WRITTEN GRAMMAR COURSE

DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR AND NORMATIVE GRAMMAR

1. NORMATIVE GRAMMAR AND DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR
Normative grammar relies on the concept of norm (Latin: "norma" = rule, law) and it aims to
A correct use of the language, that is to say in accordance with the rules, and their exceptions!
We consider as faulty productions, for example, the lack of agreement with the subject of a
past participle conjugated with 'to be', the omission of the plural marker -s or -x, the invention of a
verbal form. It is for a normative purpose that grammar rules, tables are taught.
of conjugation and that we do grammar exercises and dictations.
Descriptive grammar or linguistics aims at the scientific observation of language in order to
understand its functioning and establish models. It studies, for example, the arrangement of
words in groups or phrases and their combinations into longer sequences or sentences.
This course is part of a linguistic perspective and will focus particularly on syntax.
contemporary French. A teacher must indeed have a perfect knowledge of all the structures of
The language he teaches, like a watchmaker, must know how to assemble and disassemble the object that is given to it.
to be repaired.
In linguistics, we use tests or operations that allow us to identify the nature and function.
grammatical of words and groups of words.
Let's apply the main linguistic tests to the sentence:
The books are on the shelf.
• commutation: it is the replacement of one word by another of the same rank; all words
mutually interchangeable in a given environment constitute a paradigm.
Let's study the word 'shelf' by looking for its paradigm. This word can be replaced by '
library, board, table, but not by open, large, in;
since it can only be interchanged with common nouns, it is therefore a common noun. In
In this operation, we do not take into account the meaning of the words; however, it seems to us more
It is judicious from a didactic standpoint to try to find a semantic kinship and replacement.
"shelf" by "library" seems easier to understand than the replacement by
"chat". The switching highlights first the existence of the word and then its
belonging to a grammatical class (cf. 8).
• substitution: it is the replacement of a group of words with a single word while
now the syntactic structure of the sequence.
Let us replace the group "the books" with the personal pronoun "they"; the resulting sentence
it preserves its grammaticality and this proves the syntactic-semantic link between the determiner
the definite article masculine plural 'les' and the common noun 'livres'; these two words form
a group that we will call 'noun phrase' (see 4). Substitution is the operation of
phrase recognition database.
• movement: moving a word or a group of words highlights mobility or
the lack of mobility of these units. In our sentence, no word and no phrase are
movable: "*the books...", "*the books on the shelf are" (the asterisk marks
the ungrammaticality of language production.
• erasure: some units of language are erasable, others are not; if in the
By removing the final "-s" from the word "livres," we obtain the singular form; however, the subject group
the books" is mandatory.
• the addition: it is the inverse operation of the previous one; thus we can also say that the brand " -
The plural 's' is added to the singular form of the word; in other words, 'books' = 'book' + ' - '
Similarly, we can add the sequence "of literature" to the name "books" to
form the larger group "literary books".
 Linguistics describes language along two axes:
• the paradigmatic axis: axis of substitutions, omissions, and additions.
• the syntagmatic axis: axis of movements, deletions and additions.

(erasure and addition can be conceived on both axes)

It is important not to confuse synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.
first describes a fact of language at a given moment, whether that moment is contemporary with the act
of enunciation or prior to this act; e.g.: the study of the declension of nouns in Old French,
the study of the role of determiners in contemporary French, neologisms among authors of
The Pléiade. The second describes a linguistic fact in its evolution over a given period; e.g.:
the study of unstressed vowels from Middle French to contemporary French, the study of the subject case since
from Latin to today's French.
Linguistics was born in its diachronic form in the 19th century and then, little by little, linguists began to
are interested in the modern language driven, in particular, by Ferdinand de Saussure,
Roman Jakobson, André Martinet, or even Noam Chomsky.
Linguistics covers several areas such as lexicology (study of the lexicon), the
lexicography (study of dictionaries), morphology (study of morphemes), syntax (study of
the arrangement of words into phrases and then into sentences), semantics (study of the meaning of words). It
maintains close links with other human sciences such as phonetics, phonology,
psycholinguistics, semiotics.
2. THE UNITS OF LANGUAGE

We will now address the different units that combine to form the language, namely
the phrase, the syntagm, the word, the morpheme, the phoneme, and the grapheme.
We will start from an example sentence:
The gardeners were collecting the fallen leaves.
Phrase (P) = sequence delimited by an uppercase letter and a punctuation mark indicating a pause
important; a set governed by an intonation and a meaning.
This definition of normative grammar suffers from many drawbacks, which is why in
In linguistics, we adopt another definition of the sentence and say that every sentence is defined by
types and by a syntactic structure.
We will not delve into the analysis of types (T) and will content ourselves with listing them:
Declarative
Positif
Imperative
Emphatic
Interrogative

The types "declarative", "imperative", "interrogative" are mandatory and mutually exclusive.
The three other pairs of types always add to one of the previous types. For a study
for detailed information, refer to the grammars listed in the bibliography.
By 'syntactic structure', we mean the arrangement of the sentence into phrases.
Syntagma = group of words forming a syntactic unit, that is to say functioning in a sentence
as a single word.
To identify a phrase, tests are conducted:
 • substitution: the gardeners = a group of two words replaceable by a single word, the
personal subject pronoun 'they';
the dead leaves= a group of three words replaceable by a single word, the personal pronoun
C.O.D. "the" ;
collected the dead leaves = group formed of a verb and the C.O.D. group, it is
replaceable by a single word, the verb 'worked'.
The sentence can initially be reduced to three groups called 'phrases': the
gardeners were collecting the dead leaves. In a second stage we
Can we still reduce this sentence to only obtain two phrases: the gardeners
(they) were gathering the fallen leaves (they were working).
We translate this minimal syntactic structure by a rewriting rule:
PžSN + SV
high
rule that reads as follows: the sentence (P) is rewritten as (ž) Noun Phrase (NP) plus (+) Verb Phrase
The gardeners were gathering the fallen leaves.
This is the basic syntactic structure of the French sentence. In linguistics, any other sequence that
does not obey this rewriting rule is not considered a sentence. For example the
Yes, okay / Tomorrow at 8 o'clock / On the bench, in front of the school / are not sentences
canonical.
Our starting sentence can still be broken down since the SV is made up of a verb and a noun phrase.
The rewriting rule is as follows:
SVžV + SN
V = gathered, SN = the dead leaves.
• the removal: *they were gathering the fallen leaves, thus the SN Subject the gardeners is
mandatory; *the gardeners were gathering, thus the direct object complement
dead leaves is mandatory.
• the movement: *were collecting the fallen leaves the gardener, so the SN Subject is always at
left of the verb; *the gardeners were collecting the dead leaves, so the direct object noun phrase is
always to the right of the verb.
Phrases are themselves composed of one or more words.
Traditionally, the word was defined as a written sequence separated from others.
sequences of the sentence by a blank space.
In linguistics, it is said that a word is a unit of language that carries grammatical properties and
semantics and made up of morphemes.
whale = 1 word; potato = 3 words
the example sentence contains 6 words
Morpheme = smallest unit of language that has meaning; by 'smallest' we mean '
indivisible into smaller units; the morpheme is formed from phonemes (minimal unit)
sound devoid of meaning) and/or graphemes (minimal graphic unit devoid of meaning). The
phoneme is part of the oral code, which is why all languages have phonemes; on the other hand,
They are not all written and therefore do not all know graphemes.
There are two categories of morphemes:

• grammatical morphemes: they carry an instructional meaning; they are divided into:
• inflectional grammatical morphemes:
gardener
 in other words, the morpheme "-s" of the plural, the morpheme "-e" of the feminine,
morpheme "-ai" of the imperfect tense and the morpheme "-t" of the third person.
• derivational grammatical morphemes
capacity
in other words, the prefix 'in-' and the suffix '-ier'.
• lexical morphemes: they carry lexical meaning:
ex : franc ; jardin ; table

Some examples of words, morphemes, phonemes, and graphemes:

• jardinier = 8 phonèmes , 9 graphèmes "j,a,r,d,i,n,i,e,r", 2 morphèmes « jardin » + « -ier », 1
word
• feuilles = 3 phonèmes , 8 graphèmes "f,e,u,i,l,l,e,s", 2 morphèmes « feuille » + « -s », 1
word
• dentiste = 6 phonèmes , 8 graphèmes "d,e,n,t,i,s,t,e", 2 morphèmes « dent » + « -iste », 1
word
• water = 1 phoneme, 3 graphemes "e,a,u", 1 morpheme, 1 word;
• y = 1 phoneme, 1 grapheme 'y', 1 morpheme, 1 word.
There is rarely a correspondence between the oral code and the written code, e.g., dad; in this word there is one
A phoneme corresponds to a grapheme.
A prefix and a suffix are always attached to a base, and the word obtained after prefixation and/or
suffixation is called derivation. The linguistic process that involves prefixing and/or suffixing a
Base is morphological derivation. A base can be autonomous, meaning it can exist alone as
what word, as in 'chant' + 'eur' (the word 'chant' exists) or non-autonomous like in 'fleur' + 'iss'
ement (there is no word *fleuriss). Prefixes and suffixes are part of the category
morphological of affixes. Bases like affixes can undergo modifications of
their written and/or oral form; these variants are called allomorphs. The phenomenon
allomorphy is most often explainable by the phonological environment, and we then speak of
phonological conditioning. The derivative plombage is formed on the basis which is the allomorph in
phonological conditioning of the base because that is how the name 'plomb' is pronounced;
the appearance of the allomorphe in speech is explained by the presence of the suffix "-age", a morpheme that
starts with a vowel; to avoid the contact of the final vowel of the base with the vowel
initial of the suffix, we pronounce the final consonant written of the base.
3. THE PHRASE

We will study the syntactic structure of the French sentence. To this end, we will distinguish
the simple sentence of the complex sentence.
3.1. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
There are many definitions of the phrase and consequently of the simple sentence. We do not
We will only address this from a syntactic point of view.

