CHAPTER II: REAL NUMBERS

In this unit we want to answer the following questions:

What types of numbers exist? What problems give rise to their creation? What
What representations are used to operate with them? What relationships exist between them?

COMMENT For the study of this chapter, and in general of the entire course, it is necessary
that the student is familiar with the notion of set and with its handling. He/She must
poder definir que es un conjunto, que es un subconjunto, que es elemento de un conjunto y
What is the meaning of the symbols , , , , ,, , , CAB, AxB, giving examples.
It should be able to explain and, above all, apply what is definition by extension and by
understanding of a set. To this end, it is suggested to work on the Complement No
1. SETS, at the end of this document

Types of numbers:

CLASS DISCUSSION No 1
Before reading in detail the following paragraphs, answer the following question and then
do it compare your answer with what is proposed below.

What is the name and examples of the different types of numbers you have studied in courses?
previous mathematics?

School mathematics is based on the following types of numbers:

The natural numbers: 1, 5, 1015 , 1000044445555678910 are some examples. The
the collection of these types of numbers constitutes the set of natural numbers.
We will use the letter N to refer to the set of natural numbers.

CLASS DISCUSSION No 2: Before continuing, discuss the following questions: Is it

Is zero a natural number? Some texts include 0 among the natural numbers. Others do not.
who is right?

Those who do not consider zero (0) as a natural number use the notation N.0for
refer to the set of natural numbers N including zero.

Natural numbers are usually represented by the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5...(No

we include zero). The successive points indicate that the sequence continues with a
 2

certain law of formation and that there is no ultimate element. That is to say, the set of
the natural numbers are infinite.

The formation law is discovered by observing that 2 is obtained from 1 by adding 1, 3 is

It obtains from 2 by adding 1, and in general, if n is a natural number then n+1 is the
what follows in the succession. That is, the previous succession could be written better
precision like this: 1, 2, 3,..., n, n+1,...

Using set notation, it is usually written that:

N = {1, 2, 3,...n, n+1,...}

CLASS DISCUSSION No 3: The previous expression that defines the set N of the
Natural numbers are a definition by extension or by comprehension. Justify your answer.
response.

The integers are composed of the natural numbers, zero, and the whole numbers.
negatives. They are therefore examples of integers 1, -40, -1000345, 0, 100.
We will use the letter Z to refer to the set of integers. Using
set notation is written as

Z = {...-(n+1), -n,...-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,...n, (n+1)...}

The successive points indicate that there is no first in the succession of integers.
element, not a last element.

The concept of an integer expands the concept of a natural number and therefore we say
that natural numbers are included in or are a subset of integers.
Symbolically N Z.
.
Note that the ordering of the set of integers is very similar to the
ordering of the set of natural numbers.

Every integer has a next one, but in this case the set does not have a first.
element, as in the case of naturals. That is, in integers every number has a
element that precedes it.

3 1
Rational numbers: The following are examples of rational numbers ,- ,
2 4
255890 5
, That is, rational numbers are numbers that can be expressed as
34268 7
fractions between integers, as long as the denominator is different from zero.
We will use the letter Q to refer to the set of rational numbers.
 3

Symbolically:
p
Rational numbers can be expressed in the form , conpZ ,qZ and q0.
q
Consequently:
p
Q={ pZ, q Z, q 0}
q

Integers are considered rational numbers since they can be expressed

2 4
as a fraction between integers, for example 2 can be written as , or how etc
1 2
21 84
-21 how or how etc., and so on. It can be said, therefore, that the
1 4
Integers are contained in or are a subset of rational numbers.
Symbolically, Z Q.

Since natural numbers are considered integers (N Z), this proposition can be
combine with the previous one to obtain the following proposition N Z Q (Explain your
meaning

CLASS DISCUSSION No 4: Is the definition we have given of the set of

Are rational numbers defined by extension or by comprehension? Justify your answer.
response.

An important observation related to the way to represent rational numbers,

as fractions between integers, a rational number can be represented by
4 8 12
many of these fractions, actually infinite. Thus the fractions , ,
3 6 9
they represent the same rational number, which is why these fractions are equivalent.

Criterion of equality between rational numbers:

p r
Two rational fractions y, (remember non-null denominators) represent the same
q s
rational number and therefore they are called equivalent if and only if ps = qr.
In words, two rational fractions represent the same rational number if the
Cross products of the numerator of one by the denominator of the other are equal.

Important agreement: When two rational fractions represent the same number
p r
rational is written that = ,. That is to say, as rational numbers they are equal. The
q s
it deals with the same rational number.
 4

3 9 6
Examples: Fractions , y represent the same rational number (are
5 15 10
3 9 6
equivalent fractions). It can therefore be written that: = = (Check)
5 15 10
using the criterion of equality

The following proposition is immediately deduced from the equality criterion:

p p
Theorem: If it is an arbitrary rational fraction and k Z, k 0 then y
q q qk
p pk
they represent the same rational number. It can therefore be written that, =
q qk
OBSERVATION: Note that the equals sign refers to the rational number they represent and not to
the fractions that are obviously different

In words:
When multiplying the numerator and denominator of a rational fraction by the same
a non-zero integer, an equivalent fraction is obtained and therefore the number
the rational that they represent is the same.

Demonstration: It is a direct, immediate demonstration, based on the criterion of

equality.

