2.1.

3 Lathe and Machining section

1. Machining Processes

Machining is a fundamental process that involves removing material from a work-

piece in the form of chips. When the material is metallic, the process is often called
metal cutting. Compared to forming, manufacturing molding, and casting processes,
most machining operations have a relatively low set-up cost. Machining is essential
when tight tolerances on dimensions and fine surface finishes are required.

The machining section is divided into the following categories:

a) Facing
This is a fundamental operation for many workpieces. The facing tool removes metal
from the end of a workpiece to create a flat surface. The operation involves feeding
the tool perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the workpiece. The cutting edge is set
at the same height as the center of the workpiece.

b) Turning
This operation removes material from the outside diameter of a workpiece to achieve
a desired dimension and surface finish. The workpiece is mounted on a chuck or
between centers, with its axis of rotation aligned with the lathe's axis. The cutting tool
is clamped on the tool post with its cutting edge at the same height as the lathe axis.
By adjusting the feed, either manually or automatically, the carriage moves the tool
along the desired length. At the end of the cut, the feed is disengaged, and the carriage
is returned to its initial position.

c) Chamfering/Taper Turning
This is the operation of producing a conical surface on a workpiece. For simple
chamfering (creating a beveled edge), a chamfering tool is used. For taper turning, the
compound rest is swiveled to the required angle and clamped in position. The taper is
then cut by rotating the handle of the compound rest's handwheel. The workpiece is
typically held in a chuck.

d) Drilling
Drilling is the operation of creating a cylindrical hole in a workpiece. On a lathe, this
is done by holding a drill in the tailstock quill. The job is held in a rotating chuck, and
the drill is fed into the workpiece by advancing the quill using the tailstock handle.

e) Boring
This is the operation of enlarging a previously drilled hole. The workpiece is held in
the chuck, and a boring bar is mounted in the tool post. The boring operation is
performed by moving the carriage towards the headstock.

f) Under-cutting (Grooving)
This operation involves reducing the diameter of a workpiece over a narrow surface,
creating a groove. A tool of the appropriate width is held on the tool post and fed into
the revolving workpiece at a right angle to its centerline until the desired depth is
reached. This is often done before thread cutting to provide clearance for the
threading tool.

g) Knurling
Knurling is the operation of plastically displacing metal to form a patterned,
roughened surface, typically for a hand grip. The knurling tool is held in the tool post
and pressed against the surface of the rotating workpiece using the cross-feed.

h) Thread Cutting
This is typically one of the final operations performed on a workpiece. Threads are
cut after the diameter of the portion to be threaded has been turned to the major
diameter of the thread. The process involves engaging the lead screw, which traverses
the tool along the workpiece at a precise rate to form the helical thread.

2. Machine Tools
Lathe Machine

Figure 1: Lathe machine

A lathe is a machine tool used for shaping a workpiece by gripping it in a holding

device and rotating it under power against a suitable cutting tool. It is used for
operations such as turning, boring, facing, or threading. A lathe consists of a bed, a
head stock, a carriage, a cross slide, a compound rest with a tool post, and a power
source to rotate the workpiece.

Milling Machine
Figure 2: Milling machine

A milling machine is a machine tool used for the complex shaping of metal and other
solid materials. It uses a rotating multi-point cutter. In its basic form, the cutting tool
rotates about the spindle axis while the workpiece, affixed to a movable table, is fed
into the cutter. Milling machines can be operated manually or under Computer
Numerical Control (CNC).

Milling machines can perform a vast number of operations, such as slot cutting,
planing, drilling, and routing. Cutting fluid is often used to cool and lubricate the
cutting site and to wash away the resulting chips (swarf).

Operations on a Milling Machine:

 Drilling: Producing a circular hole in a solid material with a rotating tool known
as a drill
 Reaming: Expanding an existing hole slightly to produce a hole with a tight
tolerance and smooth finish.
 Boring: Enlarging a hole to a precise diameter.
 Countersinking: Creating a conical enlargement at the top of a hole so that the
head of a screw or bolt will lie flush with or below the surface.
 Spot facing: Squaring and finishing the surface around the end of a hole to
provide a smooth, true seat for a bolt head or nut.
 Tapping: Creating internal threads using a tool called a "tap". This requires a
reversible motor or a specialized tapping attachment.