Let's ask ourselves if the sequence below is a sentence:

The dolphin is a mammal.
In normative grammar, we will say that we have an independent clause (see 3.2.1.).
In linguistics, it will be said that the sequence is indeed a sentence because it illustrates the rule of
Rewrite the simple sentence, namely: PžSN + SV with SN = the dolphin SV = is a
mammal.
For the internal structure of each phrase, refer to section 4.
3.2. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
There are two very different analyses of the structure of the complex sentence. We will address in
a first step is the analysis in propositions, also called propositional analysis or analysis
logic; this analysis is still practiced in normative grammar. Then, we will proceed to a
analyze in deep structure as descriptive grammar does.
We will apply these two analytical approaches to the sequence:
The dolphin jumps when its trainer whistles.
3.2.1. ANALYSIS IN PROPOSITIONS
ÿhaut

The term 'proposition' comes from Antiquity and prevailed until the 19th century to mean
"minimal unit of judgment". Nowadays, this definition is complemented by criteria.
syntactic and it is said that a proposition is a minimal syntactic and semantic unit which, either
form a simple sentence, or enter into the composition of a complex sentence.
There are three kinds of propositions:
• the independent proposition: as its name indicates, it is autonomous from the point of view
syntactic and semantic; it constitutes a simple sentence (see 3.1.)
• the main clause: it cannot exist alone and necessarily governs a
subordinate clause; several main clauses can govern a single one
a subordinated clause or a main clause can govern several
subordinate clauses; the combination of these two clauses forms a sentence
complex.
The recognition of proposals is based on the following formal criteria:
• the presence of conjugated verbs, because a proposition always corresponds to a verb
conjugate;
• the presence of nominal subject phrases, because a conjugated verb always has a subject;
• the presence of a subordinate, as a subordinate clause is always introduced by
a linking word;
• a literal meaning for each proposal.

In the example sentence we have:

• two conjugated verbs: fait = verb 'faire' in the 3rd person of the present indicative, siffle = verb
to whistle at the P3 of the present indicative
• two SN subjects: the dolphin and its trainer;
• a subordinating conjunction: when = subordinating conjunction;
• a literal meaning for each sequence: the jumps of the dolphins, the whistles of the trainer.
The sentence therefore contains two clauses (two conjugated verbs + two subject noun phrases + two
meanings), including a main clause and a subordinate clause (sequence introduced
by the subordinating conjunction).
The main proposition is: [the dolphin jumps]
The subordinate clause is: [when his trainer whistles].
Note: Traditionally, and for didactic purposes, propositions are framed by
brackets; an opening bracket = [ , and a closing bracket = ] ; we can also underline, circle or
frame the subordinate; a game of colors will also be greatly appreciated.
categories_and_examples_of_subordinators
high

• conjonctions de subordination : ex :quand - lorsque - si - comme – etc.

• subordinating conjunctions: e.g. before - as soon as - so that - until
that - whereas - etc. (the conjunctions consist of a single word while the
conjunctive locutions contain several words
• relative pronoun: e.g. who - that (which) - what - whose - where - to which - etc.
• indirect interrogative pronoun: e.g. who - how - why - etc.
The order of the propositions can vary:
As soon as it rains, the snails will come out.
We will send a check as soon as we receive the invoice.
The two subordinate clauses, identifiable by the brackets, are introduced by the phrase.
conjunctive of time as soon as.
On the other hand, the inversion of clauses is not possible with the conjunction phrase because
and the sentence *Because you are wise, you will have a candy. will be considered incorrect.

Propositions can be coordinated by coordinating conjunctions:

or - but - or - and - so - neither - for

When the nights become longer and when the leaves of the trees
Fall will have arrived.
The two subordinate clauses are coordinated using the coordinating conjunction.
and if the first proposition is introduced by the temporal conjunction when, the second
The proposition is necessarily introduced by its allomorph that.

I will send a letter or I will call so that you are informed of my

arrival.
The two main propositions are coordinated by means of the coordinating conjunction or.
3.2.2. THE DEEP STRUCTURE ANALYSIS
In linguistics, a complex sentence represents a surface structure, in other words
the completed arrangement of a material and types. The surface structure is actually the culmination
of a series of transformations of a deep structure. The deep structure of a sentence
A complex formed by two propositions like our example sentence corresponds to two sentences.
simple, but not finished and therefore still ungrammatical.
These two simple sentences are called matrix sentence (Pm) and embedded sentence (Pe).
Let's take our example again:
The dolphin jumps when its trainer whistles.
and let's look for its deep structure, that is to say the Pm and the Pe.
PM: The dolphin makes good jumps then
But: his trainer whistles
We notice the absence of the initial capital letter and punctuation in both sentences.
finale. This can be explained by the fact that we are not dealing with two 'real' sentences.
simple but made of two materials.
Think of a building. When you look at it, it is completed, so with a roof, doors, and
windows, etc. However, initially the construction company only had concrete in its possession,
plaster, wood, steel, and all kinds of materials. Seeing these materials spread out on the
You wouldn't be talking about a building.
Let’s observe Pm and Pe again. We see in Pm the appearance of the word "then", a word that does not appear.
in the finished sentence, in the surface structure. In Pe, the subordinating conjunction has
disappeared. We can already deduce that Pm does not quite correspond to the proposition
main and that Pe does not quite correspond to the subordinate clause either. As for the
The meaning conveyed by the subordinate clause is marked in the main clause by an adverb, here the adverb of time "
so.
We now understand that the two structural analyses are not completely identical.
The deep structure also reveals the types of the Pm and Pe. As we are not studying the
types in this course, the examples will mainly present declarative, positive, active, neutral types, because
These are the least marked types morphologically, syntactically, and prosodically.
However, know that in the deep structure no type is retained; therefore, if a
if a sentence is negative, it will become positive in the Pm or the Pe; likewise, if a sentence is
In the subjunctive, the verb in the imperative will be transformed into a verb in the indicative and we will make the noun phrase reappear.
subject.
T: declarative, positive, active, neutral
Pm: the dolphin makes good leaps then
T: declarative, positive, active, neutral
Pe: his trainer whistles
To obtain the starting phrase, that is to say the surface structure of the sentence, we must
carry out a series of transformations, just as a construction company must
transform the materials to construct a building.
These transformations occur in successive steps, and we will detail these steps for our
example:
• 1st step: we erase the time adverb 'then' in the Pm, and we obtain the sequence:
the dolphin makes good jumps

(in order to make it easier for you to read, the empty space created by the deletion of the adverb is
here represented by the character; this sign will obviously not appear in a work
manuscript !)
• 2nd step: we replace the empty space (here the character) with the Pe, and we obtain the
sequence :
the dolphin jumps the trainer whistles
• 3rd step: we add the subordinating conjunction when at the beginning of the Pe, and we obtain the
sequence :
the dolphin jumps when the trainer whistles
• Step 4: we assign the types to the two sequences; since we do not develop this
At this point in the course, we only add the three characteristics of the declarative type, namely
the initial capital letter + the final period + the assertive intonation in speech, and you get the sentence
of surface structure, a finite and completely grammatical phrase:
The dolphin jumps when its trainer whistles.
Here is another example for which we first conduct propositional analysis and then
the analysis in deep structure:

Marie sings for her child to fall asleep.

Propositional analysis:
We are looking for the recognition indicators of the proposals:
• There are two conjugated verbs: chante = verb 'to sing', 3rd person of the present indicative.
to fall asleep = verb "to fall asleep", 3rd person of the present subjunctive;

• these two verbs have as syntactic subjects, respectively, the NP =Marie and the NP =her
child
• the two sequences have a meaning = Mary's song + the child's falling asleep;
So we have two proposals, but which ones?
• so that is a conjunctive phrase that indicates purpose;
We know that a conjunctive phrase is a subordinating conjunction and that every subordinating conjunction introduces
a subordinate clause; therefore, we can say that the sequence [so that its
[the child falls asleep] is a subordinate circumstantial clause of purpose (final) while the
The sequence [Marie sings] is a main proposition.
In this example, the main clause will preferably be placed before the subordinate clause.
subordinate.

Deep structure analysis:

We postulate that the starting sentence is a surface structure that corresponds to a structure
deep that has undergone a series of morphological, syntactic, and prosodic transformations.
Let’s first look for the material of this sentence, that is to say the matrix sentence and the
embedded phrase
T: declarative, positive, active, neutral
Marie sings for that / for this purpose
T: declarative, positive, active, neutral
But: his child is falling asleep

Transformations undergone by Pm and Pe:

• Step 1: we erase in the Pm the prepositional group 'for that' or 'for this purpose'
which marks the purpose, and we obtain the sequence:
Marie sings
• 2nd step: we replace the empty space (here the character ?) with the Pe, and we obtain the
sequence:
Marie sings her child to sleep
• 3rd step: we add the subordinating conjunction so that at the beginning of Pe, and we
obtains the sequence:
Marie sings for her child to fall asleep
• 4th step: the phrase requires the subjunctive mood for the verb in the subordinate clause; we
 thus falls asleep, present indicative, in the present subjunctive, and we obtain the sequence:
Marie sings for her child to fall asleep
• 5th step: we return the types to the two sequences by adding only the final point.
The assertive intonation in oral speech, the initial capital cannot be removed from Marie.
since it is a criterion for identifying the proper noun, and we obtain the phrase from the structure
on the surface, a finished and totally grammatical phrase:
Marie sings for her child to fall asleep.

