New Lower Secondary Curriculum. Section C had open-ended questions that sought
participants’ responses on suggestions for effective adoption and implementation of the New
Lower Secondary competency-based education (CBE) curriculum.

The data collection procedure involved seeking consent of the participant first; whoever clicked
“no” to the consent question of whether they were willing to participate or not could not proceed
to the next items. Only those who consented “yes” participated in the study. In total, 99 responses
were obtained, which speaks to a low response rate of online data collection. The filled-in forms
were retrieved as Excel data files which were then imported into SPSS Version 20, further coded for
analysis.

The participants’ ratings of their resistance to adopting the new lower secondary school curriculum
into teacher education practices were interpreted in frequencies, percentages, means, and standard
deviations. Generally, the mean scores were interpreted as follows: 1.00—2.33 (low), 2.34—3.73
(moderate), and 3.74—5.00 (high).

As already alluded to, the planning, collection, and processing of data was undertaken with full
ethical considerations. Participants consented to take part in the study.

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Those who did not could not access the subsequent items. Those who consented and felt like
withdrawing along the way were free to ignore hitting the “submit” button. Generally, the
participants were assured of voluntary participation, freedom to withdraw from the study at any
time, privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity. Documents such as journal articles, reports, books,
and book chapters used as sources of information in the study were all duly credited by citing in
text and referencing.

Results

Demographic Characteristics of the Participants

The background information of the participants was sought and presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of the Participants

Background information Category Frequency Percent

Institution type TTI 21 21.2
University 78 78.8
Total 99 100.0
Region where the institution North 12 12.1
is geographically located Central 9 9.1
East 51 51.5
West 27 27.3
Total 99 100.0
Ownership of the institution Private 15 15.2
Public 84 84.8
Total 99 100.0
Position in the institution Lecturer 63 63.6
Head of De- 9 9.1
partment
Deputy 9 9.1
Dean/Deputy
Director/Dep-
uty Principal
Dean/Direc- 18 18.2
tor/Principal
Total 99 100.0

Majority of the participants, 78 (78.8%) were teacher educators at universities while the rest were
in TTIs. Majority (84.8%) were serving in public institutions. The distribution of the participants
by positions of responsibility was as follows: lecturer, 63 (63.6%); head of department, 9 (9.1%);
deputy dean/deputy director/deputy principal, 9 (9.1%); and dean/director/principal, 18 (18.2%).

Resistance to the New Lower Secondary Curriculum

The level of resistance to the New Lower Secondary Curriculum in Uganda was measured in four
dimensions: affective, cognitive, functioning, and work relationship. The participants’ levels of
agreement/disagreement with items relating to resistance to the curriculum in these dimensions
are presented in Table 2.

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Table 2: Resistance to the new lower secondary curriculum

Affective response to the new curriculum SD D N A SA M SD

I’m worried about what things will be like after the introduction of the 21 18 15 27 18
3.03 1.432
new curriculum in the college and university programmes. (21.2) (18.2) (15.2) (27.3) (18.2)
I feel the new curriculum will be overwhelming when introduced in 18 30 6 27 18
2.97 1.432
the teacher training programmes. (18.2) (30.3) (6.1) (27.3) (18.2)
I try not to think about the move to adopt the new curriculum because 42 21 6 12 18
2.42 1.566
when I do I get too stressed out. (42.4) (21.2) (6.1) (12.1) (18.2)
It would be much better to include the new curriculum in the training 3 0 3 15 78
4.67 0.808
of teachers at the university/college. (3.0) (0.0) (3.0) (15.2) (78.8)
This whole new lower secondary school curriculum thing makes me 60 15 6 18 0
1.82 1.173
kind of angry. (60.6) (15.2) (6.1) (18.2) (0.0)
I’m really sad that the original education of this country is being 48 18 6 18 9
2.21 1.438
diluted by the introduction of a new lower secondary curriculum. (48.5) (18.2) (6.1) (18.2) (9.1)
Overall 2.85 1.308
Cognitive evaluation of the new lower secondary school SD D N A SA M SD
curriculum
57 18 6 18 0
I don’t really think the change of O-level curriculum was necessary. 1.85 1.164
(57.6) (18.2) (6.1) (18.2) (0.0)
Our teacher trainees will be better off after adopting the new 0 3 6 30 60
O-level curriculum in teacher education colleges and universities, in 4.48 0.747
comparison with the situation before. (0.0) (3.0) (6.1) (30.3) (60.6)
I think it is good to adopt this new lower secondary curriculum in 0 3 9 18 69
4.55 0.786
colleges and universities. (0.0) (3.0) (9.1) (18.2) (69.7)

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The adoption of the new curriculum in the teacher education colleges 0 3 12 18 66

4.48 0.825
and universities will do us all good. (0.0) (3.0) (12.1) (18.2) (66.7)
Overall 3.84 0.880
Functioning: Avoiding adoption of the new curriculum in teaching SD D N A SA M SD
Generally, I avoid incorporating the demands of the new curriculum 39 24 18 15 3
2.18 1.198
in my teaching as much as I can. (39.4) (24.2) (18.2) (15.2) (3.0)
I find myself trying to minimize planning and preparation of teaching 42 18 15 15 9
2.30 1.388
in line with the demands of the new curriculum. (42.4) (18.2) (15.2) (15.2) (9.1)
Overall 2.24 1.293
Work effectiveness SD D N A SA M SD
Due to the change in O-level curriculum, I tend to be very distracted 33 24 18 9 15
2.48 1.424
in my content delivery these days. (33.3) (24.2) (18.2) (9.1) (15.2)
I find that I’m not as efficient or productive when using the new 39 18 15 21 6
2.36 1.351
curriculum approach as I used to before. (39.4) (18.2) (15.2) (21.2) (6.1)
These days I find it particularly difficult to motivate myself to do the 30 18 24 24 3
things I know I should in teaching because of the demands of the new 2.52 1.240
O-level curriculum. (30.3) (18.2) (24.2) (24.2) (3.0)
Overall 2.45 1.340
Work relationships SD D N A SA M SD
During the implementation of the new O-level curriculum I find that I 39 21 18 21 0
2.21 1.180
am less tolerant to others. (39.4) (21.2) (18.2) (21.2) (0.0)
My relationships with my co-workers are negatively influenced by 15 8 4 5 1
2.06 1.223
this change in O-level curriculum. (15.2) (8.1) (4.0) (5.1) (1.0)
Overall 2.135 1.202

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The results in Table 1 indicate moderate overall affective resistance to the new lower secondary
curriculum. An appreciable proportion (45.5%) of the participants were worried about what things
will be like after the introduction of the new curriculum in the college and university programmes.
Some (45.0%) felt the new curriculum will be overwhelming when introduced in the teacher training
programmes. Still others (30.0%) showed resistance by trying not to think about the move to adopt
the new curriculum because the mere thought stressed them out. To the contrary, only 3.0% of
the participants disagreed with the idea of having to include the new curriculum in the training of
teachers at the university/college. A few (18.2%) expressed anger about the new lower secondary
school curriculum and others (27.0%) felt very sad that the original education of the country is
being diluted by the introduction of a new lower secondary curriculum. These findings indicate an
appreciable degree of affective resistance to adoption of the new lower secondary curriculum in
the programmes of teacher education institutions in Uganda.

There was a generally high level of cognitive acceptance (M = 3.84, SD = 0.88) and hence low level of
cognitive resistance of the new lower secondary curriculum. Very few, 18(18.2%), of the participants
felt that the change of O-level curriculum was not necessary. Instead, majority, 90(0.9%), believed
that their teacher trainees would be better off after adopting the new O-level curriculum in teacher
education colleges and universities, in comparison with the situation before. Also, majority,
87(87.9%), thought that it is good to adopt the new lower secondary curriculum in colleges and
universities. A greater proportion of the participants, 84(84.9), similarly believed that the adoption
of the new curriculum in the teacher education colleges and universities will do everyone good.

The participants’ level of resistance to functioning, that is, avoiding adoption of the new curriculum
in teaching was generally low (M = 2.24, SD = 1.293). Only 18(18.2%) generally avoided incorporating
the demands of the new curriculum in their teaching as much as they could. However, another
18(18.2%) remained neutral with regard to avoiding to incorporate the demands of the new
curriculum in their teaching. Similarly, 24(24.3%) tried to minimize planning and preparation of
teaching in line with the demands of the new curriculum.

There was moderately low level of resistance that negatively impacted the participants’ work
effectiveness (M = 2.45, SD = 1.340). The participants who tended to be very distracted in their
content delivery due to the change in O-level curriculum numbered 24 (24.3%). Some (27.3%)
noted that they were not as efficient or productive when using the new curriculum approach as
they used to before, with 15(15.2%) remaining undecided. A similar number, 27(27.3%) agreed that
they found it particularly difficult to motivate themselves to do the things they knew they should
do in teaching because of the demands of the new O-level curriculum, with 24(24.2%) choosing to
be undecided in this regard.

The introduction of the new lower secondary school curriculum caused low level of friction in
work relationships (M = 2.135, SD = 1.202). A relatively small proportion (21.2%) of the participants
agreed that during the implementation of the new O-level curriculum, they found that they were
less tolerant to others. A far smaller number, 6(6.0%), expressed agreement that their relationships
with their co-workers were negatively influenced by the change in O-level curriculum. These
findings speak to the fact that there was still a need for buy-in among a section of teacher educators
to impart the requisite competencies to the teacher trainees as they join the field.

Discussion
This study aimed to assess the readiness for change among teacher educators in Uganda regarding
the new lower secondary school curriculum. The findings reveal a generally moderate level of
resistance, and correspondingly, a moderately high level of acceptance of the new curriculum.

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This suggests gaps in buy-in among the teacher educators. As highlighted by Mubangizi (2020),
a key challenge in implementing the new lower secondary curriculum is the ineffective policy
implementation, which results in suboptimal outcomes and the wastage of significant resources,
time, and effort. Notably, the formulation phase involved inadequate consultation, leading to
insufficient buy-in from all stakeholders, including teacher education institutions. Consequently,
it is not surprising that the new curriculum has encountered resistance from key stakeholders,
including teacher educators. This situation underscores the need for a concerted effort by
institutions to foster change and ensure comprehensive buy-in among all stakeholders. As Wheeler
(1980) suggested, the education sector should not be viewed merely as another public sector; it
is an investment sector, one that is crucial to developing human capital. To achieve the desired
benefits, both individually and nationally, it is essential to make appropriate investments in the
quality of human capital.

Chemonges (2022) emphasises that teachers must teach practical topics “practically” for the new
curriculum to equip students with the necessary skills. This necessitates that teachers themselves
receive extensive training in handling the curriculum, ideally during both preservice and in-service
education. Unfortunately, as Tumushabe and Arinaitwe (2013) point out, the teaching profession
in Uganda has been significantly undervalued. Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive
approach to improve the teacher education system by continuously enhancing the pedagogical
skills and knowledge of teacher educators. Moulton (2002) suggests reducing wastage in teacher
education, improving classroom performance, and enhancing the capacity of universities and
Teacher Training Institutions (TTIs) to continually refine the teacher-training curriculum.

Mubangizi (2020) argues that while the quantity of teachers may not be a significant concern, their
quality remains a topic of debate and criticism, particularly in the context of the new lower secondary
curriculum. As Senteza-Kajubi (1992) famously stated, “No country can have a better quality of
education than the quality of its teachers, as teachers are molders of tomorrow’s generation,
who should be prepared to live in a complex global world.” The profound impact that teachers
can have on their students is often difficult to measure, yet they play a crucial role in shaping
the future generation to create a better and safer world. Factors such as inadequate pedagogical
preparation for student teachers entering teacher education programs, low motivation, and limited
opportunities for professional growth contribute to poor teacher quality. This, in turn, leads to
poor planning, ineffective use of class time, authoritarian teaching styles, the use of inappropriate
teaching methods, and a lack of focus on practical work and active learning.

Conclusion
While teacher educators in Ugandan universities and TTIs are somewhat prepared, there is an
urgent need to fully engage these institutions. Delaying their involvement could lead to higher
costs and missed opportunities to provide Uganda’s youthful population with the high-quality
education promised by the lower secondary education reforms. The quality of education in the
country is directly tied to the quality of its teachers, which in turn depends on the quality of teacher
educators. Therefore, it is essential to gain the support of teacher educators in universities and
TTIs for the new curriculum. Additionally, these educators require professional development in
technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge to effectively teach the updated curriculum.
This will enable them to equip teacher trainees with the necessary skills to provide market-relevant
education in secondary schools. The MoES could benefit from adopting international best practices,
particularly from countries such as South Korea, Singapore, Vietnam, and European nations like
Scotland, England, and the Netherlands.

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References
Chemonges, T. (2022). Uganda’s new curriculum for Lower Secondary: Will it meet learners’ skill
needs? Retrieved from https://parliamentwatch.ug/blogs/ugandas-new-curriculum-for-lower-
secondary-will-it-meet-learners-skill-needs/

Clausen-May, T., & Baale, R. (2014). Mathematics curriculum reform in Uganda–what works in the
classroom? In British Congress in Mathematics Education (BCME), Nottingham.

Cuban, L. (1992). Curriculum stability and change. In P. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on
curriculum (pp. 216-247). New York: Macmillan.

Ministry of Education. (1989). Education for national integration and development: Report of
Education Policy Review Commission. Kampala: Author

Moulton, J. (2002). Uganda: External and Domestic Efforts. Education Reforms in Sub-Saharan
Africa: Paradigm Lost? (82), 53.

Mubangizi, P. (2020). Uganda’s new lower secondary school curriculum: Moving towards a competent
and quality education system. Policy Brief. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/341670833_UGANDA’S_NEW_LOWER_SECONDARY_SCHOOL_CURRICULUM_MOVING_
TOWARDS_A_COMPETENT_AND_QUALITY_EDUCATION_SYSTEM_Policy_Review
Muhangi, G. T. (2019). Secondary education in Uganda: Resource mobilization and efficiency. Journal
of Education and Practice, 10(20), 79-90.

