Introduction
Chapter-1
Outline
What is AI?
Foundation
A brief history
The state of the art
AI – Why so Important?
Homo sapiens—man the wise!
AI – Why so Important?...
• For thousands of years, we have tried to understand how we think; that is,
how a mere handful of matter can perceive, understand, predict, and
manipulate a world far larger and more complicated than itself.
• The field of artificial intelligence, or AI, goes further still: it attempts not just
to understand but also to build intelligent entities.
• AI is one of the newest fields in science and engineering. Work .started in
earnest soon after World War II, and the name itself was coined in 1956
• It is reasonably felt that all the good ideas have already been taken by Galileo,
Newton, Einstein, and the rest. AI, on the other hand, still has openings for
several full-time Einsteins and Edisons.
AI – Why so Important?...
• AI currently encompasses a huge variety of subfields, ranging from the
general (learning and perception) to the specific, such as playing chess,
proving mathematical theorems, writing poetry, driving a car on a crowded
street, and diagnosing diseases.
• AI is relevant to any intellectual task; it is truly a universal field.
Introduction – Four Approaches to AI?
• Systems that act like humans
• Systems that think like humans
• Systems that think rationally
• Systems that act rationally
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans
Systems that act like Systems that act
humans rationally
Introduction - What is AI ?(Contd…)
Acting humanly: The Turing Test
• Alan Turing (1950) : Wrote this paper “Computing machinery and intelligence"
• “Can machines think?“ , “Can machines behave intelligently?"
• Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation Game
• Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a 30% chance of
fooling a lay person for 5 minutes.
• Anticipated all major arguments against AI in following 50 years.
• Suggested major components of AI: knowledge, reasoning, language understanding,
learning.
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Alan Turing’s first paper on AI
"Computing Machinery and Intelligence" is a seminal paper written
by Alan Turing on the topic of artificial intelligence. The paper,
published in 1950 in Mind, was the first to introduce his concept of
what is now known as the Turing test to the general public.
Six Capabilities of a Computer to pass Total
Turing Test
1. Natural Language Processing: To enable it to communicate successfully in English;
2. Knowledge Representation: To store what it knows or hears;
3. Automated Reasoning: To use the stored information to answer questions and to draw new
conclusions;
4. Machine Learning: To adapt to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate patterns;
5. Computer Vision: To perceive objects;
6. Robotics: To manipulate objects and move about;
Thinking humanly: Cognitive modeling
• 1960’s "cognitive revolution": information-processing
psychology
• Scientific theories of internal activities of the brain
• Predicting and testing behavior of human subjects
• Direct identification from neurological data
• Both approaches (roughly, Cognitive Science and
Cognitive Neuroscience) are now distinct from AI
Thinking humanly: Cognitive modeling…
• A given program thinks like a human → Determine how humans think → Get inside the actual workings of human
minds
• Three ways to do this:
I) Through introspection—trying to catch our own thoughts as they go by;
II) Through psychological experiments—observing a person in action;
III) Through brain imaging—observing the brain in action.
• Once we have a sufficiently precise theory of the mind, it becomes possible to express the theory as a computer
program.
• If the program’s input–output behavior matches corresponding human behavior, that is evidence that some of
the program’s mechanisms could also be operating in humans.
• Example: Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, who developed GPS, the “General Problem Solver” (Newell and Simon,
1961), were not content merely to have their program solve problems correctly. They were more concerned with
comparing the trace of its reasoning steps to traces of human subjects solving the same problems.
• The interdisciplinary field of cognitive science brings together computer models from AI and experimental
techniques from psychology to construct precise and testable theories of the human mind.
Cognitive Revolution
• The cognitive revolution is the name for an
intellectual movement in the 1950s that began what
are known collectively as the cognitive sciences. It
began in the modern context of greater
interdisciplinary communication and research. The
relevant areas of interchange were the combination of
psychology, anthropology, and linguistics .
• A key idea in cognitive psychology was that by
studying and developing successful functions in
artificial intelligence and computer science, it
becomes possible to make testable inferences about
human mental processes.