In relation to our first example, we notice that the number of steps is not always
identical. Here we must devote a step to changing the verb mood. This mood being
required by the absent subordinate of the deep structure, this justifies the indicative mood in
In this analysis, this mode is considered basic and neutral.
3.2.3. COMPARISON OF THE TWO ANALYTICAL PROCESSES

For any audience learning the syntactic functioning of the French sentence, and particularly in
in F.L.E. class, it is appropriate to first propose propositional analysis, provided that...
to first choose complex sentences with two clauses. The language of the 17th century where the
subordinate clauses are numerous and nested within each other is obviously to
proscribe!
Recent methods of F.L.E. rely on the concept of sentence from the very first lessons. It provides you
One must therefore prioritize simple sentences before thinking about explaining complex sentences.
The very concept of 'proposition' will be better understood if it is based on a proposition.
independent where the identification of the only verb and its subject is associated with a meaning.
Once this analytical method is mastered, it will be easier to move on to phrasal structures.
to two proposals requiring in addition the learning of the subordinate. Do not forget that
Not all languages have this type of function word.
The propositional analysis is particularly playful due to typographic highlights or
still the use of different colors for each proposal and for the subordinate. A
significant advantage for learners who are always a bit apprehensive about the mystery of the
French language!
Deep structure analysis better illustrates the functioning of the sentence.
complex. The embedding of one sequence within another and thus the reduction of the initial sentence
In two basic sequences, it allows to visualize the genesis of the sentence.
Obviously, it requires a well-established knowledge of normative grammar and, if it ...
it is essential for a French teacher, it is much less so for a learner of
F.L.E.
4. THE SYNTAGMS

We saw in section 2 the definition of the phrase and the most relevant tests in a
syntagmatic analysis. Furthermore, we now know that the sentence is formed by a hierarchy
of syntagmas and also that the minimal sentence is rewritten as NP + VP. However, we do not have
further studied the internal structure, in other words the constituents, of each phrase.
In this part of the course, we will focus on the possible components of each.
phrase and we will start with the mandatory phrases and immediate constituents of P, namely
the SN first, then the SV.
Let's base our analyses on a new example sentence:
The locusts have destroyed the crops.

4.1. THE NOUN PHRASE (NP)

The group of grasshoppers consists of the word grasshoppersReplaceable by a common noun like
"animals", "crickets", it is therefore a common noun. To its left is the word
interchangeable with 'some', 'a few', which proves its nature as a determiner, it is an article
defined plural because the singular would be "the", this also confirms the feminine gender of the determiner
and of the name; finally, the final mark "-s" of the name indicates the plural. The group formed by the
determiner and the common noun can be replaced by the subject personal pronoun 'they', a test that
shows the cohesion of the two words within the group. Furthermore, neither the determiner nor the noun are
movable or even erasable. Therefore, we can assert that this group constitutes
a SN whose structure is:
SNžDét + N

This is the most common structure of the noun phrase in French, but there are other constituents such as:
• a proper name: Angèle dances.
• An expanded name (NE): The black cat meows.
• a pronoun: He purrs / His is gray / This is true.
• une proposition subordonnée :Que la grenouille coasse est normal / Qui veut aller loin,
grooms his mount.
All these highlighted groups, even if they are composed of just one word! are
replaceable with a single word. high

Let's summarize the internal composition of the SN using rewriting rules:

Det + N
SNž Proper noun
Dét + NE
Subordinate clause

Noun phrases not included in a higher rank phrase have a function

grammatical
• the Subject function: in all the above sentences the noun phrase is mandatory and fixed; it agrees
also in number with the verb that follows it; they are all noun phrases subjects of the verb of the sentence;
In French, the subject is almost never omitted;
• the function of Direct Object Complement (D.O.C.): the D.O.C. is included in the SV where it
place to the right of the verb except in its pronominal form:
The audience appreciates Angèle / the dancer / that we offer them this ballet.
The audience appreciates it.
In the example sentence, the group cultures is also a direct object.
Direct object pronouns (C.O.D.) are not always mandatory:
We read. We read the newspaper.
• the subject complement function: the noun phrase complement of the subject is part of the verb phrase and is placed to the right
 of the verb:
Angèle is an excellent dancer. Pierre is a lawyer.
• the circumstantial complement function: according to the semantic nature of the verb, this complement
will be included in the SV or will depend directly on P:
This morning, the snow covered the plain.
Aline works in the morning.
Movement is a criterion, not infallible however, that allows us to distinguish between the
two hierarchical dependencies of these SN.
In the first example, the SN is mobile: The snow covered the plain this morning.
considered then as directly dependent on P and the structure of P is:
The snow has covered the plain this morning.
In the second example, the SN is not mobile and its meaning is directly linked to that of the verb:
In the morning, Aline works. In this case, it depends on the verb and is included in the SV; P
maintain its minimal structure:
PžSN (Aline) + SV (works in the morning)
and SVžV (works) + SN (in the morning)
Note: two other functions of the noun phrase will not be addressed here: the apposition function
and the attribute function of the object. height

4.2. THE VERBAL PHRASE (VP)

The verbal phrase has a conjugated verb as its core. It is a constituent along with the subject noun phrase.
immediate, mandatory and fixed of P. It can contain:
• a verb alone: Angèle dances.
• A direct transitive verb followed by a noun phrase COD: Angèle dances the polka.
• an indirect transitive verb followed by a prepositional phrase (PP) Object Complement
Angèle smiles at her admirers.
• a verb with double complementation, that is to say, governing both a direct object noun phrase and a prepositional phrase
C.O.I.: Angèle sends a greeting to her audience.
Angèle talks about her anxiety to her family.
• a verb called 'copula' and formerly 'stative verb' always followed by a phrase
Adjective (SAdj) attribute of the subject: Angèle is wonderful.
Angèle has become a renowned dancer.
• a verb followed by a noun phrase or a prepositional phrase with circumstantial complements: Angèle lives in Paris.
Angèle works at the Conservatory.
All these underlined sequences can be replaced by a single verb, for example 'works';
they are mandatory and fixed and therefore form a SV.
The SV has no function, but the phrases it can possibly contain have one as well.
that we mentioned earlier.
Let's summarize the internal composition of the SN using a rewriting rule:
SV V
V + SN
V + Preposition
V + Noun + Preposition
V + PPrep + PPrep
 Couple + SAdj
Couple + SN

We have just seen that the SN and the SV can contain other phrases. Let's study them.
at present.

4.3. THE ADJECTIVAL PHRASE (SAdj)

We can add plural feminine adjectives such as 'devouring' or 'bounding' to
grasshopper names. These adjectives, although they do not form a group in the strict sense of the term,
nevertheless constitute an Adjectival Phrase. The adverb + adjective group also creates a
For example, very bouncing grasshoppers and this phrase can itself be modified by a
adverb like in truly very bouncing grasshoppers.
Here are the rewriting rules of the SAdj:
Adjective
Adj Adverb + Adjective
Adverb + Adjective

The adjective occupies several functions depending on its position.

• the linked epithet function: the AdjN is placed inside a NP, to the right or to the left of the
name; it is optional:
A big tree / An imposing tree
This very old tree / This totally stunted tree.
• the subject attribute function: the SAdj is a mandatory and fixed component, always at the
right of the copula verb (cf. 8.9.), in the SV:
These plants are exotic / extremely expensive.
Note: the detached epithet function and the attribute function of the object complement are
also possible for the SAdj but we will not address them in this course.
4.4. THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP)
This phrase must obligatorily have a head noun that is a preposition preceding a noun phrase according to the rule of
rewriting :
SPreppreP + SN
The SPrep "of corn" can be added to the name crops, just like the SPrep "to the appetite".
gargantuan » in the name of grasshoppers to form another sentence:
The gargantuan appetite grasshoppers have destroyed the corn crops.
Several grammatical functions are associated with prepositional phrases:

• the function Complement of the Noun: the Prepositional Phrases of the suprasentence are respectively
complements of the name grasshoppers etc. crops; they form with this name an expanded name
(NE). (cf. 4.6.)

The complement of N is always syntactically optional but, on the semantic level, it is

either optional, it then has a characteristic value, or mandatory, it then has a value
determinative;
• the Adjective Complement function: the Prepositional Phrase is then included in the Adjective Phrase and constitutes a
 expansion of the adjective:
The tamer is proud of his act.
• the Circumstantial Complement function: in this case, the phrases can be replaced by a
adverb with circumstantial value:
Antoine gets off the train = Antoine goes down from it (nuance of place);
Antoine will leave at dawn = Antoine will leave early (time nuance);
Antoine writes with a white chalk = Antoine writes this way (nuance of manner or of)
medium).
4.5. THE ADVERBIAL PHRASE (SAdv)
A single adverb or an adverb modified by another adverb constitutes an Adverbial Phrase.
exercising the function of circumstantial complement of the entire sentence and they depend on P, or on the
verb and they are part of the SV.
The addition of the adverb 'yesterday' to our example sentence increases the number of immediate constituents.
of P because this SAdv is movable in the sentence; it indicates the time:
Yesterday the grasshoppers destroyed the crops.
The grasshoppers destroyed the crops yesterday.
Grasshoppers (have destroyed the crops) (yesterday)
Note: by convention, circumstantial complements, whether they take the form of
adverbial, nominal, or prepositional phrases are always placed after the noun phrase and the verb phrase in
the rewrite rule.
The addition of the adverbial phrase 'very meticulously' rather identifies the manner of destruction.
particular to grasshoppers, furthermore, it is not completely mobile in the sentence; this adv is
circumstantial complement of the verb and it is included in the SV:
The locusts have very meticulously destroyed the crops.
The locusts have meticulously destroyed the crops.
Very meticulously, the grasshoppers destroyed the crops.

