UNIT – 3 Storage Fundamentals

Primary vs Secondary Memory

Primary memory is used to store actively used data and is very fast but
loses information when power is lost. Secondary memory provides long-term
storage for files and programs, retaining data safely but is slower than primary
memory. In this article, we are going to discuss the difference between primary
and secondary memory in detail.
Computer Memories store data and instruction. The memory system can be
divided into 4 categories:
• CPU Register
• Cache Memory
• Primary / Main memory
• Secondary Memory / Mass Storage
They can be represented in an hierarchical form as:

1. Primary / Main memory

Primary memory is the computer memory that is directly accessible by
CPU. It is comprised of DRAM and provides the actual working space to the
processor. It holds the data and instructions that the processor is currently
working on.
Types of Primary Memory
• RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary storage for actively used
data and instructions. It is volatile and lost when power is turned off.

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 • ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile memory that stores firmware
and essential instructions for booting the computer. The data is
permanent and not lost when power is off.
Advantages of Primary Memory
• Speed: Provides fast access to data and instructions.
• Direct Access: Allows the CPU to quickly read from and write to memory.
Disadvantages of Primary Memory
• Volatility: Loses data when power is lost.
• Limited Size: Generally smaller in capacity compared to secondary
memory.

2. Secondary Memory / Mass Storage

The contents of the secondary memory first get transferred to the
primary memory and then are accessed by the processor, this is because the
processor does not directly interact with the secondary memory. Now, Let's see
the difference between Primary memory and Secondary memory.
Types of Secondary Memory
• Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Magnetic storage device used for long-term data
storage. It is slower than SSD but offers large capacity.
• Solid-State Drive (SSD): Faster than HDD, uses flash memory for storage.
More durable and energy-efficient but typically more expensive.
• Optical Discs (CD/DVD): Store data using laser technology, commonly
used for media storage and software distribution.
• USB Flash Drive: Portable storage device using flash memory, widely
used for transferring and storing data.
• External Hard Drive: Similar to HDD, used for additional storage outside
the computer, portable and used for backups.
• Tape Drive: Magnetic storage device used mainly for backups; offers high
capacity but slower access speed.
Advantages of Secondary Memory
• Persistence: Retains data even without power.

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 • Large Capacity: Typically offers much more storage space than primary
memory.
Disadvantages of Secondary Memory
• Speed: Slower access compared to primary memory.
• Cost: Generally, more expensive than primary memory on a per-byte
basis.
Difference Between Primary and Secondary Memory

Primary memory Secondary memory

The primary memory of a

Secondary memory defines to
computer is the main
additional storage devices that are
memory that is utilized to
utilized to store data permanently.
store data temporarily.

Primary memory is
Secondary memory is permanent.
temporary.

Primary memory is faster

Secondary memory is non-volatile,
than secondary memory
which means it retains data even
because it is directly
when the power is off.
accessible to the CPU.

Primary memory is directly Secondary memory is not directly

accessible by Processor/CPU. accessible by the CPU.

Nature of Parts of Primary

memory varies, RAM-
It's always Non-volatile in nature.
volatile in nature. ROM- Non-
volatile.

Primary memory is volatile, Since it is non-volatile, data can be

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 Primary memory Secondary memory

which means it is wiped out retained in case of a power failure.

when the computer is turned
off.

Primary memory devices are Secondary memory devices are less

more expensive than expensive when compared to primary
secondary storage devices. memory devices.

The memory devices used for

The secondary memory devices are
primary memory are
magnetic and optical memories.
semiconductor memories.

It can hold data/information It can hold data/information that are

currently being used by the not currently being used by the
processing unit. processing unit.

It stores a considerable amount of

The capacity of primary
data and information. The capacity of
memory is usually within the
secondary memory ranges from 200
range of 16 to 32 GB.
GB to some terabytes.

Primary memory is also Secondary memory is also known as

known as Main memory or External memory or Auxiliary
Internal memory. memory.

It can be accessed by a data

It can be accessed using I/O channels.
bus.

Examples: RAM, ROM, Examples: HardDisk, Floppy

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 Primary memory Secondary memory

PROM, EPROM etc. Disk, Magnetic Tapes, etc.