Nuffic, E. (2016). Education system Netherlands. Retrieved from the internet.

Nyenje, A., & James, N. L. (2016). Institutional Dynamics of Education Reforms and Quality of
Primary Education in Uganda. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(32), 113-122.

Senteza-Kajubi, W. (1992). Financing higher education in Uganda. Higher Education, 23(4), 433–441.

Tumushabe, G., & Arinaitwe, J. M. (2013). Investing in our nation’s children: Reforming Uganda’s
Education System for Equity, Quality, Excellence and National Development. ACODE policy briefing
paper series, (27).

Venketsamy, R., & Kinnear, J. (2020). Accommodating Comprehensive Sexuality Education within
the Grades R–3 Curriculum in South Africa. The Education Systems of Africa, 1-25.

Wheeler, D., (1980). Human resource development and economic growth in developing countries:
A simultaneous model. Washington, DC: World Bank, Staff Working Paper No. 407.

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Pharmacological Literacy as Curriculum Input for Functional Health Education

Programme: Perception of Health Educators in Nigeria

Samuel Adesina Okueso1, Victor O. Adefarasin1, Ridwan Ademola Adekola1

1
Olabisi Onabanjo University Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria

Corresponding author: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Health Education (HE) was established as a distinct programme from Physical Education less
than three decades ago in Nigeria to address the country’s growing preventive healthcare needs,
as recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) at the Alma Ata Conference in 1978.
Despite multiple curriculum reviews aimed at aligning with national health philosophies, significant
gaps remain in addressing both communicable and non-communicable diseases. The inclusion of
pharmacology in health education is increasingly recognized as essential for enhancing healthcare
outcomes. This study investigated the perceptions of health education students regarding the
inclusion of pharmacological literacy in the Functional Health Education program in Nigeria. Utilizing
a descriptive survey research design, the study addressed three research questions and sampled
1,892 participants. The instrument used was the Inclusion of Pharmacological Literacy Questionnaire
(IPLQ). The findings revealed a positive perception among health education students towards
incorporating pharmacological literacy into the curriculum. Consequently, it is recommended that the
National University Commission (NUC) incorporates Pharmacological Health Education into Nigeria’s
academic programme in Health Education.

Keywords: Curriculum input, Health education, Pharmacological literacy

Introduction
Health Education as a programme of study in universities is growing so fast in Nigeria that most
public and private colleges of health technology, colleges of education, and universities are running
the course with good student patronage and increased enrolment. This phenomenon is a result of
the long overdue need for the course to stand alone as a course of study because of its importance
as one of the tools to meet the preventive health needs of the populace. This has been the focal
point of health care strategies using Primary Health Care (PHC) as a working index identified by
the World Health Organization (WHO) at the Alma Ata Conference since 1978. Nigeria as a country
is making efforts to work in consonance with this WHO strategy since inception, by finding the
various ways and means to achieve health for all and to meet the national health philosophy and
needs, identified the teaching of health education as a stand-alone course to be studied in schools
and universities as proposed at the Alma-Ata conference as a driving force for preventive medicine.
For health education to achieve the goals enumerated, it has to continually undergo curricular
review and update which implies that various other related disciplines must form bulk of the
content areas to be looked at.

The study of anatomy and physiology, medical psychology, drug education, epidemiology, vital
statistics, nutrition, medical anthropology, and in fact, the introduction of pharmacology is
becoming inevitable to make health education more functional in achieving its predetermined set
goals of diseases prevention and building positive health behaviour for health promotion.

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Many health education professionals are working to facilitate the modification of health behaviours
which has led to the relentless search for an appropriate definition of health education. Downie, Fyfe
and Tannahill (1990) defined it as a communication activity aimed at enhancing positive health and
preventing or diminishing ill health in individuals and groups by influencing their beliefs, attitudes,
and behaviour. The World Health Organisation (1998) defined health education as comprising
consciously constructed opportunities for learning involving some form of communication
designed to improve health literacy, including improving knowledge and developing life skills
which are conducive for individual and community health. Gold and Miner (2002) defined health
education as any combination of planned learning experiences based on sound theories that
provide individuals, group, and communities the opportunity to acquire information and skills
needed to make quality health decisions. Green and Kreuten (2005) defined health education as
any planned combination of learning experiences designed to predispose, enable and reinforce
voluntary behaviour conducive to health in individuals, groups or communities. Health education
is any combination of planned learning experiences using evidenced based practices and/or sound
theories that provide the opportunity to acquire knowledge, attitudes and skills needed to adopt
and maintain healthy behaviour (Joint Committee on health, 2012).

Critically looking at the various definitions proposed, some fundamental indices are very clear.
In the first instance, health education is systematic, planned application which qualifies it as a
science (Sharma, 2017). Secondly, the delivery of health education involves a set of techniques
and not just one. Before now, health education encompassed a wider range of activities including
community mobilization, networking and advocacy which are today embodied in the term health
promotion. It is obvious to note that health education is a dynamic program of study that should
continually evolve to meet the changing world through periodic review of the curriculum.

Pharmacology is the scientific study of the effects of drugs and chemicals on living organisms,
and the study of pharmacology is interdisciplinary. Its study explores many aspects of drug
discovery, development, and preclinical drug safety which integrate knowledge from multiple
scientific disciplines including chemistry, biochemistry, biology, and physiology providing a
significant positive impact on human health (Hobbing, 2023). The knowledge of the five branches
of pharmacology: pharmacokinetics which involves the understanding of what the body does with
the drug when taken; pharmacodynamics which is the biochemical and physical effects of drugs
and how drug works in the body system; pharmacotherapeutics which is the use of drugs for both
prophylactic and therapeutic purposes; pharmacognosy which is the study of natural resources
of drugs which include plants animals; toxicology which involves the study of the toxic effects
of drug on the body system. The afore-listed branches of pharmacology are related to effective
training in health education at least at the introductory level for an improved understanding of
health education principles for positive change in health behaviour also the knowledge of drugs
for improved patient adherence to a therapeutic regimen is important (Beusekom, Grootens, Bos,
Guchelaar & Broek, 2016).

Pharmacological literacy can be defined as acquiring the knowledge and skills needed to
successfully navigate the world in which we live - a world full of drug-related pressures, promises,
and panaceas. Introductory knowledge of pharmacology will improve career opportunities for
health education graduates both for self-employment and paid employment at pharmaceutical
outfits. Students need to develop the competencies to survive and thrive in this dynamic world
(University of Victoria, 2015; Okueso & Okanlawon, 2016; Verveloet, Dijk, Rademakers, Bouvy,
DeSmet., Philbert, & Koster, 2018; Silva, Nogueira, Cavalcante, Felipe, Morais, Moreira & Oliveira,
2022).

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Objectives of the Study

To find out:

1. The opinion of the students of health education on the need to include pharmacological
literacy into health education curriculum.

2. If the students will perceive the introduction of pharmacology as a course that will make
health education more functional.

3. If the learning of pharmacology will improve career opportunities of graduate health

educators for further study and increase hiring opportunities.

Statement of Problem
Health education as an emerging course of study requires continuous review to meet the ever-
dynamic world. As practitioners in health promotion and health education, students frequently
ask questions relating to career opportunities and advancement in further studies especially in
the areas of public health. Graduate students from the Faculty of Education are also complaining
of discrimination during job interviews and at work when placed side-by-side with graduates of
health education from teaching hospitals and colleges of basic medical sciences because of factors
ranging from curricula deficit, course content taught at schools and exposure to practical aspects
of public to community health lacking some core courses that should be in health education.
Hence the study was carried out to investigate the opinion of practitioners on the inclusion of
pharmacological literacy to make health education more functional so that process can be initiated
to include Introduction to Pharmacology as a course of study in health education in the Faculty of
Education in Nigeria.

Research Questions
1. Which of the following content areas of pharmacology is preferred by undergraduate health
educators to be included in the curriculum?
2. What is the perception of students of health education on the role of Pharmacology as a
needed course in making health education more functional?
3. What is the perceived knowledge of students of health education on pharmacology as an
attribute to the course to improve their career opportunities?

Methodology
Descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study while multi stage sampling procedure
was used to select the sample used for the study. In the first instance, a simple random sampling
technique was used to select five universities offering health education as a course of study in
the southern part of Nigeria. A purposive sampling technique was adopted to select students of
health education from the Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education from the Faculty
of Education. Internet survey administered a questionnaire titled Inclusion of Pharmaceutical
Literacy Questionnaire (IPLQ) online for the participants to respond to the question items based
on their opinion on the subject. The instrument was validated with a reliability of r=0.823 which
was trial tested among selected student health educators from Northern Nigeria. To answer the
three research questions asked based on the objectives of the study, descriptive statistics of
frequency count and percentages were used for the study to specifically describe the phenomenon
of the participant’s perception on the application of pharmacological literacy for making health
education more functional.

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Findings and Interpretation

Table 1: Distribution of Respondents based on Demographic Information

Demographic Information Frequency %

Gender
Male 448 23.7
Female 1444 76.3
Age Group
Less than 20 years 404 21.4
20-25 years 1356 71.7
26-30 years 124 6.6
Above 30 years 8 0.4
Level
100 228 12.1
200 736 38.9
300 480 25.4
400 448 23.7

Table 1 above presents the demographic characteristics of health educators in public universities in
Ogun State. Findings indicated that female gender dominated the sample population as indicated
by 76.3% while male represent only 23.7%. Similarly, in terms of age group, majority were between
20-25 years of age as indicated by 71.7%, followed by 20 years of age or less as indicated by 21.4%
then by 26-30 years as indicated by 6.6%. Findings further revealed that 38.9% were 200 level
students and 25.4% were 300 level students while 23.7% were 400 level students.

Research Question One: Which of the following areas of pharmacology content will undergraduate
health educators want to be included in the curriculum if introduced?

Table 2: Descriptive statistics showing areas of pharmacology content needed to be included in

the curriculum if introduced

S/N Content Areas Yes No

Freq % Freq %
1 Vaccines use and application 1820 96.2 72 3.8
2 Cardiovascular drugs’ use and 1500 79.3 392 20.7
application
3 Musculoskeletal drugs’ use and 1500 70.3 392 20.7
application
4 Obstetric and Gynaecological drugs’ use 1468 77.6 424 22.4
and application
5 Gastrointestinal drugs’ use and 1536 81.2 356 18.8
application
6 Antibiotics use and application 1812 95.8 80 4.2
7 Analgesic drugs’ use and application 1560 82.5 332 17.5
8 Haematinic drugs’ use and application 1380 72.9 512 27.1

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S/N Content Areas Yes No

Freq % Freq %
9 Antipyretic drugs’ use and application 1396 73.8 496 26.2
10 Addictive drug drugs’ use and 1348 71.2 544 28.8
application

Table 2 above presents the descriptive statistics showing the areas of pharmacology content
that undergraduate health educators will want to be included in the curriculum if introduced.
The findings above indicated that all the ten (10) listed content areas were perceived by the
undergraduate health educators as a must to be included in the curriculum if introduced. This
includes: Vaccine use and application, Cardiovascular drug use, and application, Musculoskeletal
drugs use and application, Obstetric and Gynaecological drug use and application, Gastrointestinal
drugs use and application, Antibiotics use and application, Analgesic drugs use and application,
Haematinic drugs’ use and application, Antipyretic drugs’ use and application and Addictive drug
drugs’ use and application.

Research Question Two: 2. What is the perception of health education students on the role of
Pharmacology as a needed course in making health education more functional?

Table 3: Descriptive statistics showing whether students of Health Education will perceive
Pharmacology as a needed course in making health education more functional
S/N Perceptions SA A D SD
Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq %
1 Introduction of pharmacology will improve general 1052 55.6 836 44.2 4 0.2 - -
knowledge of drug classification
2 Knowledge of pharmacology will boost public health 1020 53.9 848 44.8 24 1.3 - -
knowledge of students of health education
3 Pharmacology as a course is a long-expected course of 672 35.5 1096 57.9 124 6.6 - -
study in health education
4 Pharmacology as a course of study is only needed by 404 21.4 328 17.3 116 61.3 - -
doctor and nurses
5 Pharmacology has nothing to do with health education as 548 29.0 172 9.1 1172 61.9 - -
a programme of study
6 Introduction of Pharmacology as a course of study will 436 23.0 404 21.4 1052 55.6 - -
amount to share duplication of courses in health
education

The descriptive statistics presented in Table 3 above explore the perceptions of students in
Health Education regarding the necessity of incorporating Pharmacology into their curriculum to
enhance the functionality of health education. A significant majority of students, 1052 (55.6%),
strongly agree that the introduction of Pharmacology will enhance their general knowledge of
drug classification. Additionally, 836 students (44.2%) agree with this statement, while only 4
students (0.2%) disagree. This overwhelming support suggests that students recognize the value
of Pharmacology in expanding their understanding of drugs. Similarly, 1020 students (53.9%)
strongly believe that Pharmacology will boost their public health knowledge, with another 848
students (44.8%) in agreement. Only a small fraction, 24 students (1.3%), disagree. This consensus
further underscores the perceived benefits of Pharmacology in enriching public health education.
When asked if Pharmacology has long been expected as a course of study in health education,
672 students (35.5%) strongly agree, and a more significant number, 1096 students (57.9%), agree.
However, 124 students (6.6%) disagree, indicating some level of contention but overall strong
support.

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The perception that Pharmacology is only necessary for doctors and nurses is not widely held
among the students. Only 404 students (21.4%) strongly agree and 328 students (17.3%) agree
with this notion, whereas a substantial majority, 116 students (61.3%), disagree, suggesting that
students see the relevance of Pharmacology beyond traditional medical professions. The belief
that Pharmacology has no connection to health education is also not prevalent. A majority of
students, 1172 (61.9%), disagree with this statement, while 548 students (29.0%) strongly agree
and 172 students (9.1%) agree, reflecting that most students see a significant relationship between
Pharmacology and their field of study. Concerning whether the introduction of Pharmacology
would lead to unnecessary duplication of courses, 436 students (23.0%) strongly agree and 404
students (21.4%) agree. However, a majority of 1052 students (55.6%) disagree, indicating that
most students do not view Pharmacology as redundant within their curriculum.