In these examples, the adverb 'very' is a quantifier and not a complement.

circumstantial.

4.6. THE EXPANDED NAME (NE)

"Expanded" means "extended" or "modified" or even "completed," several terms used
in descriptive grammars.
The expanded name is not a syntagma but a group consisting of a noun and an expansion or
of a modifier that comes in three possible forms:
• a black and too short dress;
• a prepositional phrase complement of the noun: a dress by a great designer / to
sleeveless / flounces;
• a dress that attracts
the attention / whose price is reasonable.
Note: In some school grammars, the authors do not differentiate between the notion
of 'group' and the notion of 'syntagm' and only the term 'group' is used; thus we have the '
noun phrase (NP), the verb phrase (VP), etc. This is explained by the desire not to
introducing overly technical terms that may discourage children and adolescents.
4.7. APPLICATION EXERCISE
Determine the syntactic structure of the sentence:
In autumn, Swiss climbers crossed this very dangerous summit.
Determining the syntactic structure of a sentence amounts to looking for all the phrases that it contains.
components by showing their dependencies with respect to each other and with respect to P, and
by also identifying their grammatical functions.
• Let's find the verb.
There is a conjugated verb: have crossed = verb 'to cross', 3rd person, past tense of the indicative.
• Let's find the subject SN.
We notice the group of Swiss climbers, to the left of the verb; this group is at
plural as evidenced by the plural morpheme and the suffix -sfor climbers
Swiss; climbers can be exchanged with "athletes", "mountaineers" and only with
common nouns, so it is a common noun; Swiss is interchangeable with 'French',
"nice", and only with adjectives, so it is an adjective; it is erasable
but fixed; it is a linked attributive adjective of the noun with which it forms an expanded noun:

Swiss climbers

desest interchangeable with "the", "some" and, in the singular with "a", so it's a
determiner, and more specifically an indefinite article.
The group of Swiss climbers can be replaced by a single word, the subject personal pronoun 'they'.
so it’s an SN.
We obtain the following structure:
SN Det + not
and NE N + SAdj
A first conclusion is already possible:
a verb + a noun subject + a meaning (the crossing of a dangerous summit by climbers)
Swiss) = three criteria that allow to conclude the presence of a single proposal, therefore of a
independent proposition.
Let's continue the syntactic analysis of the sentence:

• Looking for the SV.

We have already identified the verb; it is a direct transitive verb and requires a direct object noun phrase.
cross something." Our study of the SV is currently incomplete because we need to
to consider the existence of a direct object noun phrase

• Looking for the SN C.O.D.

To the right of the verb we have the very dangerous summit sequence.
Let's first see if it is a SN.
The word does not have a plural marker, so it is singular; its paradigm does not
contains only common nouns: 'summit', 'extremity', etc.; consequently, it is a
singular common noun. It is followed by the very dangerous group where dangerous is replaceable.
for example by its synonym "dangerous" or by its antonym "easy", in other words
by singular masculine qualifying adjectives, which proves the adjectival nature of
dangerous; as for very, it can be replaced by 'few', which makes it an adverb of quantity
insisting on the dangerousness of the summit; the adverb is optional and it forms with the adjective a
adjectival group, also erasable:
In autumn, Swiss mountaineers have crossed this dangerous summit.
In autumn, Swiss climbers have crossed this summit.
Here is the syntactic composition of this SAdj:
haught
Very dangerous
Placed directly to the right of the name it qualifies, it is its linked epithet and forms with this name a
expanded name :
Very dangerous (summit)
The NE is preceded by the word this replaceable by "a", "each" which are determiners; it is
so also a determiner and, more precisely, a singular masculine demonstrative because the feminine
would be 'this' and the plural 'these'. We can now ask ourselves if the group this summit
very dangerous constitutes a SN. In this case, we must be able to replace it with a single word:
In autumn, Swiss climbers crossed it.
The replacement by the singular masculine joint personal pronoun and direct object 'l’, allomorph
The phonological conditioning of 'le' ('le' + consonant and 'l'' + vowel) proves that the
sequence is a fixed, mandatory noun phrase and the direct object of the verb has crossed.
SNžDét (this) + NE (very dangerous summit)
and NEžN (summit) + SAdj (very dangerous)
(very) + Adj (dangerous)
• Let's get back to the SV.
The sequence has crossed a very dangerous summit and is therefore composed of a verb and a noun phrase.
CO.D.; we can substitute just one word for it: the intransitive verb = "dared"; this
substitution proves the cohesion of the verb and its complement and, correspondingly, the
presence of a SV obeying the rewriting rule:
SVžV (overcame) + SN (this very dangerous summit)
• Let's analyze the sequence in autumn.
The word belongs to the paradigm of prepositions such as 'in', 'at my place'. It should
introduce a prepositional phrase.
Autumn is replaceable by 'winter' and a whole series of common nouns; it is therefore
a common noun.
We see that this name is not preceded by a determiner: '*in the autumn', '*in this
autumn; this scenario, although not common, can nonetheless occur in French.
when the name is considered in its greatest generality, cf. "porcelain vase", "
coffee cup, 'sleeveless dress'; we then talk about zero determiner and we do it
appear in the rewriting rule in the form 'Det Ø'. Nevertheless, the name constitutes
all by himself a SN:
SNžDét Ø + N (autumn)
This noun phrase has no grammatical function because it is included in a phrase of rank
superior. Ÿhaut

Indeed, preceded by the preposition 'en', the group can be replaced by the adverb of time 'then';
neither of the two words is erasable or movable; it is therefore a prepositional phrase indicating time and
therefore circumstantial complement.
Preposition (in) + noun (autumn)
Conclusion of our syntactic study of the sentence:
• Rewriting rules:
 PžSN + SV
SNžDét + NE
NEžN + SAdj
SAdjžAdj
SVžV + SN
SNžDét + NE
NEžN + SAdj
SAdj.žAdv. + Adj.
SPreposition + Noun
SNžDét Ø + N
• To summarize:
We have a Noun Phrase Subject, a Verbal Phrase that has no function but that
contains a Noun Phrase Direct Object of the verb, and a Phrase
Prepositional circumstantial complement of time which also contains a Phrase
Nominal, but without function.
4.8. THE TREE REPRESENTATION
If one wants to easily visualize the groupings of words and the nesting of phrases, one can
create a hierarchy or tree diagram.
Here is the sentence:

The lilac has purple flowers in the spring.

we have the following rewriting rules:
high
PžSN (the lilac) + SV (has purple flowers) + SPrép (at
spring
SNžDét (the) + N (lilac)
SVžV (a) + SN (purple flowers)
SNžDét (of) + NE (purple flowers)
Gentle (flowers) + Adj (purple)
(in) + (spring)
SNžDét (the) + N (spring)
Note: the word 'mot' corresponds to the amalgamation of the preposition 'à' and the article determinant.
masculine singular defined 'the'; in a syntax analysis, it is necessary to systematically decompose
the amalgams into their constituent elements.
The visualization of this structure is sometimes done using a tree structure. At the top of the tree
at place P, then on each level we locate the immediate constituents of the upper level and so on
continue until being able to associate the last constituents with the words of the sentence.
In parentheses, we indicate the official names of the links.
4.9. PARENTHETICAL REPRESENTATION
Phrases are delimited by opening and closing parentheses (or brackets). This
this process is not recommended for long sentences or for sentences in which there is a
interlocking of propositions.
Let's apply this process to the sentence:
The vintage cars are waiting for collectors in the square.
(the (old cars)) (are waiting (for the collectors)) (in (the square))
Adjunct / Noun / Subject Noun Verb Subject Noun / Subject Verb Preposition Noun / Subject Preposition

5. THE COMPLEMENTARY SUBORDINATE PROPOSITIONS

There are two types of subordinate clauses: direct object clauses and
subject complements, but they all share common characteristics that we will outline under
5.1. We will then study each type of subordinate complement clause with its criteria.
specific and a few examples.
5.1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Complementary subordinate clauses are recognized by several indicators:
• they are introduced by the subordinating conjunction 'que' or its allomorph 'en'
phonological conditioning (que + consonant, qu' + vowel); this conjunction is a
simple relator (= a syntactic tool), it thus has no proper meaning; we say that it is
void of meaning or color;
• they are equivalent to a SN;
• they are fixed;
 • they are mandatory;
• they have a grammatical function;
• the verb mood of the subordinate clause depends on several criteria;
• the use of subordinate clauses is to be linked with the
language registers.