Thinking rationally: “Laws of thought"
• Aristotle: what are correct arguments/thought processes?
• Several Greek schools developed various forms of logic:
notation and rules of derivation for thoughts; may or may
not have proceeded to the idea of mechanization
• Direct line through mathematics and philosophy to modern
AI
• Problems:
1. Not all intelligent behavior is mediated by logical deliberation
2. What is the purpose of thinking? What thoughts should I have?
Acting rationally: Rational agent
• Rational behavior: doing the right thing
• The right thing: that which is expected to maximize goal
achievement, given the available information
• Doesn't necessarily involve thinking – e.g., blinking reflex –
but thinking should be in the service of rational action
AI Foundation
• Philosophy: Logic, methods of reasoning, mind as physical
system foundations of learning, language,
rationality
• Mathematics: Formal representation and proof algorithms,
computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractability,
probability
• Economics: Utility, decision theory
• Neuroscience: Physical substrate for mental activity
• Psychology: Phenomena of perception and motor control,
experimental techniques
• Computer Building fast computers
Engineering:
• Control theory: Design systems that maximize an objective
function over time
• Linguistics: Knowledge representation, grammar
Abridged history of AI
• 1943 McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain
• 1950 Turing's "Computing Machinery and Intelligence"
• 1956 Dartmouth meeting: "Artificial Intelligence" adopted
• 1952—69 Look, Ma, no hands!
• 1950s Early AI programs, including Samuel's checkers
program, Newell & Simon's Logic Theorist,
Gelernter's Geometry Engine
• 1965 Robinson's complete algorithm for logical reasoning
• 1966—73 AI discovers computational complexity
Neural network research almost disappears
• 1969—79 Early development of knowledge-based systems
• 1980-- AI becomes an industry
• 1986-- Neural networks return to popularity
• 1987-- AI becomes a science
• 1995-- The emergence of intelligent agents
State of the art
• Deep Blue defeated the reigning world chess champion Garry Kasparov in 1997
• Proved a mathematical conjecture (Robbins conjecture) unsolved for decades
• No hands across America (driving autonomously 98% of the time from Pittsburgh to
San Diego)
• During the 1991 Gulf War, US forces deployed an AI logistics planning and
scheduling program that involved up to 50,000 vehicles, cargo, and people
• NASA's on-board autonomous planning program controlled the scheduling of
operations for a spacecraft
• Proverb solves crossword puzzles better than most humans
State of the art
• AI recently took the spotlight when IBM's Watson
supercomputer routed human competitors on the game
show Jeopardy.
• But when it comes to AI, Watson is just the tip of the
virtual frontal lobe. Labs across the United States and
around the world are exploring much more than just
ways to outwit Ken Jennings. Scientists are teaching
robots to explore extraterrestrial planets and serve you
coffee, cars are learning to drive themselves,
computers are trying to assist doctors with medical
diagnoses, and video game soldiers are training to do
battle in a virtual theatre of war.
Applications of AI
• AI has been used in a wide range of fields including medical
diagnosis, stock trading, robot control, law, scientific discovery
and toys. Many thousands of AI applications are deeply
embedded in the infrastructure of every industry. It includes :
Applications of AI
• 1 Computer science
• AI researchers have created many tools to solve the most difficult
problems in computer science.
• 2 Finance
• Banks use artificial intelligence systems to organize operations, invest
in stocks, and manage properties. In August 2001, robots beat humans
in a simulated financial trading competition.[4]
• Financial institutions have long used artificial neural network systems
to detect charges or claims outside of the norm, flagging these for
human investigation.
• Creative Virtual has deployed artificial intelligence customer support
systems, or automated online assistants, at E*TRADE, HSBC, Intuit
and Lloyds Banking Group, to assist financial services customers with
services such as checking an account balance, signing up for a new
credit card or retrieving a forgotten password.
Applications of AI
• 3 Hospitals and medicine
• A medical clinic can use artificial intelligence systems to
organize bed schedules, make a staff rotation, and provide
medical information.
• Artificial neural networks are used as clinical decision
support systems for medical diagnosis, such as in Concept
Processing technology in EMR software.
