UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO MICROPROCESSOR AND MICROCONTROLLER
ARCHITECTURE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A microprocessor is a programmable electronic chip that has computing and decision-making
capabilities similar to the central processing unit of a computer. Any microprocessor-based systems
having a limited number of resources are called microcomputers. Nowadays, microprocessors can
be seen in almost all types of electronic devices like mobile phones, printers, washing machines,
etc. Microprocessors are also used in advanced applications like radars, satellites, and flights. Due
to the rapid advancements in electronic industry and large-scale integration of devices result in a
significant cost reduction and increased application of microprocessors and their derivatives
The computer is a machine that processes data to generate information with speed and accuracy.
Electronic and electromechanical devices and software make this programmable machine. The
basic block diagram of a computer is shown in Figure 1.1. The computer comprises four basic
units, namely, input (I/P), memory, output (O/P), and Central Processing Unit (CPU).
Figure 1.1Basic block diagram of a computer
1. INPUT DEVICES
An input device accepts data from the environment, converts it into digital form and sends it to
the memory of the computer for storing. Commonly used input devices are punched cards, paper
tapes, magnetic tapes, floppy disks, and magnetic disks. Card readers, paper tape readers, magnetic
tape readers, disk drives read data transmitted by input devices. A keyboard terminal can be used
as input to the computer. Optical mark readers and optical character readers are input devices that
are scanned by an array of photocells. The input is then converted into machine code and
transmitted into the memory of the computer for processing. On identical principles, bar-code
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readers read the information prepared in bar code for application by computers. In magnetic ink
readers, information written or printed in magnetic ink is read and transmitted directly to the
memory for processing.
Figure 1.2 Input Devices
2. MEMORY
A computer system also has storage areas, often referred to as memory. The memory unit stores
the information to be processed by the CPU. This information consists of the program as well as
data. The memory can receive data, hold them and deliver them when instructed to do so. The
storage available in the memory is also known as main storage or primary storage as in Figure.
1.3.
Figure 1.3: Primary memory
The data can be processed only when it is available in the main memory, which is finite. It may be
increased by adding auxiliary or secondary storage, such as magnetic tapes or magnetic disks as
shown in Figure. 1.4. The information stored in the auxiliary storage can be transferred to the main
memory for processing at a high speed.
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Figure 1.4: Secondary memory
3. OUTPUT DEVICES
When a program is executed in the computer, the result will be computed and readily available for
display. The computer needs output devices to display the information to the user. The most
commonly used output devices are monitor screens, printers, graphics plotters, speech, and
microfilm as depicted in Figure. 1.5.
Figure 1.5: Output devices
1.1 CATEGORIES OF COMPUTER TYPES
Computers are categorized based on their size, speed, processing power, and functionality.
Understanding these categories helps in selecting the appropriate computer type for specific
applications. Each category of computer serves specific needs, from solving complex scientific
problems with supercomputers to everyday personal use with microcomputers. Understanding
these categories helps identify the right tool for the task.
The four main categories are:
❖ Supercomputers
❖ Mainframe Computers
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❖ Minicomputers
❖ Microcomputers
1.1.1 SUPERCOMPUTERS
Supercomputers are the fastest and most powerful computers available. They are designed to
perform complex calculations at extremely high speeds, handling massive amounts of data.
Figure 1.6: Supercomputer
Some of the key features are:
1. High-speed processing with multiple processors.
2. Capable of trillions of calculations per second
3. Require specialized cooling systems due to their immense power consumption and heat
generation.
4. Highly expensive and large in size.
Applications of supercomputers are
1. Weather forecasting and climate modeling.
2. Scientific simulations (e.g., nuclear research, quantum mechanics).
3. Cryptography and data encryption.
4. Aerospace and automotive design.
5. Complex financial modeling.
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1.1.2 MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
Mainframe computers are large, powerful systems primarily used by large organizations for bulk
data processing and critical applications.