To demonstrate its validity, it is enough to observe that when performing the cross products, the results
Both sides of the equality are equal. Indeed, pqk = qpk

Numbers and numerals: The previous considerations allow us to observe that a number
A rational number can be represented by infinite rational fractions.

Numbers are abstract concepts that require symbols or numerals.

represent them. According to this definition, there may exist, and in fact there are, multiple
numerals, to refer to the same number. Fractions, in this case, are numerals.
There are also, not only for rational numbers, but also for all real numbers,
decimal numerals. There are also binary numerals. And many more.

Simplest fraction that represents a rational number: Among the infinite fractions
rationals that can represent a rational number, those whose denominator and
numerator has no common factor other than 1 (they are relatively prime), it is called the
simplest fraction that represents the number.
4
Examples: The rational number "two thirds" can be represented by the fractions ,
6
1620 2
, None is the simplest. The simplest is
2430 3
 5

Irrational numbers. There are numbers that cannot be expressed as a fraction.

between integers and therefore are not rational. These numbers are called
irrational. The student also knows them. 2,3, e, are examples of irrationals and,
As we will see later, they cannot be expressed as fractions between integers.

There is no formation law that allows describing irrational numbers as

we did with the naturals, the integers, and the rationals. It's not easy to prove that a
a certain number is irrational.

The demonstration of the irrationality of : , 2 , and, they have been very important achievements in the
history of mathematics. The student may be inclined to think that numbers
irrational numbers are two or three, but irrational numbers abound and, in reality, there are
infinite. Just by saying that there are more irrational numbers than rational numbers

We will use the letter I to refer to the set of irrational numbers.

According to the above, an irrational number cannot be rational and vice versa.
An irrational number cannot be a rational number. This implies that the two sets do not
they have common elements, which can symbolically be written as I Q =

When we talk about real numbers, we think of rational or irrational numbers.

We will use the letter R to refer to the set of real numbers. That is,
the set of real numbers is made up of rational numbers and by the
irrational numbers.

In set language, it means that the set R of real numbers is the union.
from the set Q of rational numbers and from the set I of irrational numbers.
Symbolically: I Q = R. It can also be written that N Z. Q R and that I R.

There are also complex numbers, real numbers are considered complex numbers.
2i
but expressions like i, 2+3i, These are examples of typical complex numbers.
3 5i
We will use the letter C to refer to the set of complex numbers.
Consequently, it can be written that R C
In this course we will address the topic of complex numbers later on; in the order
as it appears in the virtual campus
 6

The conjunctive structure of numbers is represented in the following diagram.

SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Q I
Rational numbers Numbers
irrational
Z
Integers

N
N. natural

CLASS DISCUSSION No 5:
3
The student has surely also worked with numbers like 23.45, 0.7, 2. no
4
we mentioned in the previous expressions. The first ones are usually called decimals and the
ultimomixto. These are other types of numbers different from the ones we have mentioned.
up to now? And the fractions? Are they other types of numbers? Justify your answer.
response.

A complementary note
In the previous sections, we focused on recalling the different types of
numbers, the sets of numbers that are formed with them and the relationships that exist
they can be established between said sets.

We have concluded that real numbers constitute a large set made up of the
rational numbers and the irrational numbers, and in turn, rational numbers include the
integers and these to the numbers called naturals.

Decimal numbering system

We have seen, especially in the case of rational numbers, that a number can be
represented in many ways. That numbers are abstract concepts that require
 7

symbols or numerals to represent them and it is important to distinguish between the number
as a concept and the symbol or symbols that are used to represent them.

In the operational handling of real numbers, the decimal numeral system is, without
doubt, the most important system of numerical representation. The development of the system of
Decimal numbering runs parallel to the development of the concept of number.

From this perspective, the decimal numbering system helps to characterize the different
types of real numbers. In this section we are particularly interested in studying the different types
of the decimal numerals that exist and their relationship with the type of real number that
represent

The decimal numbering system or base ten is constructed using the technique of
position value that makes it possible for the representation of any real number to
to obtain a numeral constructed from a set of basic symbols, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
6, 8, 9 called digits.

According to this technique, the value represented by a digit varies depending on its position in the
number, except for the digit 0, which always represents the same value (null). Thus in the
numerals 2032.502, the digit 2 appears three times but in each position the value that
representation is different. The same does not happen with 0.

The number represented by decimal numerals is defined by polynomial expressions.

Powers of 10 with positive and negative integer exponents.

Types of decimal numerals and the numbers they represent

The following types of decimal numerals can be identified

Type 1
Numerals with a finite number of digits without a decimal fraction. These numerals
represent integer numbers.

Examples: 23548200, -345892, etc

The natural number represented by these numerals is defined by a polynomial in which

the digits appear as coefficients of power of 10 with a natural exponent. Thus,
example, with respect to the number 23648235 we write:

7 6 5 4 3 2
23648235 = 2x 10 + 3x 10 + 6x 10 + 4x 10 + 8x 10 + 2x 10
+ 3x10 + 5
This equality indicates that the decimal numeral written on the left represents the number
natural that is obtained by performing the operations indicated in the polynomial expression. It is
to say, the equal sign (=), in this case, is being used to define the meaning of the numeral
written on the left using the polynomial expression on the right.
 8

NOTE: It is important to bear in mind that the equals sign (=) is not always used in the same way.
way in all mathematical situations. We will be attentive to the different uses of
equal sign. Here it is used to define the way we interpret a decimal numeral