In summary, the findings suggest that students of Health Education overwhelmingly perceive
Pharmacology as a valuable addition to their curriculum, enhancing their knowledge of drug
classification and public health. While there is some concern about the necessity and potential
redundancy of the course, the predominant sentiment is in favour of its inclusion.

Research Question Three: What is the perceived knowledge of students of health education of
pharmacology as an attribute to the course to improve their career opportunity?

Table 4: Descriptive statistics showing students of health education perceived knowledge of

pharmacology as a course to improve their career opportunity
S/N Perceptions SA A D SD
Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq %
1 Pharmacological knowledge will 892 47.1 896 47.4 104 5.5 - -
broaden job opportunities for health
educators.
2 Pharmaceutical companies will hire 636 33.6 1112 58.6 144 7.6 - -
graduate heath educators with
background knowledge of
pharmacology.
3 Knowledge of pharmacology will 568 30.0 1132 59.8 192 10.1 - -
serve as an opportunity for a
graduate health educator to be given
direct admission to study
pharmacology in any university.
4 Knowledge of pharmacology will 656 34.7 260 13.7 976 51.6 - -
not in any way improve career
opportunities for graduate health
educators.
5 Pharmacological knowledge will 756 40.0 1032 54.5 104 55.5 - -
broaden job opportunities for health
educators.

Table 4 above revealed that the overwhelming majority of students believe that knowledge
of pharmacology will broaden their job opportunities. With 47.1% strongly agreeing and 47.4%
agreeing, a total of 94.5% of respondents see a positive correlation between pharmacological
knowledge and enhanced career prospects. A significant majority of students (92.2%) agree
that having a background in pharmacology would increase their chances of being hired by
pharmaceutical companies. This reflects a strong belief in the value of pharmacological knowledge
in the health education field. Interestingly, this item shows that 51.6% of students disagree with the
statement that pharmacological knowledge will not improve their career opportunities, indicating
a predominant belief in its positive impact in promoting career opportunities in health education.
This repetition emphasizes the previous finding with slight variations, reaffirming the positive
perception students have towards pharmacological knowledge in enhancing their job prospects.

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Conclusively, the descriptive statistics strongly suggest that students of health education perceive
pharmacology as a significant asset to their career development. The high percentages of
agreement across multiple statements underline a consensus that pharmacological knowledge not
only broadens job opportunities but also enhances employability in pharmaceutical companies as
medical sales representative and academic advancement in pharmacology which can broaden their
integration into working in the hospital setting as professional. The data highlights the importance
of integrating pharmacology into health education curricula to meet students’ career aspirations
and industry expectations.

Discussion
The findings in the study revealed that all the items of pharmacological content presented to
the participants to be included in the curriculum were favoured to be included in the curriculum
but four of the items: Vaccines (96.2%), Gastrointestinal drugs (81.2%), Antibiotics (96.8%) and
Analgesics (82.5%) were the most favoured to be included in the curriculum as the positive
responses were above 80% in favour of their inclusion in the pharmacological literacy curriculum
content for Functional Health Education. It is therefore important to note that when describing
the content of Introduction to Pharmacology as core curriculum input, all the content should be
considered as areas of interest to the students. The finding of the study that has antibiotics as the
drugs that should be added to the list of the content in pharmacological literacy is in agreement
with the findings of previous study that agrees that literacy about antibiotics is important because
of increased rate of misuse (Aslam, Gajdacs, Zin, Abrahmam, Ahmed, Zafer et al, 2020)

The findings revealed that the participants perceived the introduction of pharmacological literacy to
the health education programme would make it more functional hence the inclusion of the course,
Introduction to Pharmacology in the curriculum for health education in the Faculty of Education
in the Universities of Nigeria. The need to include pharmacology in health education curriculum
is becoming inevitable as students are yearning for improved knowledge of pharmacological
components to enhance awareness about, prophylactic diagnostic, therapeutic drugs. The finding
in the study also agrees with the position of Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2019) that
reported the continuous need for health communication for effective health literacy which the
findings of the study agrees that pharmacological literacy will boost knowledge for better society.

Findings of the study showed that the participants perceived the introduction of pharmacological
literacy to health education will improve career opportunities for graduate health educators and
promote admission opportunities for further studies in related public health studies. The inclusion
of Pharmacology will broaden knowledge of health educators and improve their opportunities in
employment especially in pharmaceutical and other allied companies. The work of Xu, Wang, Li,
Li, Wang, Wu, Hao, and Wang, (2022) affirms the result of the finding that pharmaceutical literacy is
imminent for the young ones for improved knowledge and better public health practices.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The descriptive statistical analysis was conducted to determine whether students of health
education perceive pharmacology as an essential course for enhancing the functionality of health
education. The findings indicate significant support for the integration of pharmacology into the
health education curriculum. The study revealed that there is need for continuous curricula review
in order to meet the ever-dynamic world and health education as an emerging course of study.
The curricula require an upgrade to meet the societal needs and to be aligned with the global best
practices. The inclusion of Pharmacology in health education programme has been perceived to
improve health education programme and make it more functional since it will improve career
opportunities and broaden chances of getting admitted into several other health-related courses
at universities for further studies and also employed by pharmaceutical outlets for employment. It
is therefore recommended that curriculum development and planners be informed of the need to
include pharmacology as a course of study in health education to make it more functional.

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References
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antibiotics9090597
Beusekom, M.M., Grootens, R., Bos, M.J.W., Guchelaar, H & Broek, J. (2016). Low literacy
and written drug information: information-seeking, leaflet evaluation and
preferences, androles for images. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacy, 38(6), 1372-
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Downie, R., Fyfe, C., & Tannahill, A. (1990). Health Promotion: Models and values. Oxford, UK:
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to health communication. Available online: https:/www.cdc.gov/
healthcommunication/Audience/index.html
Gold, R.S., & Miner, K.R. (2002). Report of the 2000 joint committee on Health Education
and Promotion Terminology. Journal of School Health, 72, 3-7
Green, L.W., & Kreuter, M.W. (2005). Health program planning: An educational and
ecological approach (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Hobbing, K. (2O23). Why study pharmacology? University of Cincinneti College of
Medicine. Available in www.uc.edu/publichealth.
Joint Committee on Health Education and Health Promotion Terminology (2012). Report of
the 2011 Joint Committee on Health Education and Health Promotion
Terminology. RESTON, VA: AAHE.
Okueso, S.A. & Okanlawon, O.P. (2016). Pathophysiological Literacy as
Curriculum input towards Functional Health Education Programme in Nigeria: Need for
Sustainable National Health Consciousness. African Journal of Pedagogy. (9)105-122.
Sharma, M. (2017). Introduction to health education, health promotion and theory in
Theoretical Foundations of Health Education and Health Promotion (3rd ed.). MA US: Jones
& Bartlett Learning.
Silva, I.C., Nogueira, M.R.N., Cavalcante, T.F., Felipe, G.F., Morais, H.C.C., Moreira, R.P., & Oliveira,
A.S.S. (2022). Health literacy and adherenceto the pharmaceutical treatment
bypeople with arterial hypertension. Revista Brasileira de Enfermagem, 75(6): e20220008.
https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2022-0008.
University of Victoria, 2015). Helping schools. Centre for Addictions Research of BC. Ava i l a b l e
in www.helpingschools.ca.
Verveloet, M., Dijk, L., Rademakers, J., Bouvy, M.L., DeSmet., Philbert, D & Koster, E.S. (2018).
Recognizing and addressing limited pharmaceutical literacy: Development of
the Ralph interview guide. Research in social and administrative pharmacy, 14(9), 805-
811, DOI: 10.1016/j.sapharm.2018.04.031.
World Health Organisation (1998). Health promotion glossary. Retrieved from http://www.
who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/hp-en.pdf.
Xu, X., Wang, Z., Li, X., Li, Y., Wang, Y., Wu, X., Hao, L., & Wang, X (2022). Acceptance
and needs of medication literacy education among children by their caregivers: A multicentre
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Parental Involvement in Early Childhood Care and Education and its Impact on
Children’s Social-Emotional Development in Uganda. A Case of Wakiso District
Deborah Rebecca Kyazze
National Curriculum Development Centre
[email protected]

Abstract
This paper investigated the impact of parent involvement in Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)
on children’s social-emotional development in Wakiso district, Uganda. It examined the relationship
between parental involvement and the development of children’s social-emotional skills, including
the emotion regulation, emotional well-being, relationships with teachers, and relationships with
peers. Despite its importance, parental involvement in ECCE is limited and understudied. The paper
reviewed current literature on the topic and examines the challenges faced by parents in Uganda in
engaging with ECCE. It also explored how parents, as key stakeholders, can be engaged to ensure
that their children benefit from quality ECCE. The study used a cross-sectional research design
underpinned by a positivist paradigm. Descriptive research methods were employed to analyse the
data from 97 parents, selected using Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) method. Quantitative data were
analysed using descriptive statistics and linear regression methods. The paper considered existing
research on the impact of parent involvement on social-emotional development and its potential
to improve the achievement of competencies. Finally, it presented recommendations on improving
parental involvement in ECCE in Uganda, such as providing information and support and increasing
access to resources. This paper contributes to the growing body of literature in ECCE and will be
valuable to stakeholders involved in ECCE in Uganda.

Keywords: Early childhood care and education, parent involvement, social-emotional

Introduction
Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) has been recognized as a critical stage in a child’s life
worldwide. The importance of this stage lies in the fact that children’s experiences during their
early years can have long-lasting effects on their future learning and development (Taimur &
Sattar, 2020). Over the years, there has been growing interest in ECCE across the globe. In Africa,
the importance of ECCE has been highlighted by the African Union (AU), which adopted the “Africa
Early Childhood Care and Education Initiative” in 2007, aiming to increase access to quality ECCE
for all children on the continent (McCoy, Zuilkowski, Yoshikawa & Fink, 2017). In Uganda, according
to Ejuu (2018), efforts have also been made to improve the access and quality of ECCE. The
Ugandan government recognized the importance of ECCE and implemented policies to support its
development. For instance, the “National Policy for Early Childhood Development and Education”
was launched in 2007 to promote access to quality ECCE services, including parental involvement.
However, despite these efforts, the level of parental involvement in ECCE in Uganda, remains
limited. This lack of parental involvement in ECCE has a significant impact on children’s social-
emotional development (Noreen, 2022). Research by Cosso, von Suchodoletz and Yoshikawa (2022)
has shown that parental involvement in ECCE can support children’s learning and development,
particularly in the development of social-emotional skills. Therefore, this study investigated the
impact of parent involvement in early childhood care and education (ECCE) on children’s social-
emotional development in Uganda. The study seeks to identify the factors that hinder parental
involvement in ECCE and explore strategies to enhance parental involvement as key stakeholders
in ensuring that their children benefit from quality ECCE. By doing so, the study also contributed to
the existing body of knowledge on the importance of parental involvement in ECCE, particularly in
developing countries like Uganda, and provided insights into how to improve access and quality of
ECCE services for children.

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Problem Statement
Roy and Giraldo-García (2018) pointed out that parental involvement plays a vital role in promoting
the social-emotional development of young children, especially in their early years. Recognising
this importance, Uganda implemented policies aimed at improving parental involvement in ECCE,
such as the National Strategy for Early Childhood Development, which recognise the crucial role of
parents as the primary caregivers and educators of their children. Despite these efforts, parental
involvement in ECCE in Uganda remains limited, and the adverse effects on children’s social-
emotional development persist (Noirine, 2022). This lack of parent involvement is evident in areas
such as emotion regulation, emotional well-being, relationships with teachers and peers, and
self-esteem. In addition, research on parental involvement in ECCE in Uganda is limited, and there
is a gap in knowledge regarding effective strategies to enhance parental involvement (Malhotra,
Ayele, Zheng, & Amor, 2021). This study also provided valuable insights that can inform policies and
practices in the field of ECCE in Uganda to fill this gap.

This study therefore investigated the impact of parent involvement in Early Childhood Care and
Education (ECCE) on children’s social-emotional development in Uganda. The study recognises
that parents are key stakeholders in their children’s education and therefore, it seeks to examine
ways to involve them in promoting quality ECCE for their children.

Research Objectives
1. To determine the level of parental involvement as key stakeholders in ECCE in Uganda.
2. To examine the relationship between parental involvement and the development of children’s
social-emotional skills.
3. To identify the challenges faced by parents in engaging in their children’s ECCE and how to
overcome these challenges.
4. To make recommendations for improving parent involvement in ECCE in Uganda.

Research Questions
1. What is the level of parental involvement as key stakeholders in ECCE in Uganda?
2. Is there a statistical relationship between parental involvement and the development of
children’s social-emotional skills?
3. What are the challenges faced by parents in engaging in their children’s ECCE, and how can
these challenges be addressed?
4. What recommendations can be made for improving parent involvement in ECCE in Uganda?

Research Hypothesis
1. Parental involvement has a statistical relationship on the development of children’s social-
emotional skills.

Study Significance
This study is significant in several ways:
1. Policy and programme development: It sheds light on the obstacles parents face when engaging
in their children’s early childhood education in Uganda, as well as the strategies that can be
used to improve their participation. This information is useful for policymakers, educational
institutions, and stakeholders in the ECCE sector to develop and implement effective
programmes and policies that will enhance parental involvement and promote positive child
development outcomes.

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2. Parental guidance: The study is beneficial to parents as it provides them with important
information on the benefits of their involvement in their children’s education and how they can
support their children’s learning.
3. Educational support: The study is beneficial to teachers by highlighting the importance of
parental involvement and the role they can play in promoting it.
4. Academic contribution: The study contributes to the literature on parental involvement in
ECCE, particularly in Uganda, by exploring the challenges faced by parents and the impact of
parental involvement on children’s social-emotional development.