3. Grinding Machine
To achieve a fine surface finish, extra material is removed from the workpiece by the
abrasive action of a revolving wheel. The machine that performs this operation is
known as a grinder, and the abrasive wheel is called a grinding wheel. The grinding
wheel operates on the surface of a workpiece that has already been machined to its
approximate final shape.

Grinding Wheel
These wheels are made from abrasive grains held together by a binding material
known as a 'bond'. The abrasive materials are mixed with a suitable bond, which acts
as a matrix to hold the grains in place.

Abrasives
Abrasives fall into two categories: natural and artificial.

Natural Abrasives:
 Sandstone and Quartz: General cutting agents.
 Emery: A natural form of aluminum oxide containing 65% to 75% alumina,
along with iron oxide and other impurities.
 Corundum: A natural aluminum oxide containing 75% to 95% alumina.
 Diamond: Used for making grinding wheels for grinding cemented carbide tools
and for making lapping compounds.

Artificial Abrasives:
 Silicon Carbide: Used for grinding materials with low tensile strength.
 Aluminum Oxide: Used for grinding hardened tool steel components.
 Artificial Diamond: Produced synthetically for industrial applications.

2.1.4 Welding and Fabrication
This subsection is concerned with production through welding and fabrication, as well
as the repair and maintenance of parts and components. Metal arc welding is the
primary welding method used, while gas cutting is also employed. Pipes, reducers,
and other components are fabricated here.

1. Arc Welding

Figure 3: Arc welding

Arc welding is a process that uses an electric arc to join metals. A distinct advantage
of arc welding over gas welding is the concentration of heat. In gas welding, the flame
spreads over a large area, which can cause heat distortion. The concentrated heat of
arc welding reduces buckling and warping, increases the depth of penetration, and
speeds up the operation, making it more practical and economical. All arc-welding
processes involve a heat source, a filler metal, and shielding. The heat is produced by
an electric arc between the electrode and the workpiece. The power source is called a
welding machine or welder. The main types of arc welding processes are Shielded
Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and Gas Shielded Arc Welding (GSAW).

2. Gas Welding
For welding, burning a fuel gas with air (as in a simple blowtorch) does not produce
sufficient temperatures. Instead, the fuel gas is burned with pure oxygen. The most
common fuel gases are acetylene, hydrogen, and propane.

2. MIG (Metal Inert Gas) Welding

Figure 5: Some parts of the MIG machine

In MIG welding, a continuous solid wire electrode is fed through a welding gun,
which also supplies an inert or semi-inert shielding gas. This gas protects the arc and
the molten weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Common shielding gases
include helium, argon, carbon dioxide, or mixtures of these gases. No flux is used in
this process.

3. TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) Welding

Figure 6: TIG Welding

TIG welding uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to create the arc between the
electrode and the workpiece. An inert shielding gas (like argon or helium) flows from
the electrode holder to protect the weld area. A separate filler rod is manually added
to the weld joint if required. This process can use either AC or DC power, depending
on the metal being welded. DC with straight polarity is used for welding copper, its
alloys, and stainless steel, while AC is used for magnesium and aluminum.

5. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

SAW uses heat generated by an arc formed between a continuous welding wire and
the work-piece. The tip of the welding wire, the arc, and the weld joint are covered by
a layer of granular flux. The heat melts the wire, the base metal, and the flux. The flux
shields the molten pool from atmospheric contamination, cleans impurities from the
weld metal, and shapes the weld bead. Depending on its composition, the flux can
also add alloying elements to the weld metal to alter its chemical and mechanical
properties.

6. Soldering

Figure 8: Soldering

Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined by melting and
flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint. The filler metal has a lower melting point
than the workpiece. Unlike welding, soldering does not involve melting the
workpieces.