The previous expression can also be interpreted in the following way:

23648235 = 20000000 + 3000000 + 500000 + 40000 + 8000 + 200 + 30 + 5

In this context, it makes sense to talk about integer decimal units of order 0, of order 1,
of order 2, of order 3, and in general of order n. Each unit is made up of ten
lower order units, except for the order 0 or simple unit, from which it
they configure all the units. Like this:

The decimal whole unit of order 0 is the simple unit or primitive unit.
associated with the number 1
The integer decimal unit of order 1 is made up of ten (10) whole units.
simple
The whole decimal unit of order 2 is made up of ten decimal units.
2
10
whole numbers of order 1. That is equivalent to one hundred. ) simple units
The whole decimal unit of order 3 is made up of ten (10) decimal units.
3
integer of order 2. That is equivalent to a thousand(10 simple units
In general,

The whole decimal unit of order n is made up of ten (10) decimal units.
whole numbers of order n-1. That is equivalent to (10n simple units

The first whole decimal units usually have special names as follows: the order
1 tens, the order of 2 hundreds, the order of 3 thousands, the order of 4 tens of thousands, etc.

The basic strategy used by the decimal numbering system when describing numbers
integers, it is that every integer can be expressed as a combination (a polynomial) of
whole decimal units of different orders.

Thus, in the example at hand, the number represented by the numeral 23648235 is
obtains as a sum of two units of order 7, three units of order 6, six units
of order 5 and so on until adding five single units.

That is, the decimal numeral of an integer is a prescription that tells us how to
combine higher order whole decimal units to obtain the whole number
represented. The digits, according to their position, indicate the number of units of the order.
respective that enter into the sum.

Note, on the other hand, that the first 2 in the number represents two units.
whole decimals of order 7 (twenty million simple units), the second 2 represents
 9

two decimal units of order 2 (two hundred simple whole units), which
illustrate the concept of place value.

That is, the number of whole units represented by the digit depends on the position that
it occupies in the numeral, except in the case of the numeral 0 which always represents the same
(zero whole units)

THINK ABOUT THE FOLLOWING QUESTION: In the previous paragraphs we have

stated that every finite numeral without decimal fraction represents a whole number. It will be
that the reciprocal proposition is also true. That is, if it is a decimal numeral that
represents an integer, then the numeral it has to be necessarily from the
previous form?

Type 2
Numbers with a finite number of digits but with a decimal fraction different from 0. These
numerals represent rational numbers that are not integers. (Although not all the
rationals are represented by decimal numerals of this type

Example: If we add the decimal fraction 0.753 to the previous decimal, we will have the
next numeral 23648235.753. This numeral represents a non-integer rational number (not
It is difficult to verify that it is rational. See below) that is defined by the following
polynomial of powers of 10, but in this case, powers with integer exponents appear
negative. To express this fact it is written:

7 6 5 4 3 2
23648235.753 = 2x10 +3x10 +6x10 +4x10 +8x10 +2x10 1
+3 times 10 plus 5 plus 7 times 10
3
+5x102+3x10

Let's remember the following facts

1 1 1 1
By definition, 10 = = 0.1, 10 =2 = 0.01, 10 =3 = .0.001 In general
10 102
103
n 1
10 = = 0.0..(n-1 times)..0.1
10n

Taking into account the previous facts, the above expression could also be interpreted
in the following way:

7 6 5 4 3 2 7 5 3
23648235.753 =2x10 +3x10 + 6x 10 +4x10 +8x10 +2x10 +3x10+5+ + 2+3
10 10 10
23648235 = 20000000 + 3000000 + 600000 + 40000 + 8000 + 200 + 30 + 5 + 0.7 + 0.05 + 0.003

In this context, in addition to whole decimal units, one can also talk about the units.
fractional decimals of different order.

Fractional decimal units also follow a formation rule. Each unit

a decimal fraction is made up of ten decimal fractional units of the order
next. Like this:
 10

One (1) simple whole decimal unit consists of ten (10) decimal units.
fractional order 1.
A decimal fractional unit of order 1 consists of ten (10) units.
fractional decimals of order 2.
A fractional decimal unit of order 2 is made up of ten decimal units.
fractional of order 3.

In general, a fractional decimal unit of order n consists of ten units.

fractional decimals of order n+1

According to the above, the simple whole decimal unit is made up of ten.
decimal fractional units of order 1, times one hundred of order 2, times one thousand of order 3, etc.

As in the case of whole numbers, the first fractional units usually have names.
specials. Thus, the fractional unit of order 1 tenth. The decimal fractional unit
of the order 2 hundredth. The decimal fractional unit of order three thousandth, etc.

The basic strategy used by the decimal numbering system when describing numbers
rationals that are not integers, is that every number of this type can be expressed as a
finite combination (polynomial) of whole decimal units of different orders, that
express the integer part of the number plus a combination of decimal units
fractional that expresses the fractional part of the number.

Thus, in the example in question, the number represented by the numeral 23648235.753 is
obtains by adding to the polynomial that represents the integer part of the number seven units
decimal fractions of order 1, five fractional units of order 2 and three units
fractional decimals of order 3.

Given a rational numeral of this type, it is not difficult to find a rational fraction that...
represent.

Example: Let the decimal numeral be 3851.7214. It is clear that if we multiply and divide
for 104we can write that
38517214
3851.7214 .
104
That is to say, that the rational fraction on the right represents the same rational number as
represents the decimal number on the left.