Literature Review
The purpose of this literature review is to provide a comprehensive overview of existing research
on parent involvement in Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) and its impact on children’s
social-emotional development. This review followed the research objectives/questions of the study
as indicated below: 1). To determine the level of parental involvement as key stakeholders in ECCE
in Uganda, 2). To examine the relationship between parental involvement and the development
of children’s social-emotional skills, 3). To identify the challenges faced by parents in engaging in
their children’s ECCE and how to overcome these challenges and 4). To make recommendations for
improving parent involvement in ECCE in Uganda.

Level of Parental involvement as a key stakeholder in ECCE

Extensive research has examined the role of parental involvement in shaping children’s
social-emotional development. Parental involvement, defined as the active participation and
engagement of parents in their children’s early childhood care and education (ECCE), has been
consistently identified as a critical factor. Empirical studies have shown that parental involvement
in education has a positive correlation with academic performance, improved self-esteem, better
school attendance and retention rates (Danişman, 2017; Đurišić & Bunijevac, 2017, and Kocayörük,
2016). Additionally, parent involvement has been found to be associated with favourable school
attachment and positive school environments for children (Wong et al., 2018). Furthermore,
research has demonstrated that parental involvement programmes have positive effects on the
children, their families and the school community (Magwa & Mugari, 2017).

Cosso, Suchodoletz and Yoshikawa, (2018) posit that the type and extent of parental involvement
can have differential effects on children’s social-emotional development. For instance, Lewallen and
Neece, (2015) found that parental involvement, specifically parental sensitivity and responsiveness,
had a significant positive impact on children’s self-regulation and social competence. However,
parental intrusiveness or over-involvement can negatively affect children’s autonomy and
emotional regulation (Miller, 2022). Kurtulmus, (2016) has also highlighted the importance of
different types of parental involvement, such as home-based activities, school-based activities,
and parent-teacher communication, in promoting children’s social-emotional development. For
example, home-based activities like reading to children and engaging in play have been associated
with higher levels of emotional regulation and fewer behavioural problems in children (Lin et al.,
2019). Similarly, school-based activities, such as volunteering in the classroom or attending parent-
teacher meetings, have been linked to improved academic and behavioural outcomes in children
(Park & Holloway, 2017).

Research has shown that parents who are actively engaged in their children’s learning can promote
positive outcomes in their children’s academic, social, and emotional development. These
positive outcomes include better cognitive development, stronger social skills, higher academic
achievement, and improved school attendance (Greenberg, Domitrovich, Weissberg and Durlak,
2017).

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Studies by Varghese and Wachen (2016) also showed that when parents engage in home-based
activities, such as reading to their children, participating in play, and engaging in learning activities,
they can promote their children’s cognitive and language development. Additionally, parents
who are actively involved in their children’s education tend to have higher expectations for their
children, leading to increased motivation and achievement in school (Đurišić and Bunijevac, 2017).

Despite the importance of parental involvement in ECCE, research has shown that many parents
struggle to engage in their children’s education due to various factors. These include limited access
to information about their children’s education, language barriers, work commitments, and lack of
support from schools. In some cases, parents lack the necessary skills to engage in their children’s
education effectively (Yulianti, Denessen & Droop, 2019).

A literature gap in this area is a lack of research on the specific factors that hinder parental
involvement in ECCE in Uganda. There is also limited research on effective strategies to promote
parental involvement in ECCE in low-income countries such as Uganda. Understanding the specific
challenges faced by parents in Uganda can help educators and policymakers to design effective
interventions that promote parental involvement and improve children’s outcomes (Boydell et
al., 2017). Furthermore, while research has established the importance of parental involvement in
children’s academic success, less is known about the relationship between parental involvement
and children’s social-emotional development (Roy & Giraldo-García, R. 2018). This literature gap
suggests a need for research to investigate the impact of parental involvement in ECCE on children’s
social-emotional development in Uganda. Such research would provide valuable insights for
policymakers and educators seeking to promote positive social-emotional outcomes in young
children.

The relationship between parental involvement in children’s social-emotional development

Parental involvement in children’s ECCE has been found to be a significant predictor of children’s
social-emotional development. Children whose parents are involved in their education are more
likely to have higher levels of emotional well-being, self-esteem, and positive relationships with
teachers and peers (Diale and Sewagegn, 2021). Additionally, parental involvement has been linked
to lower levels of behavioural problems, such as aggression, in children (Haine-Schlagel, and Walsh,
2015). Parental involvement has been a topic of interest in the field of early childhood education
for several decades. Research suggests that parental involvement in children’s education can have
a significant impact on their social-emotional development. In particular, children whose parents
are involved in their education tend to have higher levels of emotional well-being, self-esteem, and
positive relationships with teachers and peers (Liu, Sulaimani & Henning, 2020).

Kang, Horn & Palmer, (2017) found that parental involvement in early childhood education was a
significant predictor of children’s social-emotional development. They discovered that children
whose parents were involved in their education exhibited higher levels of emotional well-being,
measured by the child’s positive affect and the absence of negative affect. Additionally, these
children had higher self-esteem, reflected in their feelings of competence and worthiness. Moreover,
(the study indicated that parental involvement fostered more positive relationships between
children and their teachers and peers.

Similarly, a study by Shumow and Lomax, (2002) linked parental involvement to lower levels of
behavioural problems, such as aggression in children. Their findings suggest that children with
more involved parents had fewer behavioural issues and were less likely to exhibit aggressive
behaviour. The study posited that parental involvement might help to create a more positive and
supportive home environment, which can have a protective effect on children’s social-emotional
development.

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Despite the many benefits of parental involvement, gaps remain in understanding the most
effective ways to involve parents in their children’s early education. Some research suggests that
different types of parental involvement may have different effects on children’s social-emotional
development (Smith et al., 2023). Furthermore, it is unclear whether parental involvement is equally
effective for all children or if some children benefit more than others (Muller, 2018). Liu, Sulaimani
and Henning (2020) argue that further research is needed to better understand the complex
relationship between parental involvement and children’s social-emotional development, and
identify the most effective ways for involving parents in early education.

Children’s social-emotional development is a critical aspect of their overall growth. It encompasses

a range of skills that enable children to understand and regulate their emotions, form and maintain
positive relationships, and interact effectively with the world around them. The importance of
social-emotional development in children cannot be overstated, as it is critical to their success in
many areas of life (Campbell et al., 2016).

A key component of social-emotional development is emotional regulation, which refers to a

child’s ability to manage and control their emotions in response to different situations. Children
who struggle with emotional regulation may be prone to outbursts, anxiety, and other negative
emotions that can hinder their development (McLaughlin, Aspden, & Clarke, 2017). Another
essential aspect of social-emotional development is the ability to form and maintain positive
relationships, which includes developing empathy, sharing, and cooperation skills. Children with
strong social-emotional skills are more likely to make friends easily, develop positive relationships
with teachers and other adults, and better academic outcomes (Alzahrani, Alharbi, & Alodwani,
2019). Additionally, social-emotional development involves the ability to take on challenges and
adapt to change. Children who possess a growth mindset and are resilient in the face of adversity
are better equipped to handle the challenges of growing up (Osher, Guarino, Jones & Schanfield,
2021).

While substantial research exists on children’s social-emotional development, there are still gaps in
our understanding. More research is needed to understand how different cultures and communities’
impact social-emotional development. Additionally, while there is some understandings of how
social-emotional skills are developed, more research is needed to determine the most effective
strategies for supporting these skills in children (Thapa, Nganga & Madrid, 2022). The relationship
between social-emotional development and academic achievement also warrants more
investigation. Understanding how these skills are related and how educators can help to foster
social-emotional development to support academic success is crucial. Lastly, there is also a need
for more research on the impact of technology on social-emotional development, particularly
in light of the increasing use of technology in schools and at home (Panayiotou, Humphrey &
Wigelsworth, 2019).

Challenges faced by parents in engaging in their children’s ECCE

Parental involvement in early childhood education (ECCE) is essential for promoting children’s
academic and social-emotional development, but several challenges hinder this engagement.
Poverty is a significant barrier, as it limits parents’ access to resources and educational materials
and makes it challenging to pay school fees. Other factors include transportation, work, and
limited knowledge of the importance of ECCE. Language barriers and limited access to information
are also significant obstacles to parental involvement in ECCE. Many parents are unaware of the
importance of their involvement and how they can support their children’s learning at home, while
language barriers make it difficult to communicate with teachers and understand the curriculum.
To improve parental involvement in ECCE, it is essential to address these challenges and provide
resources, information, and support to parents in need (Kamusiime, 2018; Strachan et al., 2020;
Mahuro & Hungi, 2016; Hansen, Grosso, Kakkar, & Okeyo).

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Cultural beliefs also play a significant role in parental involvement in ECCE in Uganda. Some cultural
beliefs in Uganda prioritize work or household chores over education, leading to a lack of emphasis
on the importance of education. In some cases, gender roles may also prevent mothers from being
actively involved in their children’s education (Wodon, Nguyen and Tsimpo, 2016).

Inadequate parental involvement policies and lack of support from educational institutions
also contribute to low levels of parental involvement in ECCE in Uganda. Policies that encourage
parental involvement, such as providing information on the benefits of parental engagement, may
be lacking. Educational institutions may not provide adequate support to parents, which can result
in limited involvement in their children’s education (Wassaaka, 2019). Literature gaps include the
need for more research to understand how cultural beliefs affect parental involvement in ECCE
in Uganda. More studies are also required to understand the role of language barriers in parental
involvement and identify strategies to overcome these challenges. Additionally, more research is
needed to understand how to develop and implement effective parental involvement policies in
ECCE programs in Uganda (Ezati, Madanda & Ahikire, 2018).

Strategies for improving parental involvement in ECCE

Parental involvement is essential for the success of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)
programmes. However, in Uganda, several challenges hinder parents from engaging in their
children’s education (Mligo, 2018). Strategies have been proposed in a study conducted by Ejuu,
Locoro, Nandera, Omoding, Mafabi, Kutosi & Kharono, (2022) that to improve parental involvement
in ECCE in Uganda, parent and teacher associations and community engagement programmes
should provide a platform for parents to participate in their children’s education. The use of
technology, such as mobile phones and social media, have also been proposed as an effective way
to improve parental involvement in ECCE in Uganda. In addition, Lester, Pearce, Waters, Barnes,
Beatty, & Cross. (2017) explain that educational institutions can provide training and resources
for parents to support their children’s learning at home. Such interventions can enhance parental
involvement and improve children’s outcomes.

Several studies have found that promoting home-school partnerships has been found to be an
effective way to improve parental involvement. This involves encouraging parents to be active
participants in their children’s education by creating opportunities for them to interact with
teachers, attend parent-teacher conferences, and volunteer in the classroom (Kocayörük, 2016).
Additionally, providing parent education programmes and workshops can equip parents with the
skills and knowledge needed to support their children’s learning at home and in school (Mahuro &
Hungi, 2016).

However, there are some gaps in the literature regarding strategies to improve parental involvement
in ECCE in Uganda. For example, more research is needed to identify effective strategies for
engaging fathers in their children’s education, as most parental involvement programs in Uganda
tend to focus on mothers (Carter, 2017). Additionally, there is a need for more research on how
to overcome the cultural and language barriers that often hinder parental involvement in ECCE
among immigrant and families (Norheim & Moser, 2020). Finally, there is a need to explore the
effectiveness of strategies that involve the wider community, such as involving community leaders
and religious leaders in promoting parental involvement in ECCE (Kunda, refugee 2016).

Research Methodology
This study employed a cross-sectional research design to investigate the impact of parental
involvement on children’s social-emotional development in ECCE in Uganda, involving data
collection at a single point in time. The study was underpinned by the positivist paradigm, which
emphasises objective observation, measurement, and empirical data analysis in research (Williams,
2020).

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The positivist paradigm aligns well with the study’s aim to establish cause-and- effect relationships
between parental involvement and social-emotional development outcomes in children.

The survey was descriptive research utilising quantitative data analysis, to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the study topic. The inclusion criteria required participants to be citizens of
Uganda with a child enrolled in early childhood care and education (ECCE). The target participant
group was parents, defined as a biological or adoptive caregiver, guardian, or legal custodian of a
child. The sample size was determined using Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) formula, with a minimum
sample size of 97 parents out of a total of 130 parents (See Appendix II).

The survey was conducted in two nursery schools, one in an urban setting and one in a rural setting.
Permission to conduct the survey was secured from both nursery schools. After constructing the
questionnaire, the researcher visited the selected schools and nominated research assistants in
the chosen schools to help with distribution, follow-up and collection of completed instruments.

Data collection methods included self-administered questionnaire to collect quantitative data.

The questionnaire, developed based on existing literature on parental involvement and social-
emotional development, was pilot-tested to ensure validity and reliability. Quantitative data was
analysed using descriptive statistics to summarise the data and linear regression analysis to examine
the statistical relationship between parental involvement and social-emotional development in
children. The findings were triangulated to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research
question.

Ethical considerations were thoroughly addressed in the study. Informed consent was obtained
from all participants before they answered the survey questionnaire, and their confidentiality and
anonymity were ensured throughout the study.

Results
This section presents the study sample, frequencies, descriptive statistics, and research question
results.

Parents’ Demographics
In this study, the researcher examined the demographics of the parents who took part in the survey,
with a specific focus on their gender.

Figure 1: Sex of respondents

Source: Primary Data,2023

According to Figure 1, 86% of the participants were female, while only 14% were male. This
indicates that the majority of the participants were women, suggesting that women are more likely
to attend their children’s school activities. This gender disparities implies that women are taking
a more active role in their children’s education and participating more in school-related activities
than men.

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This gender gap in parental involvement may have implications for children’s academic and social-
emotional development. Research has shown that parental involvement is linked to positive
outcomes in both of these domains. Therefore, it is crucial to encourage and support both mothers
and fathers to be actively involved in their children’s education to promote the best outcomes for
their children.