Figure 1.7: Mainframe computer
Some of the key features are:
1. Support thousands of users simultaneously through multiple terminals.
2. High reliability and uptime with redundancy systems.
3. Extensive storage capacity and processing power.
4. Designed for centralized computing.
Applications of mainframe computers are
1. Banking systems (e.g., processing millions of transactions daily).
2. Airline reservation systems.
3. Insurance claim processing.
1.1.3 MINICOMPUTERS
Minicomputers (also called mid-range computers) are smaller than mainframes but larger and more
powerful than microcomputers. They serve as an intermediary category, often used in specific
applications requiring dedicated resources.
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Figure 1.8: Minicomputer
Some of the key features are:
1. Moderate processing power and cost compared to mainframes.
2. Support for multiple users simultaneously, though fewer than mainframes.
3. Compact size suitable for small to medium-sized businesses.
Applications of minicomputers are:
1. Process control in manufacturing.
2. Laboratory simulations.
3. Data management in small organizations.
4. Network and database servers.
1.0 MICROCOMPUTERS
Microcomputers are the most common type of computers, designed for individual use. They are
based on microprocessors and are affordable and compact.
Figure 1.9: Microcomputer
Some of the key features are:
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1. Single-user systems, though some can be networked.
2. Wide range of designs and configurations.
3. Includes desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones.
4. Cost-effective and easy to use.
Applications of microcomputers are:
1. Personal productivity (e.g., word processing, spreadsheets).
2. Educational tools.
3. Gaming and entertainment.
4. Small business operations.
1.0 MICROPROCESSOR
The microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable, and clock-driven integrated circuit. This IC
can read binary instructions from any storage device called memory. It also accepts binary data as
input, processes data according to instructions, and provides results as output. The microprocessor
is the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of digital computers and it is constructed with IC technology.
Figure 1.10 shows the block diagram of a microprocessor. The microprocessor has a digital circuit
for data handling and computation under program control. The microprocessor is a data-processing
unit. Data processing includes both computation and data handling. Computation is performed by
logic circuits called the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The ALU is used to perform Add, Subtract,
AND, OR, XOR, Compare, Increment, and Decrement functions. The ALU cannot perform any
function without control signals. In order to process data, the microprocessor must have control
logic that instructs the microprocessor how to decode and execute the program. A program is a set
of instructions required by a computer to perform any task.
Figure 1.10: Architecture of a microprocessor
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The control logic sends signals to the microprocessor and instructs how to operate the stored
instructions in memory. Figure 1.11 shows the operation technique of a microprocessor. There are
four steps of operation. In Step 1, the microprocessor fetches an instruction and in the next step,
the control logic decodes what the instruction has to do. Then decoding is done in the third step
and in the last step, the microprocessor executes the instruction.
The microprocessor always operates in binary digits 0 and 1, known as bits. Bit is an abbreviation
for ‘binary digit’ which can be represented in terms of voltages. The microprocessor recognizes
and processes a group of bits called word. Microprocessors are classified according to their word
length such as 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors. Microprocessor ICs are
programmable so that instructions can be executed by a microprocessor to perform given tasks
within its capability. The instructions are stored in a storage device which is called the memory,
and the microprocessor can read instructions from the memory.
Figure 1.11: Operation Techniques of a Microprocessor
1.3 MICROCOMPUTER
Generally, the words ‘microprocessor’ and ‘microcomputer’ are used to correspond to the same
thing, but these words have different meanings. The microprocessor is an Integrated Circuit (IC)
developed on LSI or VLSI technology. It is the core of any computer system, but a microprocessor
by itself is completely useless until external peripheral devices are connected with it to enable it
to interact with the outside world. The microcomputer is a complete computing system and it is
built with a microprocessor, input/output devices, and memory (RAM and ROM). The schematic
block diagram of a microcomputer is shown in Fig. 1.12. The detailed architecture of a
microcomputer is illustrated in Fig. 1.13.
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Figure 1.12: Schematic block diagram of a microcomputer
Figure 1.13: Architecture of a microcomputer
❖ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division,
and logic operations, namely, AND, OR, XOR, Complement, etc. After the operations, results
must be stored either in a specified register or in the memory.
❖ Register
The microprocessor has various general-purpose registers such as B, C, D, E, H, L, and the
Accumulator (A). These registers are used to store data and addresses temporarily during the
execution of a program.