• Other tasks in medicine that can potentially be performed
by artificial intelligence include:
• Computer-aided interpretation of medical images. Such systems help
scan digital images.
Applications of AI
• 4 Heavy industry
• Robots have become common in many industries. They are often given
jobs that are considered dangerous to humans. Robots have proven
effective in jobs that are very repetitive which may lead to mistakes or
accidents due to a lapse in concentration and other jobs which humans
may find degrading. Japan is the leader in using and producing robots
in the world. In 1999, 1,700,000 robots were in use worldwide.
Applications of AI
• 5 Online and telephone customer service
• Artificial intelligence is implemented in automated online assistants
that can be seen as avatars on web pages . It can avail for enterprises to
reduce their operating and training cost . A major underlying
technology to such systems is natural language processing.
• Similar techniques may be used in answering machines of call centres ,
such as speech recognition software to allow computers to handle first
level of customer support, text mining and natural language processing
to allow better customer handling, agent training by automatic mining
of best practices from past interactions, support automation and many
other technologies to improve agent productivity and customer
satisfaction.
Applications of AI
• 6 Transportation
• Fuzzy logic controllers have been developed for automatic gearboxes in
automobiles (the 2006 Audi TT, VW Toureg and VW Caravell feature
the DSP transmission which utilizes Fuzzy Logic, a number of Škoda
variants (Škoda Fabia) also currently include a Fuzzy Logic based
controller).
• 7 Telecommunications
• Many telecommunications companies make use of heuristic search in
the management of their workforces, for example BT Group has
deployed heuristic search in a scheduling application that provides the
work schedules of 20,000 engineers.
Applications
• 8 Toys and games of AI
• The 1990s saw some of the first attempts to mass-produce domestically aimed types of
basic Artificial Intelligence for education, or leisure. This prospered greatly with the
Digital Revolution, and helped introduce people, especially children, to a life of dealing
with various types of Artificial Intelligence, specifically in the form of Tamagotchis and
Giga Pets, the Internet (example: basic search engine interfaces are one simple form), and
the first widely released robot, Furby. A mere year later an improved type of domestic
robot was released in the form of Aibo, a robotic dog with intelligent features and
autonomy. AI has also been applied to video games.
• 9 Music
• The evolution of music has always been affected by technology. With
AI, scientists are trying to make the computer emulate the activities of
the skillful musician. Composition, performance, music theory, sound
processing are some of the major areas on which research in Music and
Artificial Intelligence are focusing.
Applications of AI
• 10 Aviation
• The Air Operations Division AOD, uses AI for the rule based expert
systems. The AOD has use for artificial intelligence for surrogate
operators for combat and training simulators, mission management
aids, support systems for tactical decision making, and post processing
of the simulator data into symbolic summaries.
• The use of artificial intelligence in simulators is proving to be very
useful for the AOD. Airplane simulators are using artificial intelligence
in order to process the data taken from simulated flights. Other than
simulated flying, there is also simulated aircraft warfare. The
computers are able to come up with the best success scenarios in these
situations. The computers can also create strategies based on the
placement, size, speed, and strength of the forces and counter forces.
Pilots may be given assistance in the air during combat by computers.
Applications of AI
• 10 Aviation
• The system used by the AOD in order to measure performance was the
Interactive Fault Diagnosis and Isolation System, or IFDIS. It is a rule
based expert system put together by collecting information from TF-30
documents and the expert advice from mechanics that work on the
TF-30. This system was designed to be used to for the development of
the TF-30 for the RAAF F-111C. The performance system was also
used to replace specialized workers. The system allowed the regular
workers to communicate with the system and avoid mistakes,
miscalculations, or having to speak to one of the specialized workers.
• The AOD also uses artificial intelligence in speech recognition
software.
• The Artificial Intelligence supported Design of Aircraft [1], or AIDA,
is used to help designers in the process of creating conceptual designs
of aircraft.
Applications of AI
• 11 News and publishing
• The company Narrative Science makes computer generated news and
reports commercially available, including summarizing team sporting
events based on statistical data from the game. It also creates financial
reports and real estate analyses.