(Note: Please note that the multiplication by 104it is to move the decimal point four
places and convert the initial numeral into the numeral of an integer
 11

It can also be concluded that the number represented by these numerals is rational.
arguing that the polynomial used to calculate the number is, in fact, a sum
of rational numbers. (sum of rationals is a rational)

A NOTE ON NOTATION: The way we are writing the

Decimal numerals could be a source of confusion among students. If we write the
five million three hundred eighty thousand two hundred fifty
two with three hundred fifty thousandths, we would write the following expression: 5380250.350.
In the whole part, we would not make any indication and we would expect the reader to know how to read the

number, then we would put a point (.) to indicate that the decimal fraction continues.

This way of writing the number is good for typing it on a computer or on a

calculator.
However, if this number were part of a bank statement, at least in our
half, it would appear written in the form 5, 389,250.350. That is to say, in the integer part there would be

using commas (,) to separate thousands. The decimal point (.) would remain the same. But
surely in school they have taught you another way to write it, for example:
5,389.250 and 350. That is, a comma (,) is used above to indicate millions, the point to
indicate a thousand and the comma to indicate the decimal fraction. For the purpose of making calculations,

we consider it appropriate to maintain our way of writing these numerals and for purposes
I believe that the dominant practice will dictate the way to write reports.
Financial reports have the upper hand

Type 3
Numerals with an infinite number of digits. They are of two types: the so-called periodic and
what do rational numbers and non-repeating numbers represent and what do numbers represent
irrational.
Later we will justify why the first represent rational numbers. The
second justification we are not in a position to make it.

First example: The decimal number 3.11292929...

Note that after the digits 11, the group of digits 29 repeats indefinitely.
that is called a period. The number of digits that repeat is called the period of the fraction.
decimal. In this case it is 2.
___
The notation 3.1129 is commonly used to indicate that the 29 repeats.
 12

The rational number that represents this type of numeral is defined by the following
expression:

3.11292929 = 3 + 1x 10 +11x10 + 2x10

2
+ 9x103 4+ 2x10 + 9x10 + ...5 6

___
That is to say, 3.11 29 represents the rational number obtained from performing the
operations indicated in the expression on the right.

Second example: The decimal numeral 21.12112111211112.....

In this case, the number is following a formation rule but it is not periodic because
there is no group of digits that repeats indefinitely. The irrational number that
this numeral is defined similarly to the previous case, using a
polynomial expression with infinite terms

21.12112111211112 = 2x10 + 1 + 1x10 +12x10 + 1x10

2 3
+ 1x10 + .... 4

The expressions related to numerals in the two previous examples show a

a strong problem that is important for the student to identify and understand.

When we talk about inhumans, we refer to a finite number of terms. But what
does it mean to sum infinite terms?

The truth is that the meaning of the sums that appear to the right of the numerals does not
we have defined it and at this moment we are not in a position to do so, therefore no
We know how they are calculated and if they really define a real number. For now, we
we will attend to the intuitive meaning that the student may give to that sum and
we will work with the decimal numeral even if we cannot substantiate its rules of
management.

Infinite repeating decimal numerals represent rational numbers.

In the case of infinite recurring decimals, we can verify that they represent numbers.
rational calculating a rational fraction that represents them.

Let's consider the first example. Let's call (alpha) the given decimal numeral. Note the
following transformations;

___
= 3.1129 (by our definition)
___
102311.29 When multiplying by 100, the decimal point shifts.
decimal of the places
___
10431129.29 The decimal point is moved back two
places)
 13

Subtracting the second equality from the third, term by term we obtain

___ ___ ___ ___

(104102) = 31129.29 - 311.29 = 31129 + 0.29. - 311 - 0.29 = 30818
4 2
( 1010 ) = 30818
30818 30818
= =
10 10
4 2
9900

From where it can be concluded that it is a rational number since it can be represented by a
rational fraction

p
CHECKING: We have seen that the expression with p and q integers are used for
q
represent a rational number, but this expression can also be interpreted as the
result of dividing p by q. (That is, rational numbers are a form of
represent the result of the division between integers) For this reason, when we carry out the
integer division of p by q, working in the decimal system, the expression that is obtained in
p
the quotient is a decimal expression that represents the rational number .
q
It is possible to verify the previous result by performing the division of 30818 by 9900. The
the numeral that appears in the quotient must match (as it actually does) with the numeral
___
3.1129. These considerations also help us to define a procedure that
allows conversion from the rational fraction of a rational number to its decimal numeral that
it represents.

The previous example does not constitute a mathematical proof, firstly because it does not
it is sufficiently general, it is made for a particular case. And, secondly, because
the management of the infinite part of the numeral is not substantiated. Nevertheless,
the procedure is correct and if you understand it, you will be able to apply it to any other case.

Discussing the following question with your peers will help you understand it better.

CLASS DISCUSSION 6
1. Reviewing the previous process. Why was it multiplied by 10 two times?2?: What is the
What is the idea behind this multiplication? What if it were a different case with a different exponent of 10?
Should it always be the same and always equal to 2? What are the criteria for
choose the exponents and why powers of 10?