5.2. THE COMPLEMENTARY SUBORDINATE CLAUSES C.O.D.

Specific recognition indices:
• they are direct object complements of the verb in the main clause and are placed
always to the right of this verb;
• they are included in the SV;
• the verb mood of the subordinate clause is governed by the meaning of the verb in the
main proposition :
I want him to come: present subjunctive of 'to come' because of the verb 'wants' which expresses
a will, so the process of 'coming' is presented in its virtuality;
I think he will come: future indicative of 'to come' because of the meaning of the verb think.
envision the trial of "to come" as a real fact.
• they do not belong to any particular language register (or to all registers of
language!), which justifies their high frequency of occurrence in the language.
Let's work on the example sentence:

The mayor wants his city to be in bloom.

Propositional analysis:
• the sentence contains two conjugated verbs: wants = verb "to want", 3rd person present indicative
having for SN the subject the mayor; let fleurie = verb 'to bloom', P3 present subjunctive, voice
passive without the passive complement such as "by the municipality"
the subject is his city; each sequence carries a meaning: the will of the mayor, the
the flowering of its city;
So there are two proposals, but which ones?
• the sequence that her city is flowering is introduced by the subordinating conjunction that, it
It is therefore a subordinate clause, but of what nature?
• this phrase can be replaced by the SN C.O.D. 'this' = 'he wants this'; this SN C.O.D.
is part of the SV "wants its city to be flowered";
• this proposition is fixed because it is always placed to the right of the verb: *that his city be flowered the
mayor wants.
• this proposition is mandatory: *The mayor wants.
Conclusion
This sentence presents two propositions:
• The main proposition is: [the mayor wants];
• The subordinate complement clause C.O.D. of the verb 'wants' and included in the SV is:
that his city be flowered
Study of the deep structure:

We argue that the starting sentence is a surface structure corresponding to a structure.

underlying deep structure that has undergone a series of morpho-syntactic and prosodic modifications.
Looking for Pm and Pe:
T: declarative, positive, active, neutral
Pm: the mayor wants this
T: declarative, positive, passive, neutral
We are beautifying our city

Remarks: (i) in Pe the passive is excluded, which forces us to set the subject "one";
the subjunctive 'is' being commanded by the meaning of the verb 'wants', we suppress it in the
deep structure.
Transformations:
• erasure of the SN C.O.D. 'this' in Pm:
the mayor wants
• replacement by Pe :
the mayor wants to beautify his city
• addition of the passive type :
The mayor wants his city to be flowered.

• addition of the subordinating conjunction:

the mayor wants his city to be floral
• present subjunctive of the passive auxiliary:
The mayor wants his city to be flowered.
• addition of other types only marked by the capital letter, the final point and
the declarative intonation; we obtain the surface structure and a grammatical sentence:
The mayor wants his town to be blooming.
5.3. THE COMPLEMENTARY SUBORDINATE PROPOSITIONS SUBJECTS

Specific recognition indices:

• they form the subject of the verb in the main clause;
• they are always at the beginning of the sentence;
• their verb is always in the subjunctive;
• they belong more to the formal register and their use is infrequent.
Let's start from the example sentence:

What we water every day is a necessity.

Propositional analysis:
• we note two conjugated verbs: arrosions = verb "to water", P4, present subjunctive,
where the subject noun is 'us'; is = verb 'to be', 3rd person, present indicative, whose subject noun is 'What'
we watered every day; a meaning by sequence: there is a daily watering, it is a
necessity ;
The sentence contains two propositions; let's now identify their nature;
 • That we watered every day is a sequence introduced by the conjunction of
subordination inconclusive; consequently, we can assert that it is a
subordinate clause;
• this proposal can be replaced by the SN subject 'this';
• This proposal is fixed: it is a necessity that we water every day.
• this proposal is mandatory: *Is a necessity.
Conclusion
The analysis we have just done allows us to affirm that this sentence presents two
propositions :

• The main proposition is: [is a necessity];

• The subordinate complement clause subject of the verb 'is' is: [that we water all
the days].
Study of the deep structure:
T: declarative, positive, active, neutral
Pm: this is a necessity
T: declarative, positive, active, neutral
We water every day
Note: in Pe the verb is in the P4 of the present indicative because the subjunctive mode is
demanded by the nature and function of the subordinate clause.
Transformations:
• erasure of the subject 'it' in Pm:
* is a necessity
• replacement by the Pe:
watering every day is a necessity
• addition of the subordinating conjunction that:
that we water every day is a necessity
• present subjunctive of the verb 'to water':
*that we water every day is a necessity
• adding types and thus the initial capital, the final point, and the declarative intonation;
obtaining the surface structure and a grammatical sentence:
That we water every day is a necessity.
Attention! A subordinate clause can be inserted into another subordinate clause.

It is normal that we demand the trash collectors empty our bins.

That we demand this is normal / this demand is normal.
• that we demand the garbage collectors empty our bins
complement, subject of "is";
• [is normal] : main proposition ;
• that the garbage collectors empty our bins: subordinate clause complementing the verb, direct object of "
demands.
6. RELATIVE SUBORDINATE PROPOSITIONS
Relative subordinate clauses have a completely different syntactic structure.
subordinate clauses that complete. Their common point is the mandatory existence at the beginning
from the subordinate clause of a subordinating conjunction but it is a relative pronoun and not a
subordinating conjunction.
As before, we will first look at the general characteristics of all proposals.
relative clauses and we will continue with a detailed analysis of each category of
relatives, namely relative adjectives and relative nouns.
6.1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Relative subordinate clauses can be recognized by several indicators:
• they are introduced by a relative pronoun (see 6.2.) ;
• they are equivalent to a phrase;
• they are not mobile;
• they have a grammatical function.
6.2. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN
high

• simple forms - that (which) - what - whose - where;

• composite forms: which - which - which (masculine plural) - which (feminine plural); amalgamation with prepositions
to which, etc. of which, etc.
• the pronoun represents a noun phrase, called the antecedent, underlined in our sentences, and which must
must necessarily precede it:
Look at the dog crossing the street.
Put the books on the shelf you bought.
Put the books on the shelf that you bought.
This last example shows a grammatical error:
• The past participle 'achetés' is poorly agreed because the antecedent 'l’étagère' is feminine.
singular and not masculine plural, therefore: purchased;

• So the antecedent is not the NP the shelf but the NP the books, which is then too much.
removed from the relative pronoun and the correct sentence would be: Put the books on the shelf.
that you bought;

• the form of the pronoun is conditioned by its function:

• Who is the SUBJECT;

• What is C.O.D. or SUBJECT ATTRIBUTE;
• Must necessarily occupy one of these three functions: C.O.I. OF THE VERB or
COMPLEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE or COMPLEMENT OF THE NOUN;

• Where is the CIRCUMSTANTIAL COMPLEMENT OF PLACE or TIME.

In some languages, such as Spanish, the choice of pronoun is governed by the trait.
semantic [+ / - animated] of the antecedent. Other languages, such as English for example,
often use, especially in a colloquial register, a unique pronoun for functions
subject and direct object. Finally, Asian languages do not have the category of the relative pronoun and
so neither the relative subordinate clause. Consequently, the F.L.E. teacher does not
should not be surprised by the sometimes strange productions of its learners who are confused by the
relative pronouns in French. We noticed a 'preference' among learners of F.L.E. for the
the pronoun that works for them then as the only possible pronoun.
6.3. RELATIVE ADJECTIVES
high
In this section, the relative adjective subordinate clauses will be presented to you first.
from a syntactic angle and then according to their semantic role.
6.3.1. SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS
Specific recognition indices:
• These relatives function like linked adjectival phrases; they are therefore included in the
NE :
The gardener who loves his work will not sell sick plants.
The gardener who is in love with his work
The fox that we captured was injured.
The fox that was captured.
What color are the curtains you want?
What color are the desired curtains?
• On a syntactic level, they are always erasable, but it is not systematic.
semantics (cf. 6.3.2.) ;
• they are not mobile:
Here is the project that the deputies will have to vote on.
On which the deputies will have to make a decision is the project.

Let's do the syntactic analysis of the first example sentence:

The gardener who loves his work will not sell sick plants.
Propositional analysis:
Yhaut

• repérage des verbes conjugués :vendra= verbe « vendre », P3 du futur de l’indicatif ; SN

the horticulturist who loves his job
the relative adjective (epithet); loves = verb 'to love', 3rd person of the present indicative; subject noun
=who; two meanings: the sale of plants by the gardener, the love of the work of
the horticulturist
So we have two propositions, let's examine their nature;
• the sequence that loves its job is introduced by the relative pronoun whose antecedent is
the gardener; the pronoun is the subject of the verb; this sequence can be replaced by a
SAdj = "in love with his work" and the agreement in gender and number of the adjective proves
that qualifies the name 'horticulturist'; the adjective, and therefore also the relative, are
epithets linked to the noun that precedes them;

• we have a relative subordinate clause: [who loves their job]

and a main proposition: [the gardener will not sell sick plants]
• For semantic analysis, refer to the following section.