Data Storage and Retrieval Methods

Data storage and retrieval are fundamental processes in computer
systems and information management, involving the methods and
technologies used to save data and access it later. Data storage can be
classified into different types, including primary (RAM, cache), secondary (hard
drives, SSDs), and tertiary (tapes, optical disks). Data retrieval methods vary
based on the storage type and include techniques like SQL queries, API
requests, and web scraping.

Data Storage Methods:

• Primary Storage: Fastest and most expensive, used for temporary data
during processing (RAM, cache).
• Secondary Storage: Most common, used for long-term data storage
(hard drives, SSDs).
• Tertiary Storage: Slowest and cheapest, used for backups and archives
(tapes, optical disks).
• File-based Storage: Data is stored as files (e.g., CSV, XML, JSON).
• Database-based Storage: Data is stored in structured formats within a
database system (e.g., SQL, NoSQL).
• Cloud-based Storage: Data is stored on remote servers accessible over
the internet (e.g., Amazon S3, Google Cloud Storage).

Data Retrieval Methods:

• SQL Queries: Using Structured Query Language to retrieve data from
relational databases.
• API Requests: Interacting with web APIs to retrieve data in a structured
format (e.g., JSON, XML).

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 • Web Scraping: Extracting data from websites by parsing HTML content.
• NoSQL Databases: Using specific query languages for retrieving data
from NoSQL databases.

Optimizing Data Storage and Retrieval:

• Choosing the right storage format: Selecting the appropriate format
(e.g., compression, encryption) based on data type and access patterns.
• Organizing and indexing data: Creating data structures (indexes) to
speed up data retrieval.
• Implementing caching and backup strategies: Utilizing caching for
frequently accessed data and implementing backup systems for data
protection.
• Monitoring and optimizing the system: Regularly monitoring
performance and adjusting storage and retrieval strategies as needed.

Information Retrieval Systems:

• Database: A structured collection of data.
• Search Mechanism: Tools and techniques for finding relevant
information within the database.
• User Interface: Allows users to interact with the system and submit
queries.
• Retrieval Techniques: Methods like Boolean, proximity, range, and fuzzy
searches to find specific data.

Primary Storage
The primary storage device is where the computer keeps the data it is
currently working with. It is a temporary holding area for the data which
computer needs right now different from secondary storage for long term data
storage.
Primary storage is very fast and close to the computer's processor. Common
examples are RAM (temporary workspace) and CPU cache(even faster storage
within the CPU itself).

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 • RAM (Random Access Memory): This Memory is like a temporary
workspace memory for the computer to store and retrieve the
information and data very fast.
• CPU Cache: This is an even more faster and the smaller storage area that
is part of the main processor (CPU) himself.

Types of Primary Storage Devices

Below are some types of primary storage devices.
• Read-Only Memory (ROM) : The ROM holds the instructions that tell the
computer how to start up or "Reboot" when you turn on the computer .
The information in ROM can not be changed and deleted. It is
permanent the ROM is used in the computers as well as the other
devices like the smart washing machines.
• Random Access Memory (RAM) : The RAM is the temporary workspace
for the computer to store the data while it is running programs and
doing the work. Information in the RAM goes away when you turn off
the computer. RAM allows you to quickly switch between the different
tasks like apps, documents, games and many more things without losing
your progress.
• Flash Memory : The Flash memory can store the data for a very long
time even when there is no power or charging. It is commonly used in
the portable USB drives, cameras, and the mobile devices to store the
files and data. The data remains into the flash memory until you delete
the data.

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 • Cache Memory: The cache is a very fast small memory area inside the
computers processor (CPU). It holds the data and instructions that are
needed frequently so the CPU can access them so quickly. The cache
memory is much faster than the RAM because it is close to the CPU.

RAM
What is RAM (Random Access Memory)?
It is one of the parts of the Main memory, also famously known as Read
Write Memory. Random Access memory is present on the motherboard and
the computer's data is temporarily stored in RAM. As the name says, RAM can
help in both reading and writing. RAM is a volatile memory, which means, it is
present as long as the Computer is in the ON state, as soon as the computer
turns OFF, the memory is erased.
How Does RAM Work?
RAM is made up of small transistors and capacitors that store electrical
charges representing data bits. Here’s how it works:
• Data Storage: RAM temporarily stores data needed by the CPU.
• Volatility: Data is lost when the power is turned off, so it’s important to
save work to permanent storage (e.g., hard drive or SSD).
• Speed: RAM is much faster than secondary storage, allowing quick
access to data.