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❖ Timing and Control Unit
The timing and control unit provides the necessary timing and control signals to perform any
operation in the microcomputer. Actually, it controls the flow of data between the microprocessor
and memory/peripheral devices.
❖ Input Devices
The input devices transfer data in binary from the outside world to the microprocessor.
The most commonly used input devices are the keyboard, switches, mouse, scanner, and analog-
to-digital converter.
❖ Output Devices
The output devices transfer data from the microprocessor to the outside world, e.g., printers,
plotters, monitors, and magnetic tapes.
❖ Memory
The memory unit stores the binary information such as instructions and data, and provides that
information to the microprocessor for processing. To execute any instruction, the microprocessor
reads instructions and data from memory. After the computational operations in the ALU, the
microprocessor again stores results in memory for further use.
❖ System Bus: Address Bus, Data Bus, and Control Bus
The microprocessor always communicates with input/output devices and memory via some path
called the system bus. The system bus consists of address bus, data bus and control bus. Address
bus is used to locate any input/output devices and memory. Data bus is used to transfer data in
binary form between the microprocessor and peripherals. The microprocessor communicates with
only one peripheral at a time. The timing signals are provided by the control bus of the
microprocessor.
1.4 ARCHITECTURE OF MICROPROCESSORS
Usually, the function of microprocessors is to process or manipulate data. Except for data
manipulations, the processor is used to read data and instructions from the memory, read and write
data to the memory, read data from input devices, and write data into output devices. To perform
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these operations, the processor communicates with the memory and I/O devices through the
address bus, data bus and control bus. The address bus carries the address information from the
processor to locate the memory as well as I/O devices. This bus is unidirectional. The data bus
carries the data between the processor and peripheral devices. This bus is bi-directional.
The control bus is used to carry control/status information. This bus is bi-directional. Figure 1.14
shows the interaction between processors and memory and I/O devices using the address bus, data
bus and control bus.
Figure 1.14: Communication between CPU, memory, and input/output devices
Depending upon the number of data buses and memory, there are three types of processor
architecture such as
a. Von Neumann architecture
b. Harvard architecture
c. Super Harvard architecture
1.4.1 VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
Figure 1.17 shows the Von Neumann architecture of processors and this architecture is most
commonly used in processors. In this architecture, one memory chip is used to store both
instructions and data. The processor interacts with the memory through address and data buses to
fetch instructions as well as data.
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Figure 1.17: Von Neumann Architecture of processors
1.4.2 HARVARD ARCHITECTURE
Figure 1.18 shows the Harvard architecture of a processor. In this processor architecture, two
separate memory blocks, namely, program memory and data memory are used. The program
memory is used to store only instructions and data memory is used to store data. The program
memory address bus is used to locate the program memory and through program memory data bus,
the processor can write/read instructions to/from memory. Similarly, the data memory address bus
is used to locate data memory and the data memory data bus can be used to access the data memory.
Consequently, this architecture is efficient than Von Neumann architecture as the instructions and
data will be accessed very fast.
Figure 1.18: Harvard Architecture of processors
1.0 SUPER HARVARD ARCHITECTURE
Figure 1.19 shows the super Harvard architecture which is the modified Harvard Architecture
Generally, the data memory is accessed more frequently than the program memory in Harvard
architecture. In the super Harvard architecture, the program memory can store secondary data to
balance the load on both program memory and data memory. The instruction cache is in-built
within the processor. This architecture is most commonly used in Digital Signal Processing (DSP).
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Figure 1.19: Super Harvard Architecture of processors
1.0 MICROPROCESSOR APPLICATIONS
The microprocessor started as a 4-bit device. It has progressed to an 8-bit, a 16-bit, a 32-bit and
now a 64-bit device. A microprocessor with a longer word length will solve more problems at a
faster rate. Therefore, a longer word length should give a better and faster solution to all problems.
However, the consideration of product cost is important and it has been increased by number of
data bits.
1. Consumer Electronics
i. Computers and Laptops: Central Processing Units (CPUs) in personal computers.
ii. Smartphones/Tablets: Embedded processors for managing apps, connectivity, and
multimedia.
iii. Televisions and Smart TVs: For signal processing and smart functionalities.
iv. Home Appliances: Washing machines, microwave ovens, and air conditioners use
microprocessors for automation and control.