Parental involvement in ECCE

Data on parental involvement was analysed to establish their level of participation in the education
of their children in in early childhood care education is presented

Table 1: Parent involvement

Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Enough time to be 97 1 5 3.8763 0.85705
involved in my child’s
education
Communicate with 97 1 5 1.701 0.67954
my child’s teachers or
caregivers often
Involvement in your 97 1 5 1.3299 0.59023
child’s education has
helped them positively
Confident in helping 97 1 5 3.6804 1.09494
my child with school
activities like home work
Valid N (listwise) 97

Source: Primary Data, 2023

Based on the data analysed in Table 1, it can be concluded that most parents feel that they do
not have enough time to be involved in their children’s education, with the mean score of 3.8763.
However, they do communicate frequently with their children’s teachers or caregivers, as indicated
by a mean score of 1.701. This frequent communication suggests that parents are interested in
staying informed about their children’s progress and well-being. This could positively impact their
child’s social-emotional development, as frequent communication with caregivers can foster
strong relationships between parents, children, and caregivers, which is important for the child’s
emotional well-being.

Furthermore, the data in Table 1 reveals that parents involved in their children’s education have a
positive experience, with a mean score of 1.3299, indicating strong disagreement. This involvement
could lead to increased motivation and engagement in the child’s learning. Specifically, children
with involved parents tend to have higher levels of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and emotional
regulation. On the other hand, parents appear to lack confidence in assisting their children with
school activities, such as homework, with a mean score of 3.6804 indicating disagreement. This
lack of confidence may negatively impact the child’s social-emotional development, as children
who struggle with academic tasks may experience frustration, anxiety, or low self-esteem.

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Table 2: Ways parents are involved in children’s education

Parents involvement Frequencies

Responses
N Percent Percent of Cases
ways of Attending 81 30.10% 83.50%
parents’ parent-teacher
involve- conferences
ments
volunteering in 26 9.70% 26.80%
the classroom
Helping with 92 34.20% 94.80%
homework or
projects
Participating in 70 26.00% 72.20%
school events or
activities
Total 269 100.00% 277.30%
a. Group

Source: Primary Data, 2023

Table 2 presents the various ways in which parents are involved in their children’s early childhood
education, as reported by the participants. The data shows that 34.2% of parents help their children
with homework or projects, 30.1% attend parent-teacher meetings, 26% participate in school
events or activities, and only 9.7% volunteer in the classroom. This indicates that parents are more
likely to get involved in their child’s education through helping with homework, attending parent-
teacher meetings, and participating in school events or activities, rather than volunteering in the
classroom. Parents who help their children with homework, attend parent-teacher meetings, and
participate in school events or activities are more likely to have a positive impact on their child’s
social-emotional development.

Relationship between Parent involvement and Children’s social-emotional skills

Table 3: Parent involvement and children’s social-emotional development

Descriptive
Statistics
N Min Max Mean Std. Deviation
How often do you engage in activities with 97 1 5 2.2474 0.8664
your child that promote social-emotional
development, such as reading, playing
games, or having conversations?
How often do you communicate with your 97 1 5 2.1649 0.64032
child’s teacher(s) about their well-being
How would you rate your child’s emotional 97 1 5 4.2577 0.79423
well-being and self-esteem

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How would you rate your child’s relationships 97 1 5 4.299 0.6947

with teachers and peers
Emotional development 97 1 4 1.9794 0.28793
Empathy 97 1 5 3.9691 0.94045
Cooperation and sharing 97 1 54 4.7732 5.08778
Adaptability 97 1 5 1.4845 0.6143
Valid N (listwise) 97

Source: Primary Data,2023

Table 3 presents the mean values related to parent involvement and children’s social-emotional
development. The data indicated that the majority of parents (mean = 2.2474) reported that they
sometimes engage in activities with their children to promote social-emotional development, such
as reading, playing games, or having conversations. Additionally, most parents (mean = 2.1649)
reported sometimes communicating with their children’s teachers about their well-being. Parents
with a mean of 4.2577 reported that their children had excellent emotional well-being and self-
esteem.

Table 3 also shows that parents with a mean of 4.299 reported that their children had excellent
relationships with their teachers and peers. These findings suggest that when parents actively
engage in promoting their children’s social-emotional development and communicate with
teachers, it can have a positive impact on their children’s well-being and relationships with others.

The parents were surveyed regarding their observations of their children’s social-emotional
development, specifically in terms of emotional regulation, empathy, adaptability, cooperation,
and sharing. The majority of parents with a mean of 4.7732 reported that their children always
show signs of cooperation and sharing, while the majority of parents with a mean of 3.9691
reported that their children often show empathy. However, the majority of parents with a mean
of 1.9794 reported that their children show limited emotional regulation, which is measured by
the ability to manage and control emotions in response to different situations. Additionally, the
majority of parents with a mean of 1.4845 reported that their children rarely exhibit adaptability,
which is the ability to take on challenges and adapt to change. These findings indicate that while
children demonstrate strength in certain aspects of social-emotional development, there is a
need for improvement in others. Therefore, targeted interventions may be necessary to support
children’s emotional regulation and adaptability skills

Statistical relationship between parental involvement and children’s social emotional

development
In this section, a hypothesis testing was conducted for the statistical relationship between parental
involvement and social-emotional development is presented. A model summary table is provided,
which displays the level of variation between the two variables. Additionally, an ANOVA table is
included, which indicates the level of significance between the variables.

Table 4: Model summary

Model Summary
Adjusted R
Model R R Square Square Std. Error of the Estimate
1 .903a 0.816 0.814 0.29467
a. Predictors: (Constant), Parent Involvement

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Table 4 displays a model summary table presenting the R and R2 values. The R value, representing
the simple correlation between parent involvement and social-emotional development, is 0.903,
indicating a high degree of correlation. The R2 value indicates the proportion of the total variation in
children’s social-emotional development that can be explained by the level of parent involvement.
In this case, the R2 value is 0.816, indicating that 81.6% of the variation in social-emotional
development can be explained by the level of parent involvement. This suggests that as the level
of parent involvement in children’s education increases, their social-emotional development also
improves. Additionally, the R2 value indicates that a significant proportion (81.6%) of the variation
in social-emotional development can be explained by the level of parent involvement. This suggests
that as the level of parent involvement in children’s education increases, their social-emotional
development also improves.

These findings highlight the importance of parent involvement in promoting positive social-
emotional development in children and reinforce the need for schools to encourage and support
parent involvement in their children’s education.

Table 5: Anova tests

ANOVAb
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 36.496 1 36.496 420.304 .000a
Residual 8.249 95 0.087
Total 44.746 96
a. Predictors: (Constant), Parent Involvement
b. Dependent Variable: Social-Emotional Development
Table 5 presents the Anova table, which includes the F-test with a value of 420.304 and 96 degrees
of freedom. The high significance level of the F-test suggests a linear relationship between the
variables in the regression model. Moreover, the results indicate that the regression model is an
effective predictor of children’s social-emotional development since the p-value is less than 0.05,
with a value of 0.000. This implies that the regression model statistically significantly predicts the
level of social-emotional emotional development in children.

Table 6: Coefficients table

Coefficients(a)
Unstandardized
Coefficients Standardized Coefficients
Std. Er-
Model B ror Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 0.236 0.127 1.864 0.014
Parent In-
volvement 0.94 0.046 0.903 20.501 0
a. Dependent Variable: Social Emotional Develop-
ment
Table 6 presents the coefficients of the regression equation, which takes the form of y = c + bx. In
this equation, y represents the dependent variable (social-emotional development), c represents
the constant, b represents the independent variable (parent involvement), and x represents the
variable that brings about changes in the dependent variable. The regression equation derived
from the coefficients table is:

Social-emotional development = 0.236 + 0.94 (Parent involvement).

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This equation implies that a change in parent involvement level results in a corresponding change
in their children’s social-emotional development. Furthermore, the hypothesis between parent
involvement and social-emotional development was presented in Table 6. The p-value of 0.014,
which is less than 0.05, indicates that the null hypothesis was rejected. This result implies that
parent involvement has a significant effect on children’s social-emotional development in Uganda.
It suggests that limited parent involvement in their children’s education negatively impacts their
social-emotional development, while increased parent involvement leads to positive social-
emotional development outcomes in children.

The analysis indicates that there is a significant positive correlation between parent involvement
and children’s social-emotional development in Uganda. Specifically, the regression equation
shows that for every unit increase in parent involvement, there is an increase in social-emotional
development by 0.94 units. Additionally, the ANOVA test indicates that the regression model
significantly predicts the level of children’s social-emotional development, and the coefficient
table shows that the relationship between parent involvement and social-emotional development
is statistically significant (p < 0.05). Therefore, the implication of this analysis is that encouraging
and increasing parent involvement in their children’s education can have a positive impact on their
social-emotional development in Uganda. This could have significant implications for policy and
practice in early childhood education and development in the country.

Challenges faced by parents in engaging in their children’s education

The survey identified several primary obstacles that hinder parents’ participation in their children’s
education. The majority of parents reported that limited time due to work and lack of financial
resources were significant barriers to their involvement. Additionally, language barriers were
identified as an obstacle that could hinder effective communication between parents and teachers.
Furthermore, parents reported difficulties with the educational system, such as different methods
of teaching letters and challenges in motivating their children to learn at home.

During the survey, participants were asked about the type of support they received from their
children’s school to help them be more involved in their education. Parents mentioned that they
received support in the form of homework assignments for their children and regular feedback on
their children’s progress. Additionally, the school provided parents with a WhatsApp communication
platform where they could receive extra information about their children’s learning progress, as
well as receive extra calls from the school about their children. This level of support from the school
is highly beneficial for parents, as it helps them stay informed and engaged in their children’s
education.

Participants were asked if there were any cultural beliefs or practices that affected the parents’
involvement in their children’s education. The majority of parents reported that they did not have
any cultural beliefs of practices affecting their involvement in the children’s education. However,
some parents stated that they lacked information about the importance of parental involvement
in their child’s education. They expressed interest in learning about ways to balance work and
education, methods to enhance their child’s communication skills and confidence, strategies to
raise children in the contemporary era, and techniques to assess and improve their child’s mental
well-being.

Recommendations and strategies for improving parent involvement in ECCE in Uganda

According to the survey, participants emphasised incorporating technology, such as mobile phones
and social media, to enhance parental involvement in Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE).
Parents acknowledged that technology can facilitate communication between them and their
children’s teachers and enable access to quality educational content like rhymes and videos.

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However, parents expressed the need for appropriate regulation of information accessible
through technology to ensure that children only access relevant educational materials. Therefore,
educating parents on regulating technology is crucial in promoting children’s access to appropriate
educational content. Participants also expressed a desire to take part in parent education
programmes and workshops on topics such as personal hygiene, social-emotional development,
and ways to motivate children to improve their self-esteem and confidence. They also suggested
that schools should provide materials in local languages to address language barriers and work
closely with parents to ensure they are informed about their children’s development. By addressing
language barriers and providing opportunities for parent education, parents can play an active role
in their children’s education and development.

Additionally, parents also suggested more of class presentations at the children’s schools, more
homework, and increased opportunities for sports, dance and drama. These activities can teach
children about their culture, enhance self-esteem and build confidence.

Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations

This section summarises the discussions, conclusions, and recommendations based on the findings
presented in Chapter Four. The discussions were structured around the research questions, and
the conclusions were drawn from the survey data. Finally, recommendations were provided based
on the findings to improve parental involvement and children’s social-emotional development in
early childhood education.

Discussion
The study’s first question examined parental involvement in early childhood care and education
(ECCE) in Uganda. The survey revealed that parental involvement is essential for a child’s overall
development. The obtained data showed that parents are actively communicating with their
children’s teachers or caregivers, indicating their interest in staying updated on their children’s
progress and well-being. This communication can positively impact a child’s social-emotional
development by fostering strong relationships between parents, children, and caregivers, which is
crucial for their emotional well-being. Additionally, Kurtulmus (2016) emphasised the significance
of different forms of parental involvement, such as home-based and school-based activities, and
parent-teacher communication in promoting children’s social-emotional development. The study
found that parental involvement in children’s education results in positive experiences for both the
parent and child. This involvement leads to increased motivation and engagement in children’s
learning, resulting in higher levels of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and emotional regulation. Liu,
Sulaimani and Henning, (2020) also found that involved parents contribute to their children’s
emotional well-being, self-esteem, and positive relationships with teachers and peers. Schools can
provide resources and support for parents to feel confident in assisting their children with academic
tasks. Parental involvement through homework help, attending meetings and participating in
school events fosters a strong parent-child relationship and promotes essential life skills for the
child’s social-emotional development.

The study’s second research question examined the relationship between parental involvement
and the development of children’s social-emotional skills. The survey data revealed that parental
involvement positively impacted children’s social-emotional development, which is consistent
with prior research studies (Liu et al., 2020; Kurtulmus, 2016). Targeted interventions are necessary
to improve children’s emotional regulation and adaptability skills. Parents can significantly
contribute to supporting their children’s social-emotional development by fostering positive
relationships, providing emotional support, and encouraging them to explore their emotions in a
safe environment.

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Empirical studies have demonstrated that parental involvement has a positive correlation with
academic performance (Danişman, 2017; Đurišić & Bunijevac, 2017), improved self-esteem
(Kocayörük, 2016), better school attendance and retention rates (Danişman, 2017), favourable
school attachment (Wong et al., 2018), and positive school environments for children (Wong et al.,
2018). The survey result implies that limited parent involvement in children’s education negatively
impacts their social-emotional development, while increased parent involvement leads to positive
outcomes. This indicates that parent involvement has a significant effect on children’s social-
emotional development in Uganda. Therefore, encouraging and increasing parent involvement
in their children’s education can have a positive impact on their social-emotional development,
which could have significant implications for policy and practice in early childhood education and
development in the country.