ROM RAM

Non-volatile memory used for Volatile memory used for

permanent storage temporary storage

Generally slower than RAM High-speed access

Primarily read-only Read and write operations

ROM can hold more than just RAM can be stored in gigabytes

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ROM RAM

megabytes

Data accessible is less difficult but more

Data accessibility is easy
restrictive

Cheaper than RAM High cost as compared to ROM

Used for the permanent storage of data Used for temporary storage of data

Features of RAM
• RAM is volatile, meaning that the data is erased when the device is
turned off.
• It is referred to as the primary memory of the computer, as it directly
supports the CPU during operation.
• RAM is relatively expensive because it allows for fast, direct access to
data.
• As the fastest type of memory, RAM serves as internal memory within
the computer, enabling quick data retrieval.
• The overall speed of the computer is greatly influenced by the amount of
RAM. With less RAM, the computer takes longer to load and may slow
down significantly.
Types of RAM
1. SRAM (Static Random Access memory)
SRAM is used for Cache memory, it can hold the data as long as the
power availability is there. It is refreshed simultaneously to store the present
information. It is made with CMOS technology. It contains 4 to 6 transistors and
it also uses clocks. It does not require a periodic refresh cycle due to the
presence of transistors. Although SRAM is faster, it requires more power and is
more expensive. Since SRAM requires more power, more heat is lost here as

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well, another drawback of SRAM is that it can not store more bits per chip, for
instance, for the same amount of memory stored in DRAM, SRAM would
require one more chip.
Characteristics of SRAM
• SRAM is used as the Cache memory inside the computer.
• SRAM is known to be the fastest among all memories.
• SRAM is costlier.
• SRAM has a lower density (number of memory cells per unit area).
• The power consumption of SRAM is less but when it is operated at
higher frequencies, the power consumption of SRAM is compatible with
DRAM.
2. DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access memory)
DRAM is used for the Main memory, it has a different construction than
SRAM, it uses one transistor and one capacitor (also known as a conductor),
which is needed to get recharged in milliseconds due to the presence of the
capacitor. Dynamic RAM was the first sold memory integrated circuit. DRAM is
the second most compact technology in production (the First is Flash Memory).
DRAM has one transistor and one capacitor in 1 memory bit. Although DRAM is
slower, it can store more bits per chip, for instance, for the same amount of
memory stored in SRAM, DRAM requires one less chip. DRAM requires less
power and hence, less heat is produced.
Characteristics of DRAM
• DRAM is used as the Main Memory inside the computer.
• DRAM is known to be a fast memory but not as fast as SRAM.
• DRAM is cheaper as compared to SRAM.
• DRAM has a higher density (number of memory cells per unit area)
• The power consumption by DRAM is more
Types of DRAM
• SDRAM
• DDR SDRAM: (Double Data Rate)

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 • ECC DRAM: (Error Correcting Code)
• RDRAM
• DDR2, DDR3, AND DDR4
Advantages of RAM
• Speed: RAM is faster than other types of storage like ROM, hard drives or
SSDs, allowing for quick access to data and smooth performance of
applications.
• Multitasking: More RAM allows a computer to handle multiple
applications simultaneously without slowing down.
• Flexibility: RAM can be easily upgraded, enhancing a computer’s
performance and extending its usability.
• Volatile Storage: RAM automatically clears its data when the computer is
turned off, reducing the risk of unwanted data accumulation.
Disadvantages of RAM
• Volatility: Data stored in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off,
which means important data must be saved to permanent storage.
• Cost: RAM can be more expensive per gigabyte compared to other
storage options like hard drives or SSDs.
• Limited Storage: RAM has a limited capacity, so it cannot store large
amounts of data permanently.
• Power Consumption: RAM requires continuous power to retain data,
contributing to the overall power consumption of the device.
• Physical Space: Increasing RAM requires physical space in the computer,
which might be limited to smaller devices like laptops and tablets.

ROM
What is Read-Only Memory (ROM)?
ROM stands for Read-Only Memory. It is a non-volatile memory was used
to operate the system. As its name refers to read-only memory, we can only
read the stored programs and data.
• Information stored in ROM is permanent.