Deep structure analysis:

 T: declarative, negative, active, neutral
The horticulturist in love with his work will sell sick plants.
T: declarative, positive, active, neutral
He loves his job

Note: when you do not find a semantically acceptable substitute adjective, or

if you think that this operation is still too difficult for your students because they do not master
not good enough the vocabulary, you can use any symbol to mark
the location of the relative in Pm; in the example below, we have chosen the letter
uppercase X as a symbol, which gives:
Pm: the gardener X will sell sick plants.
Transformations :
Ÿhaut

• we remove the SAdj (or the chosen symbol) from the NP subject in Pm:
the gardener will sell sick plants
• we replace the empty space with Pe:
The gardener who loves his work will sell sick plants.
• we see that the horticultural SNs are coreferential and subjects; we choose to erase the
second and replace it with the subject relative pronoun 'who':
The horticulturist who loves his work will sell sick plants.
• We add the types: for negation the discontinuous morpheme 'ne...pas' and the allomorph '
of the determiner 'des'; for the declarative type: the initial capital letter, the final point and
the assertive intonation; the other types are not marked; one obtains the structure of
surface and a grammatical sentence:
The gardener who loves his work will not sell sick plants.
6.3.2. SEMANTIC RANKING
We admit four semantic classes of relatives: determinative, explanatory, essential,
accidental, and we will study them in this order.
• Determinatives (also called restrictive): the relative clause is necessary for identification
referential of the antecedent and, semantically, it is not erasing:
The parks that will be maintained will be rewarded = some, a few parks and not all of them.
parks.
In other words, we are targeting a part of the entire "park".
These flowers that you are planting are very beautiful! = those flowers and not all the flowers.
This means that the judgment made by the speaker only concerns a part of
flowers
There is clearly an opposition between the specific meaning in the examples and the general meaning.
in 'all the parks' and 'all the flowers'.
• Explanatory (also called appositive): they are no longer essential to identify the
referent of the previous SN and they serve to provide additional information;
semantically they are erasable:
These parks, which are maintained, will be rewarded. = they will be rewarded because they are
entertained.
The relative is used to explain and even justify the price. High
 The skater, whose quadruple jump was perfect, did not win the gold medal != he did not
did not win the gold medal and yet he executed a quadruple jump.
The relative expresses an opposition to an expectation because such a leap can lead one to believe
to the highest reward. Depending on the context, one will see indignation (public who
answers the judges), of relief (competing skater) or a simple observation
(event commentator).
• Essentials: the elimination of these proposals renders the statements tautological:
Gardeners are men who maintain gardens.
men!!!
It is obvious that a gardener is a man, and there is no need to say it, except to a
learner who would not know the word.
The subject noun phrase is a phrase that cannot be removed.
The noun phrase subject is a phrase!!!
The removal of the relative amounts to defining an entity by itself.

• Accidental (also called accessories): they are not mandatory and their deletion
generally has no impact on the relevance of the sentence; of course, this is to
considering in the pragmatics of enunciation:
We hired a gardener who has a vocational diploma, and on top of that, he has a degree.
The announcement of the diploma may have practical interest but, in absolute terms, this
information is only accessory.
During her trip, Aline saw plants that she did not know.
did not know.
This lack of knowledge can for example explain Aline's enthusiasm but, outside
in a particular context, it is not essential.
A close observation of the examples shows that the first two categories of
relatives present SN antecedents containing a definite determiner (here definite article and
demonstrative, but the possessive would also be possible) followed by a common noun (a noun
clean would also be valid).
On the other hand, in the other two categories of relatives, the antecedent is formed by a
indefinite determiner (indefinite article). This index can help you categorize the relatives concerning
semantic plan if the erasure test and the meaning do not seem relevant enough for
you or for your students. Another clue is also appreciated: it concerns the two commas.
which frame the explanatory relatives; but beware, this punctuation mark has value
demarcative is not always present or may appear with other relatives.
Let's take the sentence analyzed in the previous section:
high
The gardener who loves his work will not sell sick plants.
The presence of the elided definite article 'l'' encourages us to classify this relative in the categories '
"determinative" or "explanatory". Is this subordinate clause removable?
The gardener will not sell sick plants.
In this second sentence, the definite article establishes the referent of the noun in generality.
in other words, it is the semantic class [horticulturist] or the set
composed of all the horticulturists. However, our example sentence emphasizes one horticulturist
 particular = the one who loves his work, and thus the relative opposes the referent of this name to
other possible references like the horticulturist who hates his job / the one who neglects
his work / etc. The reference is specific because of the relative. Therefore, the
The subordinate clause is essential for identifying the referent of the noun 'horticulturist.'
So we have a relative clause.

6.3.3. THE VERBAL MODE IN RELATIVES

Most often, relative clauses have a verb in the indicative mood.
However, the determinative relative clauses and the essential relative clauses can be in the subjunctive mood.
when:
• the antecedent expresses a restriction:
He is the only worker who knows how to do this job. = "the only" reduces the number of workers.
competent.
Here is the most expensive dress we have found.
superlative.
The 'only' and the superlative reduce the extension of the referents of nouns.
Let's add to this list the words: the first, the last, the ultimate, the unique.
• the main or the Pm translates a will, an order, a hypothesis:
We are looking for a worker who knows how to use this machine.
There is no worker who wants to leave his factory.
Is there a worker who can work on Saturday?
high
Do these three 'categories' of workers exist? By asking this question, we see that the SN
formed of a determiner and a NE including the relative are automatically placed outside
of the area of observation.

• the relative can be replaced by a prepositional phrase and the verb 'can' is
erasable

The city is looking for a piece of land where it can build a hospital.
a hospital)
He will hire a secretary he can rely on.
In other words, is there such a land and such a secretary?
6.4. NOUN CLAUSES

There are two types of substantive relatives: indefinite relatives and periphrastic relatives.
This ranking being semantic, we will not dedicate a section to their characteristics.
communes and we will deal with each one separately in detail.
6.4.1. INDEFINITE RELATIVES
• they are introduced by a relative pronoun that has no antecedent;
• this pronoun is used when the relative represents an animated being; the pronoun is always followed by a
verb in singular; it can be preceded by a preposition;
 The one who raises their hand answers the question.= that student there

• The relative subordinate clause is equivalent to a noun phrase subject or direct object, or even to a prepositional phrase.
C.O.I. :
Who loves gardens loves gardeners. = that person
The relative is the subject of the verb 'loves' in the main clause.
I respect those who respect me. = that person there
The relative clause is the direct object of the verb 'respects' in the main clause.

Tell your story to whomever you wish.

The relative is the indirect object of the verb 'tell' in the main clause.

• is this pronoun always preceded by the preposition à or by the preposition de when the
relative represents a non-living thing:
Bring the gardener what they need to work: a tool, plants, soil.
This news is sad and there is no reason to smile.
• All these relatives are called 'indefinite' because the existence of their referent is virtual.
6.4.2. PERIPHRASTIC RELATIVES

The relative pronoun is preceded by the words this, that, those, these. In the past, it was considered that these
this
plural and feminine plural functioned as the antecedent of the relative pronoun. The grammar
descriptive no longer retains this analysis and no longer considers them as antecedentes because they have an impact
too general semantics. Indeed, it only carries the trait [non-animated] while the four
other words convey only the seme [human].
The following sentences clearly show that the group formed by the demonstrative and the relative is equivalent
to a noun phrase:
The one who picks the flowers, replants them.= the picker
Those whose results are below the required minimums will not be selected for the
Olympic games. = these athletes too weak
Here is what I promise you!= my promise
Do the work you were hired for.
7. CIRCUMSTANTIAL SUBORDINATE PROPOSITIONS
These propositions state a circumstance, they are therefore equivalent to a phrase.
nominal, adverbial or prepositional circumstantial complement.
Let's first look at their common characteristics, and then we will study the most...
frequent among them.
7.1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
• they are introduced by a conjunction or a conjunctive phrase underlined in the
examples and always carrying a meaning (see 6.2.):
The storks leave before winter arrives.
Call the firefighters in case there is a fire. (hypothetical expression)
As many players are sick, the injured footballer could not be
replaced on the field. (causal conjunction)
 • these propositions, underlined in the examples, can be replaced by a noun phrase, an adverbial phrase or a
SPrép circumstantial complement:
Storks leave before winter arrives.
before the arrival of winter

Call the firefighters in case there is a fire.

in case of fire
As many players are sick, the injured footballer could not be
replaced on the ground.
due to the illness of many players (SPrép)
• some circumstantial subordinated clauses are movable:
When it's hot, wear a hat.
Put on a hat when it is hot.
Attention! With the conjunctions since and if, the subordinate clause is usually placed before.
Since you know everything, you don't need my help!
high

• they are erasable, except for the comparatives and the consecutive ones:
He has so much work that he decided to cancel his vacation. *He has so much work.
(consequence)
It is so hot that the plants are withered. *It is so hot. (consequence)
In linguistics, embedding occurs in the Pm at the level of the complement phrase.
circumstantial.
Let's take the example:
We call a plumber every time the faucet is leaking.
Propositional analysis:
• identification of conjugated verbs
for the subject the NP we; escape = verb 'to flee', whose subject is the NP the faucet; two meanings =
the call, the escape;
we have two propositions whose nature must now be identified;
• each time that is a subordinating conjunction expressing time; it
necessarily introduces the subordinate clause; therefore, we have:
[we call a plumber]
Subordinate adverbial clause of time = [whenever the tap leaks]
Study of deep structure:
T: declarative, positive, active, neutral
PM: we call a plumber then / for every leak.
T: declarative, positive, active, neutral
The tap is leaking
transformations
haut

 deletion of the circumstantial complement in the Pm:

we are calling a plumber
  replacement of the empty space by the Pe:
We are calling a plumber, the tap is leaking.
 addition of the conjunctive phrase:
we call a plumber every time the faucet leaks
 Addition of types and only here with an initial capital letter, a final point, and intonation.
declarative; we obtain the sentence in surface structure and it is fully grammatical:
We call a plumber every time the faucet leaks.
7.2. TEMPORAL SUBORDINATES
By their meaning, certain conjunctions and conjunctive phrases express rather:
• simultaneity
Tristan reads while Yseult knits.
Other subordinating conjunctions: while - whereas
• the repetition :
You buy flowers every time you are happy.
Other subordinating conjunctions: every time that
• the duration:
The gardener will water as long as it is necessary.
Other subordinating conjunctions: as long as
• the succession
You will go play after you have finished your homework.
and many other nuances that dictionaries will provide.
high

We recommend using the adverbial phrase 'then' for the replacement of

adverbial complement in the Pm.
Don't forget that not all languages necessarily have different subordinators for
express these temporal values. It will therefore be necessary to explain the meaning to the learners and make them
to become aware of the possible translation in their own language.
Also explain to them the agreement of tenses; for example, French speakers often do
the error of using the subjunctive mood in clauses introduced by 'after that'; this
shows that they ignore the value of this impossible mode in the statement of a reality.