2.2 CANE PREPARATION, THE DIFFUSER AND

DEWATERING MILLS
2.2.1 Cane Preparation
Objectives of Cane Preparation:
1. Leveling the cane mat to avoid chokes in the machinery.
2. Increasing the bulk density of the cane, thereby increasing the capacity of the
diffuser and mills.
3.Breaking down the hard rind structure of the cane.
4. Exposing the sucrose-bearing cells for easier juice extraction and to increase
imbibition efficiency.

2.1.2 Equipment Used in Cane Preparation

i. Hydro-unloader/Gantry Cranes/Wheel Loaders: This equipment loads the
cane onto the feed tables. Feeding must be regular to avoid overfeeding and
choking the knives.
ii. Cane Carriers: Conveyors that transport cane to the knives.
iii. Leveler Knives: Consist of a steam turbine driving a shaft on which knives are
bolted. They perform the initial cutting of the cane, reducing the load on the
heavy-duty knives and leveling irregular heaps of cane.
iv. Heavy-Duty Knives: These knives, along with the leveler knives, mark the first
stage of cane preparation. They cut the cane into smaller pieces.

Major Components:
 1. Rotor: The rotating element driven by the prime mover, to which the knives
are attached.

2. Locking Plate and Split Pins: The knives are locked into the rotor using
wedge-like locking plates, which are then secured with split pins.
3. Drive: Both knife sets are driven by steam turbines.
4. Knives: Both types of knives are hard-faced to increase their lifespan and
reduce wear. The heavy-duty knives are hard-faced to form a club-like head and
weigh about 12 kg each. Knives must be carefully weighed and balanced on
opposing sides of the rotor to avoid vibration.

Common Types of Breakdowns:

 Knife Breakage: When a knife encounters a metallic object (e.g., arms of a cane
kicker, a loose slat), it can break. A tramp iron magnet is used to catch broken
knives. If many knives break, the plant must be stopped for replacement. Hard
rocks in the cane can also cause this.
 Worn-out Knives: This occurs frequently during rainy seasons when sand
particles accompany the cane, causing severe abrasive wear. Poor cane
preparation necessitates stopping the plant to replace the knives.

5. The Shredder
This machine facilitates the complete disintegration of the cane pieces before they
enter the diffuser.

Major Parts:
 Rotor and Shaft: The rotor is driven by the prime mover. Hammers are
suspended from rods on the rotor.
 Hammers: The swinging hammers are responsible for the disintegration of the
cane.
 Anvil Plate and Toggle Springs: The clearance between the hammers and the
anvil plate is adjusted using toggle springs.
 Drive: Driven by a steam turbine.

6. Feeder Drum
The feeder drum pushes the cane towards the heavy-duty knives. It is driven by an
electric motor coupled to a gearbox, which in turn drives the drum shaft via a chain
drive.

Common Types of Breakdowns:

 1) Cane Leaks at the Side: This results from wear on the rubber seal, which
should be scheduled for replacement.

Routine Daily Checks and Preventive Measures:

1) Check bearings for abnormal sounds; inspect and replace seized bearings.
2) Check the gearbox, foundation bolts, chain tension, and sealing rings. Tighten
loose bolts and tension the chain if loose.
3) Check for wear on the drum and inspect the condition of the angle irons. Re-build
worn angle irons during shutdowns.
4) Listen for any abnormal sound from the feeder drum; inspect during maintenance
shutdowns.
5) Check V-belts and pulleys of the motor and gearbox. Tension loose belts and
replace broken or worn-out components.
6) Investigate and rectify abnormal noise from the gearbox.

2.2.2 The Diffuser

The diffuser is an enclosed carrier through which a bed of prepared cane is slowly
dragged. Copious quantities of water and thin juice percolate through the bed to wash
out the sucrose-bearing juice. This process is more accurately described as leaching
(washing sucrose out of shredded cells) rather than true diffusion (movement through
unbroken cell walls), which is much slower.

Imbibition Water
Imbibition water is used for washing juice from the cane fiber. The fibrous residue is
called bagasse and is mainly used as fuel. The imbibition water temperature is
controlled between 80-90°C to inhibit the growth of Leuconostoc bacteria, which
promotes inversion (the irreversible breakdown of sucrose into glucose and fructose).