The third research question was about the challenges faced by parents in engaging in their
children’s ECCE, and how these challenges can be addressed. The survey aimed to uncover the
primary obstacles that parents face when trying to participate in their children’s education. The
majority of parents cited their limited time due to work and the need to provide for their families
as a significant barrier. The study also found financial obstacles, lack of educational resources,
and language barriers to be challenges for parents. The literature review also pointed out that
parents living in poverty may lack the resources needed to support their children’s learning, such
as educational materials and the ability to pay for school fees (Kamusiime, 2018). Parents living in
poverty also have limited access to transportation, lack of time due to work or other responsibilities,
and limited knowledge of the importance of ECCE (Strachan et al., 2020). Furthermore, limited
access to information is a significant barrier to parental involvement in ECCE. Many parents in
Uganda are not aware of the importance of their involvement in their children’s education and how
they can support their children’s learning at home (Mahuro & Hungi, 2016). Additionally, language
barriers can make it challenging for parents to communicate with teachers and understand the
curriculum (Hansen, Grosso, Kakkar, & Okeyo).

The study emphasised the importance of effective communication between parents and teachers
for a child’s social-emotional development. The survey results showed that schools provide
support to parents in the form of homework assignments, progress feedback, and communication
platforms like WhatsApp. However, some parents expressed a lack of information about their
involvement in their children’s education and wanted to learn more about balancing work and
education, improving their children’s communication skills and mental well-being.

The fourth research question was about recommendations provided by the parents that can be
made for improving their involvement in ECCE in Uganda. The survey revealed that technology,
such as mobile phones and social media, can enhance parental involvement in Early Childhood
Care and Education (ECCE) by facilitating communication between parents and teachers and
providing access to quality educational content. However, appropriate regulation of technology is
necessary to ensure that children only access relevant educational materials. This was in line with
the literature review that pointed out that the use of technology, such as mobile phones and social
media, have also been proposed as an effective way to improve parental involvement in ECCE in
Uganda. However, more research is needed to determine the feasibility of using technology as a
means of engaging parents and promoting positive outcomes in children’s development (Sumani,
Twine and Busingye, 2017). The survey found that educating parents on regulating technology is
crucial for promoting children’s access to appropriate educational content, as technology such
as mobile phones and social media can enhance parental involvement in Early Childhood Care
and Education (ECCE) in Uganda. Additionally, parents expressed a desire to participate in parent
education programmes and workshops on various topics related to child development, and
suggested that schools should provide materials in local languages and work closely with parents
to ensure they are informed about their children’s development.

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Conclusions
In conclusion, the survey results demonstrate that parental involvement is crucial for the social-
emotional development of children in Uganda. Effective communication between parents and
teachers is essential to ensure positive outcomes. The survey also identified several barriers
that parents face when participating in their children’s education, including limited time due to
work, financial obstacles, and language barriers. Schools must provide parents with resources
and support to facilitate communication and ensure full participation. Technology can enhance
parental involvement in ECCE, but appropriate regulation is necessary to ensure that children only
access relevant educational materials. The survey highlights the importance of parent education
programmes, addressing language barriers, and involving parents in various activities to support
their children’s social-emotional development. The findings of the study can inform policies and
practices in early childhood education and development in Uganda.

Overall, the findings of this survey highlight the need to prioritise parental involvement in ECCE
and address the challenges that parents face in supporting their children’s social-emotional
development. By addressing the concerns highlighted, children can receive the support and
guidance they need to thrive and reach their full potential.

Recommendations
Based on the information provided from the survey, the researcher made the following general
recommendations to improve the parent involvement as a strategy to improve children’s social-
emotional development:

1. Provide resources and support for parents: Schools should provide resources and support
for parents to help them feel more confident in assisting their children and inform them
about the significance of their involvement in their children’s education. This can be done
through parent education programmes and workshops that cover various topics related to
child development and provide materials in local languages.
2. Encourage parental involvement: Schools should encourage parents to get involved in their
children’s education by providing opportunities for them to participate in school events,
activities, and parent-teacher meetings. This can help to foster positive relationships
between parents, children, and caregivers, which is essential for the children’s emotional
well-being.
3. Utilise technology: Technology can be a powerful tool in enhancing parental involvement
in early childhood education. Schools should utilise technology such as mobile phones and
social media to facilitate communication between parents and teachers and provide access
to quality educational content.
4. Address language barriers: Language barriers can be a significant obstacle to parent
involvement in early childhood education. Schools should work closely with parents to
ensure they are informed about their children’s development, and provide materials in
local languages to improve communication and understanding.
5. Promote social-emotional development: Schools should prioritise promoting social-
emotional development by providing opportunities for children to engage in activities that
build self-esteem and confidence. This can include sports, dance, drama, and other cultural
activities that teach children about their heritage and build their sense of identity.
6. Create safe and supportive environments: Creating safe and supportive environments can
help children develop positive relationships with their parents, teachers, and peers. This
can include fostering positive peer relationships, creating opportunities for children to
develop their self-confidence, and promoting positive discipline practices.

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7. The study recommends that schools provide resources and support for parents to facilitate
communication and ensure full participation. Additionally, schools should provide parents
with information about the importance of their involvement in their child’s education and
how to balance work and education.
8. It was also recommended that there is need to have more class presentations, homework,
and opportunities for sports, dance, and drama to teach children about their culture and
build self-esteem and confidence.

Build strong partnerships: Schools can work to build strong partnerships with parents, which can
include creating opportunities for parents to engage with school staff and participate in decision-
making processes related to their child’s education. By implementing these recommendations, schools
and educators can create a positive and supportive environment that fosters the social-emotional
development of children while also strengthening the relationship between parents and their children’s
schools. This can have significant long-term benefits for children’s overall well-being and success.

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Sub-Theme 4:
Global Trends in Education

Global Pedagogical Trends in Education

Joyce Nansubuga
National Curriculum Development Centre
[email protected]

Abstract
Education is a key concern of the 21st century, facing significant changes driven by technological
advancement and evolving labour demands. This shift necessitates the integration of technology into
teaching and learning, enabling both teachers and learners to generate new knowledge and apply
innovative skills to enhance their lives and communities. Improved education systems are increasingly
adopting Competence-Based Education (CBC) to align with contemporary trends. However, few studies
have been systematically analysed global pedagogical trends and their impact on the labour market,
highlighting the need for research in the area. This paper aimed to examine the global pedagogical
trends in education through a systematic literature review of existing research papers and journal
articles. to the review focuses on articles published in recognized journals, with 250 research and
journal articles initially reviewed. Of these, only 30 articles were selected based on their relevance
to identified pedagogical trends, some of which include component of systematic literature reviews.
Related studies revealed a paradigm shift in education, emphasising the role of pedagogy in teaching
and learning. This shift places the learner at the centre of the process and the teacher in a supportive
role. There is a strong focus on providing inclusive, affordable, equitable, and accessible education to
all learners. Education practitioners should reimage education to cater for the individual learner and
societal needs, mastering the art of teaching, utilising technology, applying differentiated learning
approaches, addressing 21st-century concerns and implementing Competence-Based Education to
promote lifelong learning. This approach supports the Government of Uganda in developing policies
that stimulate pedagogical innovations in education.

Keywords: Competence-Based Education, Lifelong learning, Pedagogy, Technology

Introduction
Global Pedagogical Trends (GPT) in education include personalised learning, flipped classroom,
blended learning, gamification, technology and the 21st-century skills. These trends represent
a paradigm shift from teacher-centred to learner centred approaches, focusing on the pedagogy
and learning outcomes (Kaliisa et al., 2019). As nations and governments strive to adapt curricula
and pedagogy to the Volatile, Unpredictable, Complex and Ambiguous (VUCA) world, they are
implementing education reforms to develop competent human capital.

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Countries such as Russia, the USA and China are integrating humanistic trend in education, aligning
with their cultural norms and values within national education systems (Tolstova & Levasheva,
2019)China and the United States is a humanistic trend in education, which has its own national
characteristics and peculiarities associated with the traditions, customs and particularity the
development of national educational systems in these countries. The author reveals the general
vector of development of the humanistic trend in education in Russia, China and the USA in the
conditions of the electronic informational and educational environment, manifested in the
following features. They are 1. This alignment aims to boost social and economic growth by
promoting equity in education, creating a common scientific space, and redefining the roles of
teachers and learners.

This paper examined GPTs are implemented in the teaching and learning process globally. GPTs
refer to various teaching and learning approaches adopted to regional cultures. They range from
traditional and indigenous methods to modern techniques, depending on national educational
goals and philosophies aimed at improving communication, problem-solving, and resource sharing
among learners (Chatti et al., 2007). The study reviewed the implementation of Global Pedagogical
Trends (GPTs) by teachers to inform curricula reforms at both national and global levels, drawing
from diverse scholarly works on technology use, personalised learning, flipped classrooms, and
21st-century skills.

Personalised learning is a key GPTs adopted worldwide, focusing on identifying individual learners’
needs, goals, and skills. It involves creating personalised pathways, self- paced learning and
leveraging the learning environment (Ilyas et al., 2021). This approach is recognised as a significant
reform in contemporary education, emphasising methodology and learning outcomes (Pursel et
al., 2016). In Uganda, personalised learning is gaining interest, particularly in the thematic and new
lower secondary curriculum, to equip the learners with the desired learning outcomes.

Flipped classrooms represent another GPTs innovation, transforming learning environments to

increase learner self-confidence, interest, and satisfaction while equipping them with lifelong skills
(Rizi et al., 2017). This pedagogy encourages hands on activities outside the traditional classroom
settings and is increasingly adopted globally.

Blended learning combines practical classroom lessons with online technology-facilitated sessions,
allowing learners to adapt and utilise technology. And participate in global learning events (Wong
2022).

Gamification applies games in a non-game environment to enhance learning, motivation and

engagement (Yen et al., 2018)online, and blended teaching modalities in an undergraduate Child
Development course to determine if there were differences in student academic outcomes and
course satisfaction across modalities. Student academic outcomes were measured by three
examinations, one research paper assignment, and the overall course total grade. Course satisfaction
was measured by administering the Student Opinion Questionnaire (SOQ. This approach supports
skills acquisition in problem-solving, collaboration, and communication (Kapp, 2012). In Africa,
games are used to teach basic numeracy and literacy skills.

Technology integration is a rapidly advancing GPT, prominently featuring in virtual reality and other
technological application in education (Bekele et al., 2018). This trend focuses on incorporating
technological pedagogical content to support the teaching and learning, equipping learners with
lifelong skills, and fostering global interaction through flexible, adaptable, and interactive online
courses

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21st-century skills are critical for the future workforce, emphasising improved learning outcomes
and producing highly skilled personnel for the global economy. Skills such as critical thinking,
collaboration, communication, creativity, and computational skills are integral to modern
education, ensuring learners are prepared for global context. (O’Lawrence 2017)economic growth
depends on career and technical programs for skill training. Background: This study discusses the
key area in promoting individual learning and skill training and discusses the importance of career
education and training as a way of promoting economic growth. Methodology : This study uses
a qualitative study approach to investigate and report on the status and influence of Workforce
Education and Development and its economic importance. Contribution: This report contributes
to the knowledge base common to all work settings that can solve many human performance
problems in the workplace. Findings: This study also justifies and validates the ideas on the
importance of workforce education and development in the 21st century as a way of developing
economic growth and providing learning to make individuals competitive in the global economy.
Recommendations for Practitioners : For practitioners, this study suggests that we must always
have discussions of what leads to career success and understanding that there is not enough high-
skill/high-wage employment to go around. Therefore, developing these skills requires a decision
about a career or related group of jobs to prepare to compete for them; we have to provide
training needed in order to be competitive in global economy. Recommendation for Researchers:
Researchers have to develop strategies to promote career direction with willingness to evaluate the
level of academic interest, level of career focus and readiness for life away from home (attitudes,
skills and knowledge of self

These GPTs are central to the evolving educational landscape and form the focus of this paper.

Related literature
The introduction of General-Purpose Technologies (GPTs) in education has significantly increased
access to learning across the globe. Online technology course shave addressed unmet educational
needs, transforming the delivery of knowledge, skills and values (Magrelli et al., 2013). Magrelli
further asserts that emerging technologies have made teaching and learning abstract concepts
more practical and realistic to learners.

Personalized Learning (PL) as an Emerging GPT

Personalised Learning (PL) is an emerging GPT, characterised by five dimensions as outlined in an
educational policy report: assessment for learning, teaching and learning strategies, curriculum
choices, school centred approach to school organisation, and strong partnerships beyond school
(Shemshack & Spector, 2020). The United States National Education Technology plan NETP (2017)
defines Personalised Learning as instruction where the pace of learning and approach are tailored to
the individual learner’s needs, emphasising learner-driven activities (Han & Ellis, 2020). Additionally,
the American Psychological Association Presidential Taskforce on Psychology in Education (1993,
as cited in Lee etal,2018) describe Personalised Learning Plan (PLP) as a customised instruction
plan addressing individual differences such as career goal, characteristics, and interests. PLP helps
adjust learning events and methods to each learner’s pace. Supporting this, Li and Wong, (2021)
proposed an eye-tracking system to determine user interest and behaviour.

However, Bernacki, Greene, & Lobczowski. (2021) identify a research gap in PL environment,
emphasising the need to focus on emotions and personality, as they significantly play a influence
adaptive systems related to feedback.

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Information Communication Technology (ICT) is recognised for boosting PL, with rapid development
cited by Xie, Chu, Hwang, & Wang. (2019). Similarly, (Zhang et al., 2020) advocate for adaptive
learning systems that support individual learning.

Personalised Learning is underpinned by Constructivism theory, which posits that individuals

construct knowledge based on their prior experiences through language and social interaction. The
term Personalised Learning is often used interchangeably with differentiated and individualised
learning. Research indicates that Personalised Learning is particularly beneficial for learners with
Special Education Needs (SEN), as they have Individualised Education Plans (IEP) mandated by
some states to ensure schools accommodate their needs.