2: Is the equality 1 = 0.99999...? valid? (See exercise 3, Page 19)

If this equality were true, it would mean that a number can have more than one
decimal numeral that represents it, just as it happens with fractions in the case of the
rational.
It also helps us keep in mind the difference between the numeral (what it represents) and
number (the represented), although sometimes, in practical handling, we identify them.
 14

Non-repeating infinite decimal numbers represent irrational numbers.

The only argument we have at hand to legitimize this proposition would be the following:

If we accept that every real number can be represented by a decimal numeral, a

An irrational number could not be represented by a finite decimal numeral, nor by a
infinite periodic decimal numeral, because we know that this type of decimal numerals
they represent rational numbers, whether they are integers or rational numbers that are not integers.

It is concluded, therefore, that the only possibility is that it be represented by a numeral.

infinite decimal in the period.

Perhaps we should add that the example we gave of infinite decimal numeral does not
newspaper, we construct it following a certain formation law.

The student should not think that the decimal numerals of all irrational numbers
They must follow some law. In fact, there are no known training laws for the
decimal numerals of the most famous irrational numbers such as 2 , and , etc.

In the case of , for example, from antiquity to the present day, it has become
a true competition in obtaining your numeral with a greater number of digits
decimals. At this moment, it has been calculated with millions of decimal figures.

In 1995, Yasumasa Kanada, using a Hitachi S-3800/480 computer, invested 116.

hours to calculate an approximation of with 6,442,450,938 decimals (Data taken from
Secret Book of Numbers. Edit?)

Synthesis
We can synthesize the proposals of all the previous paragraphs by writing:

The set of decimal numerals can be identified with the set of the
real numbers in the sense that each decimal numeral represents a number
real y, in turn, every real number can be represented by at least one
decimal number.

The previous considerations describe the different types of numerals

existing decimals and the types of real numbers they represent. That is, if we
it has a decimal numeral and we can classify it into one of the types of
decimal numbers that we have studied, we will be able to know what type of real number
represents.

IMPORTANT OBSERVATION: Note that the law of formation of the units

whole and fractional decimals can be replicated to constitute units not of ten but
from any other number of simple units, for example 2.

Thus the binary numbering system is constituted, which is fundamental in the system of
communications.
 15

In this system, instead of ten digits there are only 2, 0 and 1, and the numerals are defined
through power polynomials of 2 with positive and negative integer exponents, of
in a manner similar to how it is done in the decimal numbering system.

In this system, the numeral 10 represents two and not ten, since 2 = 1x2 + 0

EXERCISES

1.a) For each of the following decimal numerals, provide the polynomial expression
through which the real number that represents the numeral is identified or calculated,
indicating what type of real number it represents
___
2.5 __ __
125.31456 iv) 3.4 - 2
4.51, v) 2
1.404004...
103
b) Write the decimal numeral that defines each of the following expressions
polynomials, indicating what type of real number it represents
3 4 4 2 4 2
i) 5x102+ 3 + + 2 +3 + + + + ....
10 10 10 104105106
1
ii) 10 + 3x103 + 5
4x10 + 7
4x10 +9 4x10

iii) 2000000 + 80000 + 3000 +100 + 4

2 1
iv) 3x103+ 102+ 7x10 +10 + +0.005 + 0.0003 + 0.00005 + 0.00003 + ...
102
3 1 3 1 1 3
v) 2x104+2+ + 2 + 3 4+ 5 +6 + +1x10 7 +1x10 8 +1x10 9 +3x10 +…
10
10 10 10 10 10 10

2. For the decimal numerals in a) and b) of exercise 1 that represent numbers

Rational calculate a rational fraction that represents the same rational number. Afterwards
Regarding whether I have calculated it, check if it really corresponds to the decimal number I took.
as a starting point.

3 a) Calculate the rational fraction that represents the recurring decimal 0.9999..., and
check that it represents the 1.
b) The previous result implies that a number can be represented by more than one
decimal numeral, contrary to what we might think.
Imitating the previous result, could you construct an infinite decimal numeral that
represent the integer represented by 321.

4. In the following table, determine if the symbols that appear in the column of the
Left represents numbers When this is the case, mark the boxes with X
corresponding in order to classify the corresponding number.
 16

Numeral Represents a being It is Whole It is It's real

number Natural Rational Irrational
Yes No
3
10
3 20
-(- )
5 21
___
1.2132
0
2
0 0
0

1.1212212221...
3
234.251434343...

2+
2
2
0
0

25.34

5. (Special project. Volunteer exercise). Understanding the fundamentals of the problem can
It may be easy, but it is not easy to develop it in its entirety. Interested parties can play with the
to see how far they go.

Go back and read the text that appears framed under the title OBSERVATION
IMPORTANT (page 18) and try to explain how one would proceed to build a
binary numbering system (base two), indicating, for example, what the would be the
whole units and which are the fractional ones and how many digits the system would count.
Numerals would also be defined by polynomial expressions of these units.

Identify decimal numerals that represent the numbers represented by the

binary numerals 101, 10010.101. Conversely, identify the binary numerals.
what do the same numbers represented by the decimal numerals represent: 2, 10, 15,
100, for example.

There could also be infinite repeating and non-repeating numerals, and it remains to be seen if
in this case they also represent rational and irrational numbers.

Build multiplication and addition tables

 17

SUPPLEMENT No 1 SETS
(Do not read it if you handle the topic well)

An important component of mathematical language is set language, which

is naturally associated with basic concepts and notions of mathematics. A good
handling of this language and an adequate understanding of the concepts associated with it
They are very helpful for interpreting and expressing mathematical problems in a more
efficient.