Sucrose → Glucose + Fructose

Cane juice is acidic, with a pH of 3.5-4.5. Operating at low pH can corrode plant
components, especially at high temperatures. To counteract this, lime (Ca(OH)₂) is
added at the 2nd and 7th stages of the diffuser to raise the pH to between 7 and 8.

Types of Imbibition:

I. Simple Imbibition: Applying water once at the dewatering mills to avoid

choking and increase the capacity of the second mill.
II. Compound Imbibition: This is done at the diffuser. Imbibition water is added at
the 12th stage, and then thinner juice is continuously recycled backwards through
the stages. Concentrated juice (draft juice) is drawn from the 1st stage and
pumped to the treatment section.
Importance of Imbibition: It enables the extraction and recovery of sucrose from the
cane cells.

Factors Affecting Extraction:

1. Cane Preparation:
a. Degree of Fineness: Measured by the Preparation Index (PI). A higher PI value
results in better extraction.
b. Type of Preparation: The size distribution and particle shape, influenced by the
relative amount of shredding and knifing.
2. Throughput: An increase in throughput reduces the residence time of cane in the
diffuser, which can negatively affect extraction. Steady throughput achieves better
extraction.
3. Flooding: This reduces extraction performance and should be avoided.
4. Juice Flow System: Juice flow rates through each stage should be as high as
possible to promote the rate of extraction.
5. Bed Height: Excessively high or low bed levels should be avoided.

2.2.3 Milling (Dewatering Mills)

Milling is the passage of prepared cane from the diffuser through a series of
dewatering mills to extract the remaining juice.

Figure 9: Dewatering Mills

2.3.1 Milling Equipment

A) Rollers
i. Feed Roller: Located on the front side of each mill, it feeds the cane to the other
rollers.
ii. Top Roller: This roller is under pressure and squeezes the juice at two points:
against the feed roller and the delivery roller.
iii. Delivery Roller: This roller discharges the bagasse from the mill.
B) Trash Plate
Positioned between the feed and delivery rollers, it keeps the fiber under pressure as it
passes through the mill and prevents it from falling between the bottom rollers.

Factors that Influence Milling Efficiency:

1. Operational factors (e.g., skill of staff)
2. Mill setting
3. Mechanical condition of the plant (e.g., grooves, roller length)
4. Design of the plant (e.g., number of rollers)
5. Cane preparation
6. Pressure applied
7. Imbibition
8. Mill speeds (rpm)
9. Specific fiber loading
10. Steam pressure

C) Conveyors

There are two main types of conveyors: chain-slat conveyors and rubber belt
conveyors. The conveyors in this section are coded as C112, C116, and C117:
C112: Knifed cane conveyor
C116: Shredder discharge conveyor
C117: Shredder cane elevating conveyor

Main Components of a Conveyor:

i. Head Drum: Coupled to the driving unit to move the conveyor.

ii. Tail Drum: The return drum at the opposite end of the conveyor.
iii. Take-up Unit: Used for tensioning the conveyor, often by adding weights (found
in C112 and C117).
iv. Idler Rollers: Support the conveyor belt, reduce friction, and help carry the
material.
v. Rubber Skirting: Located at the sides of the conveyor to prevent material from
falling off.
vi. Belt Scraper: Located after the drive drum to scrape material off the return path
of the belt.
vii. Drive: Comprises a motor, V-belts, and a gearbox coupled to the head drum
shaft.

2.2.4 The Power House

This subsection is concerned with the maintenance of steam turbines, both in the
powerhouse and those driving heavy machinery in the extraction section. The
following are inspected while monitoring turbine function:

a) Measuring the steam temperature at the inlet and outlet of the steam trap to verify
its function.
b) Monitoring the turbine oil cooler by observing the oil temperature at the inlet and
outlet.
c) Measuring turbine vibrations to ensure they are within recommended limits.
d) Observing and correcting any oil leaks.
To generate power, a conductor must rotate within a magnetic field. This is achieved
by using prime movers (turbines driven by dry steam) to rotate the conductor while
the magnetic field is stationary.

Equipment for Electrical Power Generation:

Two types of equipment are used:
i. Turbine Alternators
ii. Diesel Generators

There are five turbine alternators (TA1, TA2, TA3, TA5, TA6) and three diesel
alternators (DA1, DA2, DA3).