Technology as an Emerging GPT

While technology has been evolving for years, it gained prominence in the Third Industrial Revolution
(3IR), which focused on electronics and information technology. Integrating technology into
curriculum materials was advocated to make learning more interesting and motivating, supported
by educational games (S.I., 2020). Azmi et al. (2018) assert that these games enable learners to
expand content and apply knowledge and skills in real life. Innovations like Virtual Reality have
also been introduced.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) has brought about more technological innovations, including
Artificial Intelligence (AI), which helps learners acquire knowledge, skills and values more easily and
engage in realistic research and hands-on projects. Technological advancements have transformed
teaching methods and learning environments. Cronje. (2020) argues that these advancements are
reflected in Blended Learning, Virtual Classes, online classroom portals, and social media platform,
making learning more flexible and accommodating multiple learning styles.

Related GPTs Reviews

Since this study focuses on exploring GPTs in education, it is important to summarise the existing
research in this field. Table 1 presents a review of previous studies on GPTs.

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Trends within the Systematic Review

No Review Year of Focus No of Year Range of Reviewed Studies

Publication Studies
1) Systematic Review of Research on 2021 P e r s o n a l i s e d 60 2021
Personalized Learning Learning
2) An Operationalised Understanding of 2016 Personalised 45 2016-2023
Personalized Learning
Learning
3) Learning Environment Framework 2010 Usability of Mooc 75 2010-2019
Environment
4) Moving towards Environmental Sustainability: 2021 ICTs & Transport 23 2021
Information & Communication Technology, Emission Systems
Freight Transport CO2 Emissions
5) A Systematic Review of Research on 2021 P e r s o n a l i s e d 86 2000-2020
Personalised Learning Learning
6) Exploring Lecturer’s Readiness for 21st 2020 21st-Century Skills 60 2003-2018
Education in Malaysian Higher Learning
Institutions
7) Meta-verse Framework E-Learning 2022 E - L e a r n i n g 46 2007-2021
Environments Environment
8) Exploring the Trends of Educational Virtual 2020 Virtual Reality 26 2005-2019
Reality games Games
9) Development Trends in the Subject of 2021 Pedagogy & the 69 2020
Pedagogy & Education Systems Education System
10) Current Trends in Education Technology: 2020 Technology 64 2019-2022
Worldwide
11) 4 Changes that will Shape the Classroom 2016 Technology 72 2016-2022
of the Future: Making Education Fully
Technological
12) What are the 21st Skills Every Student Needs 2016 21st-Century Skills 61 2016
13) Theories of Globalisation 2007 Globalisation 64 2007

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No Review Year of Focus No of Year Range of Reviewed Studies

Publication Studies
14) Applying Gamification to Asynchronous 2019 Gamification 60 2019-
Online Discussions
15) Need-Supporting Gamification in Education; 2018 Gamification 64 2018
An Assessment of Motivational Effects Over
Time. Computers & Education
16) Blended Learning: the New Normal and 2018 Blended Learning 19 2018
Emerging Technologies
17) Blended Learning: An innovative approach 2017 Blended Learning 55 2017
18) Flipped Classrooms effectiveness in Teaching 2022 Flipped Classroom 68 2022
Anatomy
19) Flipped Classrooms: A Review of Key Ideas 2016 Flipped Classrooms 104 2016
and Recommendations for Practice
20) Flipped Classrooms: A Review of its 2018 Flipped Classrooms 99 2018
Advantages and Disadvantages

Table 1 Related Literature to the Global Pedagogical Trends

We realise that minimal efforts have been made to systematically review GPTs in education, particularly concerning personalised learning, flipped
classrooms, technology, and the 21st-century skills. Given the dynamic and fast-growing world that we are living in, it is important to prepare
citizens to fit in it and support the socio-economic growth of their nations. Therefore, this paper provides a systematic literature review examining
GPTs in education in three selected areas: Personalised Learning, Technology, and 21st-Century Skills, to provide insights for future researchers
in this field.

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Methodology
Guidelines for conducting a systematic literature review, as proposed by Kitchenham (2007),
were followed. Scholarly articles from journals and electronic resources were utilised to extract
abstracts and full papers related to GPTs. To aid organisation and management of the collected
literature, Kitchenham’s (2007) guidelines were divided into three phases: Planning, Conducting of
the Review, and Reporting. These phases are illustrated below in Figure 1.

Phase 1. Planning the Review

This phase involves identifying the need for the review, specifying the research questions, and
developing a review protocol. Studies related to GPTs in education, with a focus on Personalised
Learning, Technology, and 21st-Century Skills, were reviewed due to their significant impact on
pedagogical strategies in the teaching and learning process.

Phase 2. Conducting the Review

This phase involves following the guidelines for carrying out the systematic literature review as
provided by Kitchenham (2007). To maintain objectivity, the search engines used to guide the study
are listed in table 2. The preliminary reviews in table 1 informed the research framework and the
questions, with a narrowed focus on GPTs in education. Articles were selected depending on their
relevance to the question. The researcher read abstracts and scanned some full papers to gather
content aligned with GPTs. Articles that did not focus on personalised Learning, Technology, and
21st-Century Skills were excluded. Out of the 250 journal articles and abstracts scanned from three
databases, only 30 articles were included in this study.

Table 2: Search Engine

Database Source Search Strategy
Google Scholar Title & Abstract
Elsevier Journal Full Paper Pdf
Google com Title
Science Direct Alternative Search
Wiley Journal Systematic Literature Review Paper

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In line with the data extraction and analysis, data was coded and themed according to the study on
GPTs in education. A clear rationale for the review was established, and specific research questions
were adopted for executing the review. These included:

1. Which terms are synonymously used with Personalised Learning?

2. Which publications are available on Personalised Learning?
3. Which database provides literature on Personalised Learning?
4. Which learning technology themes have been evaluated and reviewed?
5. What are the findings relating to use of technology in education?
6. Which 21st=century skills are emphasised and researched in relation to education?

Following this, data extraction and analysis were conducted. The extraction process is illustrated
in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2 A diagrammatic representation of the literature selection process as adapted from Jennifer
and Bower (2019)

Phase 3. Reporting the Findings

This phase involves reporting, structuring of the extracted results, discussing them, editing
the report and evaluating it. The results are organised categorically as Personalised Learning,
Technology, and the 21st-Century Skills.

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Personalised Learning (PL)

The review focused on Personalised Learning as a GPT in education in terms of the synonymous
terms used alongside it, published papers on PL seem to dominate and selected data bases for PL
as illustrated in the tables below.

Table showing terms synonymously used with Personalised Learning by journal articles

Journal Name Personalized Adaptive Individualized Customized

Learning
Computer and Education 6 4 0 0
British Journal of Education 1 3 0 0
Journal of Education Tech- 4 3 2 0
nology and Society
Journal of Computer Assist- 3 0 0 0
ed Learning
Education and Information 6 2 0 0
Technology
Education Technology, Re- 2 1 1 0
search and Development
TOTAL 22 13 3 0

The table on terms synonymously used with Personalised Learning, reflects that the close used
is adaptive, thus journal articles that focused on Individualised and customized learning were
excluded from the study since little information was availed from them and out of the remaining 30
articles, only were considered in this study.

Table showing full papers published in journals on Personalised Learning

Journal Name Papers in Papers after Papers after

Phase 1 exclusion 1 exclusion 2
Computers and Education 100 30 10
British Journal of Education 20 5 3
Journal of Education Technology and Society 30 10 5
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 30 6 3
Education and Information Technology 45 20 4
Education Technology and Research Develop- 25 20 5
ment
TOTAL 250 91 32

A total of 250 journal papers on Personalised Learning were scanned. Papers published outside
the period from 2000 to 2022 were excluded from the study. Another exclusion criteria were the
publication journal; any journal not listed in the predefined table was excluded. The focus was
then drawn on systematic literature reviews on Personalised Learning, resulting in only 30 fully
published papers being considered to guide the study.

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Technology
The study examined how technology was being adapted as a GPT to guide teaching and learning
from 2000 to 2023. The guiding questions focused on identifying technology use, themes reviewed
and evaluated, and findings related to technology in education. Key areas of focus included
pedagogical uses of technology Yepes et al. (2022), the impact on community and systems (Juniu,
2011)rather than thinking of them in isolation. In order to teach in a given discipline, the teacher
must have knowledge of the subject, an understanding of the best teaching strategies for presenting
the content, and knowledge of the learners’ characteristics and of the educational context (e.g.,
the gymnasium, and factors affecting use of technology in education (Tondeur et al., 2017).

A meta-analysis was conducted to systematically review literature related to technology, collecting

quantitative data Specific technologies aiding learning in various fields were analysed, including
game based learning in primary education (Hainey et al., 2016)secondary and tertiary education.
Despite this recognition and utilisation there is still a lack of empirical evidence supporting GBL
as an approach. This paper presents the findings of a systematic literature review performed from
2000 to 2013 specifically looking at quality empirical studies associated with the application of
GBL in Primary Education (PE, the impact of learner response systems in education (Cárdenas-
Moncada et al., 2020), and reviews of engineering education (Borrego et al., 2014). The effectiveness
of technology in classrooms was examined by Archer et al. (2014) through meta-analyses of
reviews on learning technology. This revealed the challenge for researchers and educators in
understanding the trends and patterns of technology use. Supporting themes from reviews included
patterns of interaction and behaviour (Li Min-yan & Cui Yan-qiang, 2015), different pedagogical
uses of technology (Донской et al., 2021), institutional and systematic factors affecting the use
of technology in education (Wang et al., 2021)there is scarce research exploring the older adults’
attitudes towards and intention to use such technologies. This paper is based on a systematic review
of existing literature to explore the multifarious factors influencing independent community-living
older adults’ attitudes towards and intention to use LDC technologies. Methods: Articles published
in English between 2006 and 2020 were reviewed by searching electronic databases of PubMed,
ProQuest, EBSCOhost. The inclusion criteria were limited to quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-
methods studies that involved: 1.

The 21st-Century Skills

The guiding question for 21st-century skills was: Which 21st-century skills are emphasised and
researched in education? These skills are also known as the soft skills, include communication,
critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, problem-solving, self -efficacy, and technology. They are
emphasised in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 2030 map for
future workforce skills (Shirai et al., 2021). The OECD asserts that modern teaching and learning
should focus on outcomes and producing highly skilled personnel for the industry.

In our technology-advanced world, integrating technology into subject materials is now common.
Various Open Online courses have been developed and made accessible to learners at low or no
cost. These resources transform lives globally, enabling learners to network with scientists and
specialists to enrich their knowledge. This international collaboration has led to co-authored
courses in Europe, focusing on building innovative, resilient, and productive economies and
communities. This is achieved by creating quality learning time, bridging the gap between
curriculum intent and learning outcomes, developing content that promote critical thinking, and
providing equitable curricula for all learners. The literature emphasises that 21st-century skills are
essential for learners’ success in college and careers in the globalised, high-tech, knowledge-based
world (Nariman, 2014)

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Discussion
The study revealed that GPTs in education have been increasing since 2007 to respond to the
VUCA world and prepare learners to address unpredictable problems. Many studies integrating
personalised learning, technology, and 21st-century skills have emphasised pedagogy through
Personal Development Education (PDE) workshops. Jacobson-Lundeberg (2016) argued that PDE,
focusing on the skills embedded within pedagogical practice, mitigates patterns of mis-education.
Soft skills are emphasised because they are highly valued in the workplace. Noah & Aziz. (2020)
noted that employers rate soft skills as the highest in importance relative to workplace values and
norms.

21st-century skills were portrayed as enhancing confidence, self-efficacy, and credibility. Van
Laar et al. (2020) stated that communication and collaboration are gateways to critical thinking,
problem-solving, stress management and risk-taking. Technology is being advocated for as a GPT in
education, with innovation like embedding gaming in teaching and learning to relate to real-world
contexts. Likitweerawong & Palee. (2018) noted that adopting games in education is sometimes
challenging, particularly when using keyboards. Although a few games are tailored to education,
more are needed to boost the sector. Additionally, technologists worldwide Limitations often lack
the expertise to design learning activities tailored to desired outcomes.

1. The study focused on three GPTs in education: personalised learning, technology, and
21st-century skills, without considering others equally important ones.
2. The study did not consider multi-cultural use of GPTs, such as journal articles and
abstracts in languages other than English.
3. Cross-comparative reviews sharing the practice of the same GPT in education across
different countries were not considered.
4. Researchers and policymakers fear technology might take over the education sector

Conclusions
Globalisation is a fast-growing trend that impacts education reforms and curriculum development.
Education practitioners must align teaching and learning with workplace skills, ensuring lifelong
learning and global community engagement. Educators need to update their knowledge for
self- development and international collaboration. GPTs in education should focus on enabling
collaboration and networking among learners from different continents. More support technologies
should be adapted to operationalise online courses and curricula for learners to select according
to their preference.

Educationists should emphasise lifelong learning by equipping learners with technologies and
skills requiring continuous professional development. With Competence-Based Education (CBE)
being advocated, teaching and learning are becoming more flexible and dynamic, occurring outside
traditional classrooms. Practitioners must pay close attention to prevailing technology trends and
their daily life impacts. Digital learning is becoming the new norm, supporting the production of
competent citizens ready for the workforce. However, cognitive overload is a threat due to vast
amount of online information. Educators must filter available information and facilitate its use in a
various social-economic contexts.

Recommendation
A cross-comparative review study on GPTs, sharing practices of the same GPT in education across
two or more countries, should be conducted and shared to provide clear benchmarks for further
studies.

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Sub-Theme 5:
Quality Education for Socio-Economic Transformation

Integrating Practical Entrepreneurship Skills in Degree Curricula as a Basis for

Sustainable Development

Agnes Nabakiibi, Ronald Kyagulanyi,

Corresponding email: [email protected]

Abstract
In today’s job market, entrepreneurial skills are essential for professional success and sustainable
development. This study examines the integration of practical entrepreneurship skills in degree
curricula, considering globalisation and digital transformation. Using unstructured interviews, focus
groups, and critical data reflection, the study identifies socio-economic and socio-cultural reasons
for the relevance of this integration. data was analysed using Stata software for qualitative data
and thematic analysis for qualitative data. Majority of the respondents lacked creativity, initiative,
self-efficacy and resilience, strategic planning, problem-solving, decision-making, transformational
leadership, clear communication, teamwork and networking, and digital communication skills
necessary for job creation. The study concludes that many learners lacked hands-on skills and
confidence, and lecturers do not sufficiently expose learners to innovative activities. Strengthening
human productivity by integrating practical entrepreneurship skill into the curriculum is essential for
learner’s live hood.