2. Automotive
i. Engine Control Units (ECU): Optimizing fuel efficiency, emissions, and performance.
ii. Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS): Lane-keeping, adaptive cruise control, and
collision avoidance.
iii. Infotainment Systems: Navigation, multimedia, and connectivity integration.
iv. Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Battery management systems and powertrain control.
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3. Industrial Automation
i. Robotics: Control of automated machinery in manufacturing and logistics.
ii. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): Industrial process control.
iii. Monitoring Systems: Temperature, pressure, and flow sensors.
iv. Smart Grids: Power distribution and fault monitoring.
4. Medical Devices
i. Diagnostic Equipment: MRI machines, ultrasound, and X-ray systems.
ii. Wearables: Fitness trackers and health monitoring devices.
iii. Therapeutic Equipment: Infusion pumps, ventilators, and pacemakers.
iv. Laboratory Equipment: Automated sample analysis and data processing.
5. Telecommunications
i. Network Devices: Routers, switches, and modems for data packet handling.
ii. Base Stations: Used in 4G/5G communication infrastructure.
iii. Signal Processing: Encoding, decoding, and transmission of digital signals.
1.6 MICROCONTROLLER
A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to control a specific operation in an
embedded system. It includes a processor, memory, and input/output peripherals on a single chip.
Microcontrollers are widely used in applications requiring automation, control, and interaction
with external devices.
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1.6.1 KEY FEATURES OF MICROCONTROLLERS
1. Integrated Design: Combines CPU, memory (RAM and ROM), and I/O ports on one
chip.
2. Real-Time Control: Processes inputs and provides outputs in real-time.
3. Low Power Consumption: Optimized for battery-operated devices.
4. Cost-Effective: Suitable for mass production of embedded systems.
5. Small Size: Compact and easy to integrate into devices.
1.6.2 MICROPROCESSOR VERSUS MICROCONTROLLER
SN FEATURE MICROPROCESSOR MICROCONTROLLER
1 Integration Requires external CPU, memory, and I/O on one
components for memory chip
and I/O
2 Applications General-purpose Embedded systems
computing
3 Power consumption Higher Lower
4 Cost Relatively high Low
1.6.3 COMPONENTS OF A MICROCONTROLLER
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): Executes instructions to perform tasks.
2. Memory
❖ RAM: Temporary storage for variables and data.
❖ ROM/Flash: Stores program code and non-volatile data.
3. Timers and Counters: For time-based tasks and event counting.
4. Input/Output Ports (I/O): Interface for connecting external devices like sensors, motors,
and displays.
5. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): Converts analog signals to digital.
6. Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC): Converts digital signals to analog.
7. Communication Interfaces: Protocols like UART, I2C, SPI, and CAN for data transfer.
8. Interrupt Controller: Handles external or internal events requiring immediate attention
1.6.4 PROGRAMMING A MICROCONTROLLER
Languages: Assembly, C, C++.
Development Tools:
Integrated Development Environment (IDE): Keil, MPLAB, Arduino IDE.
Steps:
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Write the code.
Compile and upload to the microcontroller.
Test and debug.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Define a microprocessor and explain its significance in modern electronic devices.
2. How do microcomputers differ from microprocessors?
3. Describe the main functions of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) in a computer.
4. Compare the features and applications of supercomputers, mainframe computers,
minicomputers, and microcomputers.
5. Explain the operation of a microprocessor in terms of fetching, decoding, and executing
instructions.
6. What is the significance of the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) in a microprocessor?
7. Describe the Von Neumann architecture and its key characteristics.
8. How does the Harvard architecture improve upon the Von Neumann architecture?
9. What is the Super Harvard architecture, and where is it most commonly used?
10. Define a microcontroller and explain its differences from a microprocessor.
11. List the key features of microcontrollers and their significance in embedded systems.
12. What components are typically integrated into a microcontroller?
13. Provide examples of applications for microprocessors in the automotive, medical, and
telecommunications industries.
14. What steps are involved in programming a microcontroller? Name some commonly used
development tools.
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