These generators produce power at 3,300 volts (3.3 kV). The power is synchronized
and distributed in three phases, stepped down by transformers to supply 415 Volts to
motors and control panels. A busbar merges the voltages, and an inter-pass
transformer steps 3.3 kV down to 415 V and vice versa between two control panels.

Power Demand at the Factory:

The factory requires about 7 MW of power. The powerhouse produces about 10 MW,
with the excess used to serve residential estates and sometimes supplied to the KPLC
national grid. The leveler, heavy-duty knives, and shredder are among the highest
consumers, using about 3 MW cumulatively. A voltage of 240 V is supplied to the
residential estates.
Factors that keep the alternators in good condition are:

i. Good quality steam

ii. Clean lubrication oil
iii. Sufficient cooling water for bearings

2.3 THE BOILERS SECTION

The boiler section is responsible for raising the steam required for various purposes in
the factory. The plant uses bagasse-fired water-tube boilers. These boilers primarily
use bagasse from the cane crushing process as fuel, sometimes supplemented with
wood logs. Water is pumped from the nearby Nzoia River.

The plant has seven boilers: four small (1A-4A) and three large (1B-3B).

2.4.1 Steam Generation

Steam generation is the process where soft, clean water is pumped through boiler
tubes. Heat from the furnace fire is transferred to the water, vaporizing it into steam.
This steam is then superheated and passed under high pressure to prime movers
(turbines) and other process equipment.

2.4.2 Source of Fuel for the Boilers

The chief source of fuel is bagasse, which should have a low moisture content (48-
50%) for better combustion. High-moisture fuel requires slower distribution into the
furnace for complete combustion, which reduces the amount of heat produced.
Combustible constituents include Carbon, Hydrogen, and Sulphur.
2.4.3 Use of the Boilers
Steam generated from the boilers performs the following functions:
Runs the steam turbines for the leveler, heavy-duty knives, shredder, and dewatering
mills.

Figure 10: Water treatment flow diagram in Mumias Sugar Company

1. Alkalinity: Due to entrainment in the evaporators, vapor may carry sugar traces
into the feedwater. At high temperatures, sugar decomposes to form organic acids
in the boiler, which are corrosive. Alkalinity is controlled and maintained above
pH 8.5, typically using Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH).

2. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): Conductivity indicates the TDS level. These may
include Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, Zn, oxides, and others. Calcium bicarbonate decomposes
as follows:

Ca(HCO3)2→CaCO3+CO2+H2 CO3

The resulting CO₂ can form carbonic acid (CO2+H2O⇌H2CO3), which is corrosive.
Both intermittent and continuous blowdowns are used to lower dissolved and
suspended solids to prevent scaling and entrainment.

3. Removal of Oxygen: Oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent and can corrode

boiler tubes at high temperatures. It is scavenged by adding Sodium Sulphite:

2Na2SO3+ O2→2Na2SO4
Removal of Calcium and Hardness: Hardness is removed by adding sodium
phosphate. Hardness should read zero at all times. Antifoams are often used with
sludge conditioners.

2Na2PO4+3Ca2+→Ca3(PO4)2 +6Na+

2.4.6 Steam Generation Trends

It was observed that the temperature of flue gases leaving the furnace was in the
region of 350-380°C. This was reduced to about 110°C after passing through heat
recovery equipment (economizer and air heater), indicating good heat recovery. If the
exit temperature drops too low, condensation can occur, forming water that might
combine with SO₂ and SO₃ to form H₂SO₃ and H₂SO₄, which can damage the
chimney and other exit components. For mass and energy balancing, the amount of
water entering the boiler should equal the amount of steam produced.

2.4.7 Working Principle of a Boiler

The working principle of a boiler is simple. It is essentially a closed vessel containing
water. Fuel (bagasse) is burnt in a furnace, producing hot gases. These hot gases
transfer their heat to the water, causing it to turn into steam.