Sets and elements.

We define a set as a collection of material or abstract objects, with the
exception of the empty set which, by definition, has no elements. This
a set is denoted by the symbol This set is reached for logical convenience.
in the handling of sets.

To refer to sets, it is common to symbolize them with letters. Famous sets.

They tend to adopt practically universal symbols. For example, in this course we will use
the letters N, Z, Q, I, R, C to refer to the sets of natural numbers, integers,
rational, real, complex, respectively.

The objects that make up or constitute a set are called elements of the set.
use the symbol to denote such belonging.

Thus, to symbolically express that 2 is an element of the set of numbers

natural numbers N, the expression 2 N is written. If L is a set consisting of names of
people, the expression Pedro Pérez L is a way of symbolically expressing that
Pedro Pérez is an element of that set.

To negatively express that an object is not an element of a given set, the use of the
symbol. Thus, to express that 3 it is not a natural number it can be written that
3 N. Similarly, if L is the same set mentioned above the
the expression Pedro Pérez L means that the name Pedro Pérez does not appear in the
set of names L

Sets can, in turn, be elements of a set. For example, a straight line.

it is constituted by points, that is, it is a set of geometric points organized in
special form. It makes sense to talk about a set of lines.

If we consider a football team as the group of players playing in it

team, substitutes and starters, it is clear that it makes sense to consider the set whose
elements are the Colombian professional football teams.

Definition of sets
To define a set, it is necessary to specify, in some way, which elements it includes.
they consist of. This can be done by extension, providing the list of their elements or by
 18

understanding through the statement of a property that only the elements of the
set that is intended to be defined.

The definition by extension is only applicable to finite sets, as the list of its elements is finite.
elements, but for some finite sets it is possible to give both a definition by
extension by comprehension

For example, when we define the set "of integers greater than or equal to
-2 y less than 5" we are providing a definition by understanding, using the language
ordinary. This set can be defined by extension as {-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Observe
that 5 is not an element of the set.

The definition by comprehension can also be given in symbolic terms using

conjunctive language.

It can be written {x ∈ Z: -2x < 5} or also {x: x ∈ Z, -2x < 5}

Infinite sets cannot be defined by extension, precisely because it is not possible.

write a list of infinite elements. Infinite sets can only be defined by
understanding. For example, the expression "set of even integers" is a
definition by comprehension using ordinary language.

One could think that the expression {2, 4, 6, 8, ....} is an extension definition of the
same set. In reality, this is not the case, as not all are being listed
elements of the set and the ellipsis, what they mean is that there is a law
of training that the reader must identify and through which they can calculate any
element of the set.

A definition by comprehension can also be given in symbolic form using

conjunctive language. The first thing is to find the expression of the generic term of
set. In this case, it is equivalent to discovering the formula for generating even numbers.
and express it symbolically.

The sequence of even numbers is 2, 4, 6, 8, 10... The characteristic that defines a number
It is divisible by 2, meaning it can be expressed as a product of 2 and another number.
natural, like this: 2 = 2 x 1, 4 = 2 x 2, 6 = 2 x 3, 8 = 2 x 4, ... so if n is an even number,
then n = 2k, for some k. According to this, the definition by comprehension of the
set can be expressed as:

{n N: n = 2k, k N} or also as { 2k : k N}, simpler expression.

It is important to observe the formality or the 'grammar' that must be followed when writing,
in set theory a definition by extension or by comprehension.

To define a set by extension, curly braces ({....}) are used, and inside the braces, you...
they write the elements of the set.
 19

In the definition by comprehension, braces are used, but the internal expression is constructed
following certain rules. In the first part of the key, it refers to an element
variable or generic in a reference set (x Z or n N, see examples below. The
the reference set could be implicit and in the second part, separated by a colon or
for a bar of the first, a condition or property must be satisfied by the
variable element to belong to the set (-2 x < 5, o n = 2k, k N, View examples
below)

x such that -2 < x < 5

{n N: n = 2k, k N}= { 2k : k N}

Variable element Condition or property that must

In a reference set fulfill the element that generates the set

The reference set may be implicit.

The colon or a bar separates the first part from the second.

OBSERVATION ON NOTATION
According to the agreements for denoting sets, it is not the same to write {a, b, 2, 4, 5}
that {{a},b,2,4,5}. The two sets are not equal. Although they share the elements b, 2,
4, 5, {a} is not an element of the first set, nor is a of the second. The expression {a}
represents the set whose only element is a and this is not the same as a.

Subsets and inclusion

When every element of a set A is an element of another set B, it is said that A is
A is a subset of B or that A is contained in B, and it is symbolically written that A
B. (it could also be written as B A)

According to this definition and although it may seem strange to our language
ordinary, every set is a subset of itself (A A). The empty set is
consider a subset of any set. That is, if A is an arbitrary set
then A

According to the above, the proposition {a, b} {1,2,a, f, b} is true, because all the
elements of the first set are elements of the second. In the same way it is
The proposition N Z e is true because every natural number is an integer, that is, all
An element of N is an element of Z. The student should be familiar with the
composite proposition N Z. Q R and I R and must be able to explain and justify it.

According to the previous definition, two sets A and B are equal, and it is written A = B,
if they are made up of the same elements. Or in other words, if A B and B A
 20

To deny that a set A is a subset of another set B, the symbol is used y

it is written A B.
Thus, the proposition Z Q, although it is false, states that the set Z of integers is not
subset or is not contained in the set of rational numbers.