7.3. CAUSAL SUBORDINATES

• they express the cause of the main fact:
The child is crying because he fell.
The fall is the cause of tears.
• they provide a justification for the main one:
You fell since you are bleeding.
The observation of bleeding involves searching for a cause, but this can be incorrect.
Since you're so clever, come up with the solution then!
The observation of a state allows the speaker to ask a question.
Other subordinating conjunctions:

• whereas
• in scientific language: given that
• in a common register: like
 • the negation of a supposed cause followed by the assertion of a true cause is translated by the
phrases followed by the subjunctive in the subordinate clause: not that - not that - it is not
what:
The child cries not because he has been punished, but because he is afraid of being punished.

In this sentence, the two subordinate clauses of cause are

coordinates by means of the coordinating conjunction but. high

• The conjunctive phrase because can never be at the beginning of a sentence; thus the
the position of the subordinate clause after the main clause is constrained:
Because it is cold, we wear a hat.
We put on a hat because it is cold.

7.4. FINAL SUBORDINATES

• they express the purpose, the goal;
• they are introduced by subordinators: so that - in order that - for fear that - for fear
that - so that; all these conjunctive phrases require the subjunctive mood in the
subordinate
Water your garden so that the plants grow.
• the phrases 'for fear that' and 'for fear that' additionally introduce the idea of a feeling:
I don't want my children to ride their bikes to school for fear that they might have an accident.
accident.

Themes for reflection:

1. What are the temporal nuances expressed in the sentences below?
The nurse rushes as soon as the bell rings.
The cat rushed under the bed when the thunder roared.
The dog of my neighbor barks every time the concierge is in the staircase.
2. Study the expression of cause in the following sentences:
Since your payment has arrived late, pay a fixed fine of €200.
It's not that I'm really interested in this book, but it's part of the curriculum!
Considering that you premeditated your crime, we sentence you to life imprisonment.

3. Replace the prepositional phrases of purpose with the conjunctive phrase of the same meaning and
make the necessary morpho-syntactic modifications:
He fled the country for fear of being recognized by his victim.
The tamer leaves the cage backwards in order to always face the beasts.
Practice for this oral presentation so as not to exceed 30 minutes.
7.5. CONDITIONAL SUBORDINATES
ÿhaut

• these proposals express several shades of meaning that many grammars

gathered under the term 'condition':
If the triangle has two equal sides, it is called isosceles. (Hypothesis)
If you get a good grade, Mom will give you five euros. (Condition)
• they are in the subjunctive with conjunction phrases: provided that - unless - for
little that:
He will be sentenced to the maximum penalty unless the jurors grant him some.
 mitigating circumstances.
• they are in the indicative with the conjunctions: if - unless - if...not.
We will not take the train unless our old car abandons us!...

Attention!
• The conjunction 'if' can also express time (iteration):
If the weather is nice, we are going to the beach.
(= as long as it is nice weather + every time it is nice weather)
• or the opposition:
Yes, by day, he was an honest citizen, by night, he became a criminal.
He was an honest citizen by day but, on the other hand, he became a criminal at night.
These different uses can be explained by the fact that the conjunction sets the situational framework: the
shape of the triangle, the academic result, the nature of the weather, the character, without however asserting it
as a special case. The linguistic and extra-linguistic context allows us to specify
this framework and to interpret it in the form of a hypothesis, a condition, a time, a
opposition.
Let's take the example of the triangle:
If a triangle has two equal sides, it is called isosceles.
• Every triangle has a shape, a measure, or even a color; here we specify the shape of the triangle;
• the sentence tells us that the triangle has two equal sides; however, we have learned that this kind of
a triangle has a specific name; therefore, we pass on our knowledge in the
main [is said isosceles] or we learn for the first time that this shape is called
isoceles
• in other words, we are considering a particular fact "the shape of the triangle" and we are entering
in a system of associations based on an initial hypothesis, hence the diagram
following
Hypothesis A
Hypothesis B Ÿhaut

• the agreement of tenses with if:

• If + Present / Present (or Imperfect / Imperfect):
If I have money, I will pay you for this coffee. (Simultaneity)
If a shape has three sides, it is a triangle. (Generality)
• if + Present / Future or Present with future value:
If you write to me, I will reply / respond two days later. (Probability)
• if + Imperfect / Present Conditional:
If I had a house, I would set up a vegetable garden.
(Possible interpretations:
I don't have a house and I regret it.
b) maybe one day I will have one)

It is an unreal present, that is to say a hypothesis that is in the realm of regret,

dream, of desire, i.e. contrary to the reality of the moment of enunciation. The addition of circumstantial elements
like adverbs now, tomorrow, or like the noun phrase one day, or even the extra context -
Linguistics make it possible to clarify meaning.
 • if + Past tense / Past tense or Present:
If the gardener came, he did not water the garden.
(...because otherwise I would have noticed the wet ground)
The example expresses a hypothesis regarding a past fact that is impossible to verify. These statements are
rephraseable through the use of an adverb or a coordinating conjunction with a concessive value
You tell me that the gardener came, yet, however, he did not water the garden!
• if + Pluperfect / Past Conditional:
If it hadn't rained at all during the summer, we would have had to water the garden.
It is an unreal situation from the past in both propositions, that is to say, a hypothesis concerning a fact
the past that was not real; we can feel regret or relief about it.
• if + an indicative tense / an indicative tense :
If this group carries out the attack, it did not claim responsibility for it.
(at least, in any case, he did not claim it)
Attention! If + Indicative and THAT + Subjunctive:
high

If it’s night and the electricity is out, light a candle!

When a proposition is coordinated with another proposition of the same nature, it is
it is mandatory to use the conjunction that, which carries the same meaning as if, and to conjugate the
verb of the second subordinate in the subjunctive.
• if the subordinate clause is attributive, we use: whichever...that - however...that - whatever...that - everything...that
- for ... that the subjunctive in the subordinate clause:
However competent he may be, I do not like this gardener.
7.6. THE CONSECUTIVE SUBORDINATES
• the consequence is real or not;
• several structures are possible:
• an element is included in the main one and that introduces the subordinate clause:
• the adverbs too, enough + Adjective, Adverb :
He is too lazy for us to hire him.
• the adverb so + Adjective:
He is so happy that he cries with joy.
• the adverbs so much, so on the right of a verb:
He drives so much that his car is worn out after a year.
• the complex determiners enough of, too much of, so much of, so many of + a
name
We have too much work for us to be able to go on vacation.
There is so much noise outside that the candidates are having trouble concentrating.
• the phrases to the point that, so that + Indicative:
Clément is so angry that he doesn’t talk to us anymore.
These sentence constructions are particularly difficult for learners of F.L.E. because they
use a discontinuous morpheme whose first element is in the main clause while the
the second is found in the subordinate clause. Thus, the notion of 'conjunctive locution' is no longer grasped.
and the learner will tend to bring these two elements closer together to reform a canonical phrase.
It is therefore clear that these proposals should only be addressed when the learner has properly
mastered the other categories of subordinate clauses.
Note: we will not cover either concessive subordinate clauses in this course nor the
comparative subordinate clauses.
8. THE RANKINGS OF WORDS
Grammars classify words into categories and often dedicate a section to each.
among them. Similarly, dictionaries use these rankings by indicating them in a form
abbreviate the category of the word immediately after the headword.
ex : Livre : n. (= nom) ; Lire : v. tr. (= verbe transitif) ; Lisible : adj. (= adjectif)
We will first look at normative terminology and linguistic terminology, then
we will study each category.
8.1. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY AND DISTRIBUTIONAL CLASS
Normative grammar divides words into nine grammatical classes (or parts of speech):
the article, the noun, the adjective, the pronoun, the preposition, the conjunction, the adverb, the verb and
the interjection because these words share common properties on the conceptual level,
morphological and syntactic.
Linguistics opts for a purely syntactic classification; a class of words is a class.
distributional grouping of all the terms that can occupy the same positions in the
phrases.
8.2. THE DETERMINANT
• it precedes the common noun, sometimes a proper noun, with which it forms a phrase
nominal; it is a mandatory and fixed component of the SN;
• this class is made up of several subclasses which are grouped into:
• defined determiners:
• the definite articles (the, the, the, the)
• possessive adjectives (my, my, my plural, etc.)
• demonstrative adjectives (this, this, this, these)
• indefinite determiners
• the indefinite articles (a, an, some)
• partitives (du, de la, de l', des)
• indefinite adjectives (all, each, etc.)
• the numeral adjectives (one, two, etc.)
• negative adjectives (none, null, etc.)
• exclamatory adjectives (what, etc.)
• interrogative adjectives (which, etc.)
• the relative adjectives (which, etc.)
Note: the term 'adjective' is today absent from linguistic terminology where we say: '
possessive determiner," "negative determinants" etc.; however, many textbooks the
maintain.
Defined determinants mutually exclude each other:

the my dog.
Indefinite determiners can be combined with each other and with the previous ones:
all the children, these same children, our three children.
• Many determiners vary in gender and number:
the (masculine)
8.3. THE NAME
• the noun is the pivot of the noun phrase;
• it is preceded by a determiner and can be followed by an expansion like a phrase
adjectival, a prepositional phrase or a relative subordinate clause:
Small streams make large rivers. (French proverb)
brooks
adjectives;
The cornfields cover Beauce.
[the cornfields] = Noun Phrase consisting of the Definite Article + the Expanded Noun
cornfields; the NE consists of the Noun 'cornfields' + the Prepositional Phrase [of
maize formed from the Preposition of and the Noun phrase [maize] with the zero Determiner and the Noun maize.
• two categories exist:
• common nouns: e.g. daisy, dance, ease;
• proper nouns: e.g. Marguerite, Paris, France.
• many names are variable in gender and number:
an elephant
8.4. THE ADJECTIVE
• it is the core of the adjectival phrase:
a very elegant dress
ex: a dress = S AdjžAdverb + Adjective
• The adjectival phrase constitutes an expansion of the noun when it is an epithet linked and is part of the noun phrase;
• as an epithet related to certain adjectives can be placed on the left or to the right of the noun and,
for the same adjective, the position can sometimes modify the meaning:
a poor kid and a poor kid
ex :une sacrée journéeetune journée sacrée
• it can be a necessary constituent of the SV and be placed to the right of a state verb; in this case
the grammatical function of the adjective is the subject complement:
Eleanor is beautiful.
• there are qualitative adjectives so called because they indicate an essential quality
or contingent on the name to which they refer:
ex :un manteau bleu,une information urgente,un enfant gentil
these adjectives are gradable by means of an adverb: very blue, very urgent, extremely
kind
and relational adjectives so called because they indicate a relationship with the referent
the name from which they are derived:
a presidential trip, a regional commission
these adjectives are not gradable: *very presidential; they are always linked epithets and
postponed to the name: *this commission is regional, *a presidential trip.
8.5. THE PRONOUN

• there are several categories of pronouns:

• the personal pronoun: I, me, myself, etc.
• the demonstrative pronoun: this one, that one, these, those, this, it, that, this
• the possessive pronoun: mine, yours, ours, etc.
• the indefinite pronoun: none, no one, each, all [tous], etc.
 • the interrogative pronoun: who, which, etc.
• the relative pronoun: who, whom, etc.
• the pronoun constitutes a noun phrase;
• certain pronouns have a variation in gender and number:
ex :celui, celle, ceux, celles - lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles
• other pronouns also allow a variation in person:
I
8.6. THE PREPOSITION

• it is an invariable word;
• it is the head word of the prepositional phrase;
• it precedes a noun or an infinitive verb; it is mandatory:
ex :le livre de Jean; il croit à la réincarnation; nous venons de dîner
• exemples de prépositions :à, de, sur,contre, devant, derrière, depuis, avec, sans
• the prepositional phrase is formed of several words:
ex :à cause de, afin de, à condition de, au fur et à mesure de, en attendant de
8.7. THE CONJUNCTION
• it is an invariable word;
• there are two groups of conjunctions:
• the subordinating conjunctions that introduce a subordinate clause:
This gardener thinks that the roses will bloom again soon.
main proposition
• the coordinating conjunctions that unite words or phrases of nature
identical; the coordination of sentences is also possible:
He didn't understand anything and doesn't want to understand anything. However, understanding is not a...
mark of weakness or cowardice.
• the subordinating conjunction is formed from a single word:
ex: what, if, when, when, like, etc.
• the conjunctive phrase is made up of several words:
ex :dès que, au cas où, même si, quand bien même, etc.
For a French as a Foreign Language learner, it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish between a preposition and
a conjunction, especially if the system of subordination does not exist in this form in
in their native language.
Furthermore, some prepositions convey meaning while others do not; compare:

Jeanne starts to speak.

and
Jeanne goes to kindergarten.
In the first example, the preposition 'à' has no meaning, while in the second example it does.
means the place.
Some prepositions are polysemous:
Fanny is sitting on a chair.
Fanny arrived around five o'clock.
The conjunction has several homonyms:
What rain!
What should I reply? (Interrogative pronoun)
The dunce knows only how to dream.
The poem that Prévert wrote talks about a dunce.
All these parameters make searching in a dictionary or in a grammar quite
complicated because it is necessary to first identify the grammatical nature of the word before finding the chapter
from grammar or read all the articles devoted to all entries of homonymous words beforehand
to find meaning.
It is therefore important to be extremely patient in teaching and learning these.
two parts of speech and practice with many examples.
8.8. THE ADVERB

• it is invariable and optional;

• The sentence adverb is mobile; it then constitutes an adverbial phrase complement.
circumstantial:
Really, we no longer understand our children! or We no longer understand.
our children, really!
• the adverb used as a modifier modifies an adjective, an adverb, or a verb; it is not
not mobile; it then constitutes an optional constituent of the adjectival phrase, of the phrase
adverbial or verbal phrase:
Sophie is very cute. Aurélien speaks very slowly while Pascal speaks quickly.
• certain adverbs can form a sentence on their own; this is the case with opinion adverbs
:
Yes. No. If.
Note: The class of adverbs being relatively heterogeneous, we advise you to consult
a grammar.
8.9. THE VERB

• It is the mandatory component of the verbal phrase;

• the verb, like the SV, has no grammatical function;
• Every conjugated verb undergoes inflections of person, number, and tense; we break it down.
generally a verb in a base form and in inflectional markings:
"to blush" has two bases: blus- in blushing and blusss- in we blush
The word 'pouvoir' has six bases: peu- in peux, pouv- in pouvais, peuv- in
can, could in would be able, might in may and p in can;
• some verbs have other uses:
• Auxiliaries: être and avoir serve in the formation of compound tenses:
She left. You will have dined.
to be used as a passive auxiliary:
The computer will be repaired by a technician.
• semi-auxiliaries: in this case, they are followed by a verb in the infinitive; they have different
values:
 • aspectual value: their role is to capture the process at different stages of its
realization :
I am going to explain, I am about to explain = there is a precedence
in relation to the beginning of the trial process;
I am starting to understand, I am starting to write = these are verbs
inchoative "dits" = the process is initiated at its beginning;
I am in the process of wallpapering my apartment = the trial is underway.
progression;
I finish correcting this paper and I take care of you = the trial is on
completion route;
I just pruned the rose bushes = the trial is apprehended immediately
after its completion;
• modal value:
he can respond to you= possibility
obligation
It must be 6 o'clock = probability
Other values exist: volition, subjectivity, capacity, etc.

• passive voice: the verb is in the passive = to be + past participle of a verb

direct transitive
The leaves were picked up by the gardener.
He has been asleep.
or in the pronominal form but it has a passive meaning:
Leaves are gathered with a rake.
• supporting verbs: they are followed by a noun phrase or a prepositional phrase and form what is called
is generally called a verbal phrase; there is no corresponding verb and they
do not become nominalized:
ex: do an exercise *exerciser / *the faction of an exercise
give an opinion *notify / *the donation of an opinion
to water down one's wine *to dilute one's wine / *the adding of water to one's wine
• verbs are classified according to their syntactic use (their structure):
• intransitive verb: it does not admit any object complement:
ex :miauler,rire, voyager
• direct transitive: it admits a direct object.
ex :cueillir une fleur,copier un tableau, imiter le cri de l’hirondelle
• indirect transitive: it admits a direct object complement:
ex :se souvenir de son enfance, penser à ses amis, échouer à un concours
• with double complementation: it admits two complements:
give something to someone (a direct object noun + an indirect object noun)
talk about something to someone (a prepositional structure indirect object + a prepositional structure indirect object)

• attributive verb (state verb) = it is followed by a noun phrase or an adjective phrase attributive of the subject:
liste des verbes d’état :être, paraître, sembler,avoir l’air,passer pour,devenir,
to stay, to remain.
Uncle Scrooge is seen as a miser.
Obélix remains insatiable.
Panoramix is a druid.
The Gauls seemed invincible.
• The verb is traditionally analyzed based on several criteria:
• singular / plural
• the person
• the mode: 7 in normative grammar; in linguistics, the Conditional is considered
like a time;
• time: in normative grammar all moods have simple tenses and ...
compound tenses; in linguistics, only the indicative mood has tenses (only
temporal mode, the other modes are solely personal);
• the aspect:
• completed
is seized in its course;
• one conceives the end of the process
without conceiving the end;
• secant / non-secant: the process is unbounded / the process is doubly
narrow-minded

• inchoative / terminative: the process is initiated at its beginning / just before its end;
• single event

Note: The category of aspect has long been ignored in grammar because it
is not identifiable by specific morphemes; for more details and for
examples we refer you to The Methodical Grammar of French.
• the voice: active / passive; in linguistics, we talk about 'type of sentence';
• the form: affirmative / negative; in linguistics the form is also part of a type
of phrase