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 • Information and programs are stored on ROM in binary format (0s and
1s).
• It is used in the start-up process of the computer.
Evolution of ROM Technology
The development of ROM has seen key advancements over the years:

Year Type Key Advancement Use Cases

Mask ROM Hardwired during Early calculators,

1956
(MROM) manufacturing embedded systems

One-time programmable
1956 PROM Custom firmware
by users

Erasable with UV light,

1971 EPROM Legacy computer BIOS
reprogrammable

Electrically erasable, Microcontrollers, car key

1983 EEPROM
reusable fobs

Flash Block-level erasure, high USB drives, SSDs,

1984
Memory speed smartphones

Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM Type Erasure Method Reprogrammable Use Cases/Examples

Mask ROM Hardwired during Early embedded

No
(MROM) manufacturing systems, firmware

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ROM Type Erasure Method Reprogrammable Use Cases/Examples

One-time Custom firmware for

PROM No
programming specific applications

Firmware updates,
EPROM UV light Yes (with UV) legacy computer
systems

Microcontrollers, BIOS,
EEPROM Electrical signals Yes small firmware
updates

USB drives, SSDs,

Flash Block-level
Yes memory cards,
Memory electrical erasure
smartphones

FPGA, CPLD, custom

PLD-ROM Configurable logic Yes
hardware logic

PROM
A programmable read-only memory may be a frame of advanced
memory where the setting of each bit is bolted by a meld or anti-fuse. It is one
sort of ROM. The information in them is changeless and cannot be changed.
PROM could be a sort of ROM that's modified after the memory is built. PROM
chips have a few diverse applications, counting cell phones, video amusement
supports, RFID labels, restorative gadgets, and other gadgets. They give a
straightforward implies of programming electronic gadgets
Applications of PROM
• Mobile Phones for giving Client Particular Selections.
• Implantable Restorative devices.

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 • Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)tags.
• High definition Multimedia Interfaces(HDMI)
Characteristics of PROM
• It has programmable random access memory
• In prom And gates are fixed and or gates are programmable
• Prom Works as a memory
• It is not reusable.
• The storage endurance of PROM is high
• few functions can be actualized(it is effective when the work to be
implemented(i.e., the min terms) must have all the variables.
Advantages of PROM
• The programming can be done utilizing numerous sorts of program and
does not depend on difficult wiring of the program to the chip.
• Since it isn't conceivable to un-blow the intertwine, so the realness of
the information remains intaglio and it is outlandish to evacuate or
modify the substance.
• PROM retrieve data even when the power is turned off, confirming that
important information is not lost.
Disadvantages of PROM
• PROM is that the data once burnt cannot be deleted or changed when
recognized with errors.

EPROM
It is a memory chip that is non-volatile in nature that is it can hold the
data even after the power supply is stopped. It can be reused again and again
as it is easily programmable and erasable. A chip that uses ultraviolet (UV) light
to write and erase data is called an EPROM Each transistor in the array that
makes up the chip has the capacity to store a small amount of data. A
specialized tool known as a programmer is used to program these
transistors by applying high voltage to the chip to store data. The chip is

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exposed to UV radiation when it becomes essential to erase the data, which
resets all of the transistors to their initial states.
Types of EPROM Technology
• UV-EPROM: Programming a UV-EPROM requires a high voltage. As the
name suggests it is removed by passing UV light through the chip's
window. The majority of UV-EPROM chips have a 20-year data retention
period and a high read cycle count.
• One-Time Programmable (OTP) EPROM: EPROM that can be
programmed once (OTP). With one significant exception an OTP EPROM
is comparable to a UV-EPROM: it lacks a UV light window and is hence
difficult to erase. OTP EPROMs can occasionally be completely deleted
using X-rays in their starting point.
Characteristics
• Each and every EPROM is programmed by electronic devices.
• The data contained in EPROM is erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.
• EPROM can store data minimum for 10-20 years.
• Erasing window is kept covered to avoid unwanted exposure to UV light
to avoid accidental loss of data.
Advantages
• Easily erasable and programmable.
• Quite effective - As memory data can be erased again and again for use,
therefore it eliminates the need of other external memory.
Disadvantages
• A particular selected data is not deleted instead whole data gets erased
which is the cause of worry for the user.
• User needs to keep backup as whole data gets erased.
• It needs UV light to erase the data which is very rare.
• Process of erasing data is quite complex.