The proposition {1,3} {1, 2, a, f, b} states that the first subset is not a subset or not.
it is included in the second, which is true as not all elements of the set
{1,3} are elements of the set {1, 2, a, f, b}.

OBSERVATION ON NOTATION: It is common to find in mathematics texts,

in addition to the symbol, the symbol to denote inclusion.

When both symbols are used, and A is written B, it is possible that A =

B. When A is written B, it is assumed that A is a proper subset of B, that is, there is
elements of B that are not elements of A, excluding the possibility of equality between them
two sets.

In these notes, this convention is not followed. In these notes, the symbol , denotes inclusion in
general, admitting the possibility that the two compared sets are equal

An interesting set
An interesting set, highly named, is the set whose elements are the
subsets of a given set which is called the power set or set of parts
of the set If X is any set, the symbol (X) is used to denote the
set of parts of X.

Applying the previous definition, it follows that if X = {a, b} then we can define (X)
by extension giving the list of its elements in braces. This is (X) = { , {a}, {b},
That is, X has four subsets including itself.

Note that {a} represents the set whose only element is a and {a, b} the set whose
elements are a and b, that is a X. But, in relation to (X) are elements of this
set.

The set of parts can be expressed by comprehension for any set X of the
next way (X) = {S: S X}

Exercise: From three elements of the set (N). The set {2, 4, 6, 8,.....} is an element
or a subset of (N).
 21

EXERCISES

1) Consider the following set, which we denote as A

1 1 1
A = { , , ,..., R, Q, 1, 2, 3, 4,...
2 3 4
R and Q denote respectively the set of real numbers and the set of the
rational numbers
Say which of the following statements are true and which are false, justifying your answer.
answers

1 1 1 1
a) 2 A b) 5 A c){1, 2, , } Ad){ , , 1, 2, 3,...} A
2 3 2 3
e) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, R} A f) Q A RA

1
h) Q A NA j) { nN} A
n
k) A A l) N A m) A A

n) R A

2. Define by extension the set whose elements are the numerical sets and denote
Discuss the truth or falsity of the following propositions.
i) N is a subset of B
ii) N is an element of B

3. Let the set A = {c, d, 2, 4, 5}.

From three elements of the set (A)
If B = {c, 2}, say whether the proposition is true or false. (B) (A), justifying its
response.
ii) Say, in general, given two sets A and B such that B A then (B) (A)

iii). Of three elements of the set (R)

4). Define by extension and symbolically by comprehension the following sets

i) the set of integers greater than -4 and less than 5

ii) the set of natural numbers obtained by adding to 3 the numbers
natural numbers greater than or equal to 5 and less than or equal to 10.
iii) the set of natural numbers whose square is less than 100

5) For each of the sets defined below, read aloud their

definition. If the set is finite, write the set by extension. If it is infinite, give
 22

some of the elements of the set and define it by comprehension using language
ordinary.
3 10
i) A = {x Z: - x } ii) B = {n Z n -100}
2 3
iii). C = {x ∈ N | x = 2k + 1, k ∈ N} iv) {n N: n+1 >80}

Operations with sets

Operations between sets allow the generation of new sets from existing sets.
data. We recall some of these operations. In what follows, A and B will denote
arbitrary sets

CBA (Complement of A concerning set B)

The complement of set A with respect to set B is the set of elements B
which are not elements of set A. Symbolically:

CBA = {x B: x A }
B - A is also used to denote this set.

In this diagram, the regions enclosed by the ovals represent sets.

B A

B-A

Elements of B that are not elements

From A

When the complement of a set A is taken with respect to a set that includes it
contains and is taken as a reference or universal space, common expressions are
next to refer to said complement A’, AcIt is clear that when this is used
The notation must clearly indicate what that reference set is.

If A = {a, b, c, 2, 3, 4} and B = {c, d, 3, 4, 5} then B - A = {d, 5}

Z-N = {0, -1, -2, -3...} = Set of negative integers with 0

A B (Union of sets A and B)

The "union" of two sets A and B is the set that is formed with the elements that
they belong either to A or to B, or to both. That is, if an element from this is taken
 23

set "union" this must be an element of A or B or both. The union set is

denotes with the symbol A B

A B = {x: x A o x B}
(he or that appears is inclusive)

In this diagram, the regions enclosed by the ovals represent sets.

A
B

A B: is made up of common elements

And not common of A and B

If A and B are as in the previous case, then A B = {a, b, c, d, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Z N = Z. That is, the union of the set of integers with the set of the
Natural numbers are the set of integers, as the elements of N are also
elements of Z. In general, whenever given two sets X and Y, X Y, then
X Y= Y

A B (Intersection of sets A and B)

The "intersection" of two sets A and B is the set consisting of the elements
common elements of sets A and B. Symbolically:

A B = {x: x A y x B}
In this diagram, the regions enclosed by the ovals represent sets.