Figure 11: Working principle of boiler

2.4.8 Equipment and Accessories of a Modern Boiler Plant

i. Steam Drum: Where steam is generated. It is provided with internal baffles,

cyclone steam separators, and scrubbers to separate water from the steam,
releasing dry steam into the superheaters.
ii. Mud Drum: Connected to the steam drum via downcomer pipes, it collects
sludge and sediment.
iii. Feedwater Tank and Boiler Feed Pumps: A reserve water tank supplies
feedwater, which is pumped under pressure to the steam drum to replenish the
water that is converted to steam.

iv. Superheaters: Heat exchangers that use flue gas to convert saturated steam from
the drum into superheated (dry) steam for use in turbines.
 v. Economizers: A heat exchanger in the path of the flue gases that preheats the
feedwater before it enters the boiler, improving efficiency.

vi. Air Heater: A heat exchanger that uses flue gas energy to heat the air needed for
bagasse combustion.

vii. Draught and Fans: A draught system ensures the required quantity of air passes
through the furnace for proper combustion.
Categories of fans
a. Forced Draught (FD) Fan: Blows air through the grates and air heater into the
combustion chamber.
b. Induced Draught (ID) Fan: Located at the base of the chimney, it sucks gases
from the boiler and expels them into the atmosphere.
c. Secondary Air (SA) Fan: Used with spreader stoker furnaces to propel bagasse
into the combustion chamber and provide oxygen for immediate combustion.

Viii. Spreader Stoker Furnace:

A furnace with a flat grate (fixed or rocking) onto which bagasse is thrown and spread
by forced and secondary air, enabling a high combustion rate and facilitating ash
removal.
Viii. De-aerator: A pressure vessel where low-pressure steam is used to strip
dissolved gases (like oxygen and carbon dioxide) from the feedwater by heating it to
its boiling point.
Ix. Soot Blower: A device that uses high-pressure steam jets to clean soot and ash
from the boiler's heat transfer surfaces.

2.4.9 Mumias Sugar Company Boiler Plant Systems

1. Conveyor System:
The boiler section uses both rubber belt and chain/slat conveyors.
Figure 12: Bagasse system conveyors

Bagasse is transported from the dewatering mills and the bagasse store to the boilers.
Conveyor K09 brings bagasse from the store to supplement the fresh bagasse from the
mills (on conveyor B878).
Routine maintenance and daily checks
Main components of the Conveyor
Head drum
The boiler thus can be sub divided into the following systems;

2. Steam Line System:

This system includes condensate water treatment and its movement to the boiler,
where it is heated into superheated steam and collected at the steam receiver.
Condensate from tanks is pumped to an overhead tank and then to the boiler's steam
drum. The condensate passes through the economizer tubes for preheating. The steam
drum is filled halfway, leaving space for steam collection. Superheated steam from
the boiler is carried via lagged pipes to a steam receiver before being distributed to
turbines.
3. Fuel System:
The main fuel is bagasse, supplemented by wood. It is transported by a system of belt,
rake, and slat conveyors driven by electric motors and reduction gearboxes. Feeder
drums regulate the amount of bagasse fed into the furnace.
1. Air System:
Each boiler is served by three fans: Forced Draught (FD), Secondary Air (SA), and
Induced Draught (ID).
The FD fan supplies primary air for combustion through the grates.
The SA fan provides secondary air to distribute the bagasse evenly in the furnace and
support complete combustion.
The ID fan sucks flue gases and ash out of the furnace and directs them to the
chimney.
4. Flue Gas/Ash Collecting System:
Ash is removed in several ways. The ID fan removes flue gases and fine ash via the
chimney. Heavier ash falls through rocking grates into a submerged ash conveyor,
where it is cooled by water before disposal. Ash is also collected in hoppers and
discarded.
5. Hydraulic/Pneumatic System:
This system ensures the boiler operates within required pressures. For example,
pneumatic cylinders control the opening and closing of the ash grates.
6. Electrical System:
This system mainly consists of motors that drive the conveyors, feeder drums, and
various pumps. Torque is transferred from gearboxes to drive shafts using flange
couplings (for in-line shafts), sprockets and chains (for parallel shafts), or bevel gears
(for perpendicular shafts).