Keywords: Curriculum; Integrating entrepreneurial skills; Sustainable development

Introduction
Integrating entrepreneurship in education: Entrepreneurship education provides a comprehensive
learning management for entrepreneur learners, helping them to establish correct values, enhance
innovation, and integrate new knowledge to shape their innovative ability and personalities
(Anderson, N., Potočnik, K., and Zhou, J. (2014).

Kuratko and Hodgetts. (2004), describe entrepreneurship as a dynamic process involving vision,
change, and creation requiring energy, passion, risk-taking, teamwork, resource management,
business planning, and opportunity utilisation. (Sánchez, 2011; Burgoyne, 1989; Kraiger et al.,
1993; Fisher et al., 2008), argue that entrepreneurial education aims to develop competencies like
knowledge, skills and attitudes affecting entrepreneurial performance

Klofsten. (2000) proposes three activities to stimulate entrepreneurship in universities: nurturing

an entrepreneurial culture, providing distinctive programmes, and offering specific training for
aspiring entrepreneurs. This involves equipping learners with entrepreneurial knowledge and real-
world experiences.

Researchers claim that a learning-by-doing approach is essential for developing entrepreneurial

skills. Interdisciplinary teamwork and interaction with external stakeholders are particularly
effective (Schultz, C., 2022). Bagiatis, Saiti & Chletsos. (2020) argue that integrating entrepreneurship
in education develops real-world skills, such as teamwork, public speaking, data analysis, social
media advocacy, and problem-solving.

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Mariam S, (2023) reports high unemployment rates among graduates, exacerbated by inadequate
entrepreneurship programmes. According to Uganda Bureau of Statistics (2019), the unemployment
rate in Uganda increased to 2.44 per cent in 2020 from 1.80 per cent in 2019, and in 2021, the
unemployment rate increased by 0.2 percentage points, giving a total of the unemployment rate
of 2.94 per cent in 2021 (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2022).

The aim of the study

To investigate the need for integrating practical entrepreneurship skills in all degree curricula at
higher education institutions as a basis for sustainable development.

Objectives
1. To identify activities to nurture and sustain an enduring entrepreneurial culture at
universities.
2. Investigate the challenges of integrating entrepreneurship skills in degree curricula.
3. Highlight success stories of graduates who acquired practical entrepreneurship skills.

Related Literature
Anti-colonial theory promoted the inclusion of indigenous cultural values in education, criticising
modernity’s dominance (Adyanga, 2014). It draws upon indigenous literature to achieve this. Dei
(2002) argues the theory criticizes the adoption of modernity and global spaces by countries at the
expense of tradition and culture. Proponents of this theory like Frantz Fanon, Mohandas Gandhi,
Kwame Nkrumah, Mao Tso-Tung, and Leopold Senghor argue for integrating positive attributes of
traditional education into contemporary curricula (Simmons and Dei, 2012), challenging colonial
influences. The anti-colonial theory fits well with the study because it is about pre-colonial knowledge;
it is an epistemology of the colonised and it is anchored in the indigenous sense of the collective
and common colonial conscious (Dei, 2008). The theory questions the methodology through which
curriculum in Africa is made and approved (Adyanga, 2014). It supports the idea of going back to
indigenous education to identify and select the positive attributes of indigenous education for
integration into contemporary curriculum. Therefore, it supports integration of indigenous social
ethics into the EFC. The theory demonstrate that adoption of practical entrepreneurship skills is at
the centre of developing a counter intervention to the epistemic injustices that occurred to African
knowledge systems. They helped to understand the urgency in addressing the challenges facing
university graduates and the traditional lived experiences, to frame the questions and the data
analysis process during the study.

Methodology
The study aimed to investigate the need to integrate practical entrepreneurship skills into the
curricula of all degree programmes at higher education institutions as a basis for sustainable
development in Uganda.

A qualitative approach was deemed most suitable as it focuses on interpretating the perspectives
and perceptions of the subject under investigation. The study employed a phenomenological
research design within a constructivist paradigm to delve into the lived experiences and viewpoints
of participants. Purposive sampling was utilised to select individuals who were competent in the
study context. University Academic staff from the Education Foundations Department were chosen
as participants due to their expertise in designing, implementing and evaluating curriculum goals
and objectives. Twelve academic staff members and 200 learners from various universities across
faculties in Uganda were contacted, all of whom consented to participate. The study employed
three data collection methods in conjunction: focus group discussion, document analysis and
personal interviews.

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Focus group discussions facilitated, detailed and analytical exchanges among participants.
Interviews helped in capturing specific perspectives of lecturers on the integration of practical
entrepreneurship into curriculum in Uganda.

Additionally, a documentary analysis of official documents from the Education Foundations

Department such as departmental curriculum, annual self-assessment reports, and programme/
course structure, provided insight into the department’s current practices. To ensure methodological
rigour in both procedures and results, strategies like triangulation, selection of appropriate
participants for credible data, and methodological coherence were employed. Triangulation
involved using multiple data collection methods to verify information obtained from each method.
Methodological coherence ensured alignment between research questions, methods, theory, and
literature at every stage of the study’s design and implementation.

Results
The following themes and their subthemes were distilled from data:
1. A Strong Advocacy for Integrating Practical Entrepreneurship in Degree Curriculum
Participants unanimous agreed that adopting a contextualised curriculum focused on equipping
graduates with practical entrepreneurship skills in Ugandan universities was crucial. Some viewed
the integration of practical entrepreneurship as a form of education that transcended mere
academic learning. Participant 20 expressed,

“In this era, we have many learned individuals but very few truly educated ones. We should
emphasize entrepreneurship workshops like “Harvest for Money” organised by Vision Group, under
the guidance of entrepreneurship experts.” Participant 4 added:

“The environment in which learners live, study and operate is very key in determining what to
teach. In situations where unemployment is very high due to scarcity of jobs on the job market,
I believe it is time to tap into a kind of education that can address that societal problem. This
definitely requires a review of curriculum to include practical entrepreneurship.”

Participants recognised a disconnect between the current curriculum emphasis and the societal
educational needs. This discrepancy echoes Mart’s (2011) assertion that African universities often
fail to align with African contexts. Some participants acknowledged that there are many “learned
but few educated” individuals, which highlights the inadequacy of contemporary education.
Scholars have also emphasised the importance of incorporating diverse knowledge forms,
particularly practical entrepreneurship skills (Adebisi,2016; Grange, 2016; Heleta, 2016; Adyanga,
2014; De Carvalho and Florez- Florez, 2014), to produce graduates rooted in cultural contexts.
Participants’ responses underscored the and the benefits and necessity of integrating indigenous
knowledge in the curriculum. This finding resonates with advocates of decolonisation and anti-
colonial theory, who oppose epistemic colonialism and advocate for freeing Africans from various
forms of imperialism— cognitive, linguistic, and social (Mbembe, 2016; Adebisi, 2016; Ndlovu,
2012; Dei, 2012; Dei, 2010). These scholars along with others worldwide (De Carvalho and Florez-
Florez, 2014; Mignolo, 2010; Smith, 1999) strive for an inclusive curriculum that recovers specific
knowledge systems capable of influencing social phenomena in their respective regions.

1.1 Success stories of university graduates gone through entrepreneurship workshops

Illustrating the benefits of integrating practical entrepreneurship into the degree curriculum,
participants strongly argued that possession of creditable amounts of entrepreneurship knowledge
significantly influence employee’s work behaviour across various professions. They acknowledged
the link between adherence to higher professional standards and entrepreneurship skills as a
means of enhancing income generation.

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Participant 3 emphasises the importance of practical entrepreneurship in cultivating professional

behaviour:

“Practical entrepreneurship is so vital in aligning one’s behaviour to societal expectations

and they are a bedrock in uplifting standards of living in a particular community. The sooner
we integrate such knowledges into the curriculum, the better it would be for our country.”

Participant 6 echoed this sentiment:

“If Uganda had earlier embedded those indigenous elements into the curriculum, we should
have minimized the mess we are witnessing in all sectors of society, education inclusive. This
mess is the result of ignoring indigenous social principles that guided social and professional
behaviour. Many people have the techniques and art of performing their professional duties,
but they fail because their character and attitudes do not support their competencies.”

“Thus, it can be inferred that knowledge of professional codes of conduct and social ethics
complement each other in contributing to social order. Additionally, the proposal to merge
practical entrepreneurship with existing university curriculum components aims to address
the social ethics gap while promoting an African educational model that blends diverse skills
and knowledge beneficial to humanity. 2. Challenges of integrating practical entrepreneurship
into the curriculum”

The study revealed that all participants recognised the benefits of integrating practical
entrepreneurship into the university curricula. Despite lecturers having the responsibility of
designing and reviewing curricula, they face challenges in integrating practical entrepreneurship
into departmental curriculum. They cited various challenges such as:

2.1. Inadequate resources to support the programme

Some participants felt that due to numerous requirements, their institutions lacked sufficient
resources to support the programme. Integrating practical entrepreneurship necessitate involving
entrepreneurship experts and accommodating diverse cultural and social ethics, and values,
making it challenging to feasibly incorporate it into the curriculum. Participant 2 raised a concern:
“Who will meet the cost, is it the institutions or the students?”

Participants expressed apprehension regarding the logistical complexities associated with

representing the broad diversity inherent in a more localised approach to practical entrepreneurship
would entail. Despite initiatives like Vision Group’s ‘Harvest for Money’ program over the past
decade aimed at enhancing practical entrepreneurship knowledge among Ugandans, many
individuals remain excluded. While participants acknowledged the benefits of integrating practical
entrepreneurship, they expressed genuine concerns about ensuring inclusivity.

It is evident from the data that there is a lack of consensus on which kind of entrepreneurship
knowledge should be included in or excluded from the curriculum. Many unanswered questions
need resolution before engaging in a curriculum review favouring indigenous knowledge integration.
Lecturers admitted to lacking comprehensive knowledge of practical entrepreneurship themselves.
Despite acknowledging its importance, they were hesitant to include it in their teaching practice
and curricula. This limited understanding negatively impact their ability to implement what they
deemed essential.

Responses like those shared revealed that lecturers require further education on practical
entrepreneurship. Acknowledging their lack of practical entrepreneurship knowledge indicates a
need for lecturers to receive training in these areas to effectively deliver the same knowledge to
learners. Previous studies by Seehawer. (2018), Drinkwater. (2014), and Sayed et al. (2017), have
also highlighted this challenge in academic research.

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It appears that academics are being tasked with introducing concepts they were not exposed to
during their training.

2.2. Negative attitudes and feelings about practical entrepreneurship

Some participants expressed reservations about embracing curriculum localisation despite
acknowledging its desirability. To some, integrating practical entrepreneurship was viewed as
unsustainable. They perceived it as a costly endeavour, arguing that Uganda’s poor economy could
not sustain such an initiative. Participant 6 remarked:

“While including our own ethics and knowledge in the curriculum is commendable, how can
we eliminate Eurocentric educational approaches when the government struggles to finance
education sustainably? Uganda heavily relies on donor funds, making it risky to abandon
Eurocentric epistemologies at this juncture.”

3. Perceived role of systemic/regulatory frameworks in the practical entrepreneurship

integration process

Participants emphasised the significance of higher education regulatory bodies in facilitating the
integration of practical entrepreneurship skills. However, conflicting views emerged whether these
bodies constrained lecturers’ academic autonomy. Some lecturers expressed uncertainty about
integrating practical entrepreneurship into the curricula due to concerns about accreditation
standards set by regulatory bodies like the National Council for Higher Education (NCHE). They
questioned how accreditation requirements could be met if deviations from norms occurred
without clear guidelines for integrating practical entrepreneurship.

Participants seemed unsure about their autonomy in curriculum design and whether NCHE
imposed limitations on this aspect. These uncertainties posed challenges to integrating practical
entrepreneurship into curricula. Consultation with the NCHE Quality Assurance Framework for
Universities revealed discrepancies between participants’ perceptions and NCHE guidelines.
Participants assumed that NCHE provided strict guidelines for curriculum development and
standardized qualifications across universities. However, NCHE actually offers minimum standards
that institutions can build upon based on their visions, missions, and unique characteristics.

The excerpt from NCHE guidelines emphasises autonomy and academic freedom in curriculum
design, indicating that lecturers have the freedom to expand on minimum standards without the
interference from NCHE. This departure from general guidelines during curriculum design may
impact the effectiveness of planning and implementation.

4. Success stories of those who acquired practical entrepreneurship skills in academic

institutions

A sample survey of 80 learners selected from a pool of 187 graduates from the Faculty of Business
and Management, where practical entrepreneurship is emphasised, revealed that 60% of them
had initiated their own ventures. Furthermore, it was evident that even those who secured
formal employment were capable of running their individual income-generating projects. The
implementation of entrepreneurship workshops in certain universities has significantly impacted
the livelihoods of those who have undergone this training.

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Conclusion
The study revealed lecturers’ perspectives on integrating practical entrepreneurship into university
curricula. They advocate for the practical entrepreneurship, aiming to enhance upskilling of
Ugandan graduates and combat poverty. They emphasise that practical entrepreneurship remains
a crucial pillar in Ugandan society.

Recommendations
There is a need for universities to consistently provide academic staff with the necessary knowledge,
particularly understanding the important of actions and how to execute them effectively. It is
important to enhance human productivity by integrating practical entrepreneurship skill as a
means to improve learners’ livelihoods. Furthermore, universities should revise their curriculum
by including a practical component in each semester to enhance the educational value for all.

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Conference Highlights

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