A B B

Common elements to A and B

If an element is taken from the intersection set, it must be an element of A as well.
like B

If A and B are the sets that have been considered as examples, then A B = {c,
3, 4

Z N = N. That is, the intersection of the set of integers with the numbers
Naturals is the set of natural numbers because all elements of N are elements of Z.
In general, whenever given two sets X and Y, X and Y, then X and Y = X
 24

AxB (Cartesian product of the sets A and B)

We order an unordered sequence of two objects a and b that we represent in the form (a, b).
We say ordered because order matters. The ordered pair (a, b) is not the same as the
for the ordered pair (b, a). In the case of the ordered pair (a, b), the object a is called the first.
The component of the pair and object b is called the second component of the pair. Two pairs
Ordered sets are equal if and only if their homologous components are equal.
Symbolically:

If (a,b) and (c,d) are ordered pairs, (a,b) = (c,d) if and only if a = b and c = d.

The Cartesian product of two sets A and B is the set of ordered pairs whose
the first component is an element of A and the second component is an element of B.
Symbolically:

AxB = {(x,y): x A e y B}

If A = { a,b } and B = { 1,2,3 } then AxB = { (a,1), (a,2), (a,3), (b,1), (b,2), (b,3) }

It is not difficult to see that the definition of Cartesian product among sets can be extended.
to three, four, etc. sets, naturally extending the notion of ordered pairs
triplet, quadruplet, etc.

DISCUSSION EXERCISE
Following the definition of the Cartesian product for two sets, elaborate on the definition of
Cartesian product for three sets.

Some properties of operations between sets

The union ( ) and intersection ( ) operations between sets satisfy properties that
They control and at the same time facilitate their management, many of them shared with the operations.
between numbers.
For example, it is not difficult to understand the validity of the following propositions for
any triplet of sets A, B, C

(A B) C = A (B C)
(A B) C = A (B C)

This property, called associative, is surely recognized by the student who has
due to studying in the context of the addition and multiplication of numbers, but more than the
The important thing is to understand well what it says.

In the case of the union, it states that the set obtained by first joining the sets
The union of A and B and then joining the resulting set with C is the same set obtained from joining the
set A with the set obtained by joining sets B and C. Same interpretation
it applies to the intersection.
 25

But one thing is to understand what the proposition says and another different thing is to understand.
because the proposition is valid.

It is possible for the student, in addition to understanding the meaning of the associative property
see intuitively that the result is valid, perhaps by representing in your mind the three
sets in the form of ovals or Venn diagrams as this type is commonly called
representation. When imagining the following diagram, it is not hard to understand that it does not matter
how the sets associate when performing unions the set that is finally obtained
it will always be the same and will be represented by the area enclosed by the three ovals.

A C

In any case, the set obtained is defined by the expression { x: x A, x B,

x C}
But this intuitive 'vision,' still allows us to see or understand the validity of the
The proposition does not constitute a mathematical proof.

The mathematical demonstration requires a reasoning, deductive in this case, that leads us
let it be established in general that every element of the set (A B) C is a
element of set A (B C) and vice versa. That is, the two sets are equal.
for being constituted by the same elements.

The same type of reasoning should be applied to the mathematical demonstration that (A B)
C = A (B C). (We will omit for the moment to carry out such reasoning in detail)
demonstrative)

The associative property of union and intersection has a very important consequence,
what goes unnoticed when we operate with sets.

For example, it is common to find the expressions A B C, or A B C.

In this way of indicating the union and intersection operations, it does not specify whether to do it first.
make the union or intersection of A and B and then make the union or intersection with C or
if first the union or intersection of B with C is done and then the union or
intersection with A.
 26

However, there is no ambiguity, precisely because such operations are associative and
It does not matter how the sets are associated to perform the indicated operations.
the result is always the same.

It is important to note that exactly the same thing happens when we write a sum or a
multiplication between numbers whether they are natural, integer, rational or irrational

Expressions like 2+3/2 +(-6) or 2(3/2)(-6) are not ambiguous, because also, the sum and the
Multiplication between numbers is an associative operation.

EXERCISES

1). Let A, B, C be sets and a, b, c be real numbers. In each case, express symbolically.
the property requested for operations between sets and the operations between
numbers

i). The commutative property for union and intersection between sets, and for addition and
product of numbers

ii). The distributive property of intersection with respect to union between sets and the
distributive property of multiplication in relation to the addition of numbers.

iii). The distributive property of union with respect to intersection among sets and the
distributive property of addition with respect to multiplication among numbers.

iv). Determine which of the previous properties are valid for the operations between
sets and for the operations between real numbers, justifying their answers.

2. Set A = {1, 5, 7}, B = {1, 3, 4, 7}, C = {5, 6, 7, 8}. Find each of the
following sets
i) A (B C) ii) A B C iii) A B C

iv) A (B C) v) A B (A C)–B

vii) B- A (A B) (A B) ix) AxC

x) (A C) x B (AxB) (AxC)

A = {n ∈ N: 1 ≤ n ≤ 5}
i) Calculate A (B C)
ii) Define by comprehension, in symbolic form, the set C.NA. From some
elements of this set.
4. In the following exercises, find the set X, if possible, that makes the statement valid.
equality
In literals i) and ii) W = {a, b, c, 3, 4, 5} and V = {a, b, c, d, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
 27

i) W X = V
ii) V X = W
iii) N X = Z, where N and Z represent the sets of natural numbers.
of the integers respectively
iv) CNX = { 10, 11, 12,...}
v) P X = N, where P is the set of even natural numbers and N is the
set of natural numbers

5. Sean A and B two sets.

i). If B=calculate AUB and A B

ii). If B is A, calculate AUB and A B

iii) If B = A, calculate AUB and A B