2.5 PROCESS HOUSE OPERATIONS

This section deals with processing the juice from the Extraction Plant to produce
marketable sugar and molasses. Processes include: Weighing, Heating, Clarification,
Evaporation, Sulphitation, Pan Boiling, Crystallizing, Centrifugal Separation, Drying,
and Packaging.

2.5.1 Juice Treatment

Figure 13: Flow diagram of juice treatment and equipment used

RAW JUICE SCALE

Raw juice from the draft juice pumps is automatically weighed. The scale weighs 5.2
tons of juice per batch, and the reading is recorded on a counter. The principle of
operation is a load cell.
MIXED JUICE TANK
After weighing, the juice flows by gravity to the Mixed Juice Tank, which acts as a
temporary storage buffer. This tank also receives sugar remelts, juice spills, and
overflow juice.

FLASH TANK

This is a cylindrical tank open to the atmosphere, located before the clarifier. Juice
from the heaters (at ~105°C) is discharged tangentially into this tank. It partially
flashes into vapor, which removes air bubbles attached to suspended particles. If not
removed, these bubbles would prevent the particles from settling during clarification.

JUICE CLARIFIERS
Clarifiers separate suspended solids (sand, cane material) from the juice. The
separation occurs by allowing the solid particles to settle onto a tray. The solids are
swept into a mud compartment and pumped back to the diffuser. The company uses
SRI Type Clarifiers, which are single-tray units with short juice retention times (40
minutes or less).
Clear juice is withdrawn from the upper part of the clarifier, and mud is withdrawn
from the bottom.

Benefits of the single-tray, short-retention clarifier:

 Less sucrose destruction and color formation.
 Higher throughput capacity.
 Lower capital and maintenance costs.
 Easy to clean.

Clarifier Maintenance:

 Check the scraper drive for proper operation.

 Check gearbox oil level and quality.
 Inspect the chain drive.
 Inspect mud pumps.

2.5.2 Evaporation
Juice from the cane is too dilute for crystallization. It must be concentrated in
evaporators. The concentration is typically not taken beyond 60-65 Brix to prevent the
formation of false grain crystals.

2.5.2 EVAPORATOR

Clear juice from preheaters enters the evaporators at about 103°C. The heating agent
is exhaust steam from the turbines. The juice passes through the tubes of the heat
exchanger, while steam heats the outside of the tubes (shell side). The goal is to boil
off water, increasing the juice concentration from ~11% to ~65% Brix.
This process occurs in a series of evaporators called a multiple-effect evaporator.
Vapor from the first effect (V1) is used to heat the second effect, and so on. V1 is also
used to heat vacuum pans and secondary heaters. V2 heats the third effect and
primary heaters. A vacuum is applied to the final effect via a barometric condenser to
lower the boiling point and draw vapor through the system.

Juice from the evaporators is called "raw syrup." Condensate from the first two effects
is pure and is reused as boiler feedwater. Condensate from the later effects ("sweet
water") contains some sugar traces and is used for imbibition, cleaning, and other
industrial tasks.
Evaporator Main Controls:
a. Amount of steam admitted to the 1st effect.
b. Level of liquor in the 1st effect.
c. Brix of syrup leaving the last effect.
d. Proper bleeding of incondensable gases.
e. Temperature in each effect.
f. Vacuum level in each effect.

Scales
These are deposits (calcium salts, metallic oxides, silica) that form inside the tubes
due to poor clarification or the precipitation of non-sugars as the juice becomes
concentrated. Scale deposits more rapidly when the evaporation rate is sluggish.
Descaling of the Evaporators
Mechanical cleaning is done with electric descalers. These consist of a motor with a
flexible shaft ending in a tool with serrated rollers. The tool is driven at high speed,
and centrifugal force presses the rollers against the tube walls to remove scale.

Maintenance of Evaporators:

 Caustic cleaning of tubes during shutdowns, followed by inspection and

mechanical cleaning if required.
 Checking valves on all suction and discharge lines.
 Hydraulic testing of the calandria for leaks at 1.5 times the normal operating
pressure.
 Plugging leaking tubes.
 Replacing damaged tubes during long stoppages.
 Inspecting manholes and condenser nozzles.