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 EEPROM
EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory. EEPROM is a type of non-volatile primary memory and modified
version of EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) which uses
electrical signals to erase and program the contents rather than UV signals
which was used previously in EPROM. It is used as a chip in computers to store
the digital data. There are two types of EEPROM:
• Serial EEPROM
• Parallel EEPROM
Characteristics
• Less time consuming: EEPROM takes 5-10 milliseconds to erase the
content electronically unlike, EPROM takes minutes to erase the same
content using UV signals.
• Programmable and erasable content: It can reprogrammed n number of
times and that life cycle has to be defined by the manufacture and it can
be maximum of 1 million life cycles in modern EEPROMs.
• No detaching of chip: To reprogram or erase the content, there is no
need to take the chip out of the computer.
Advantages
• Fast erasing of data as it uses electrical signals and can erase all contents
or can erase by particular byte.
• Data stored is non-volatile and retains even if the power is off.
• Easy to reprogram without taking it out from computer and does not
require any additional equipment’s for reprogramming.
Disadvantages
• Data retention problem as insulator used is not a perfect insulator and
manufacture provides data retention upto 10 years.
• It requires different voltages for reading, writing and erasing the content.

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 Secondary storage
The storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to
store the information and instructions to be processed. A storage device is an
integral part of the computer hardware which stores information/data to
process the result of any computational work. Without a storage device, a
computer would not be able to run or even boot up. Or in other words, we can
say that a storage device is hardware that is used for storing, porting, or
extracting data files. It can also store information/data both temporarily and
permanently.

Magnetic Taps
Magnetic drums, magnetic tape and magnetic disks are types of
magnetic memory. These memories use property for magnetic memory. Here,
we have explained about magnetic tape in brief. Magnetic Tape memory: In
magnetic tape only one side of the ribbon is used for storing data. It is
sequential memory which contains thin plastic ribbon to store data and coated
by magnetic oxide. Data read/write speed is slower because of sequential
access. It is highly reliable which requires magnetic tape drive writing and
reading data.

The width of the ribbon varies from 4mm to 1 Inch and it has storage capacity
100 MB to 200 GB. Let’s see various advantages and disadvantages of Magnetic
Tape memory.
Advantages:
1. These are inexpensive, i.e., low-cost memories.
2. It provides backup or archival storage.
3. It can be used for large files.
4. It can be used for copying from disk files.

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 5. It is a reusable memory.
6. It is compact and easy to store on racks.
Disadvantages:
1. Sequential access is the disadvantage, means it does not allow access
randomly or directly.
2. It requires caring to store, i.e., vulnerable humidity, dust free, and
suitable environment.
3. It stored data cannot be easily updated or modified, i.e., difficult to make
updates on data.

Magnetic disks
A magnetic disk, commonly known as a hard disk drive (HDD), is a data
storage device that uses magnetic storage to store and retrieve digital
information. It consists of one or more rigid, rotating platters coated with
magnetic material. Data is written and read by a read/write head that moves
over the platters, magnetizing or demagnetizing spots on the surface to
represent binary data (0s and 1s).

Key Features of Magnetic Disks:

• Storage Capacity: Magnetic disks can store large amounts of data,
making them suitable for storing operating systems, applications, and
large files.
• Durability: They are generally more durable than other storage media
like floppy disks, but still susceptible to damage from drops, impacts, and
magnetic fields.
• Cost-effectiveness: HDDs are relatively inexpensive per unit of storage
compared to other storage options like SSDs.

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 • Secondary Storage: Magnetic disks are considered secondary storage
devices, meaning they are not part of the main system memory (RAM)
but are used for long-term data storage.
• Random Access: They allow for random access to data, meaning the
read/write head can quickly move to any location on the disk to retrieve
information.
How it Works:
1. Platters: The core of a magnetic disk is made of one or more circular
platters, usually made of aluminium or glass, coated with a magnetic
material.
2. Tracks and Sectors: The magnetic surface of each platter is divided into
concentric circles called tracks, and these tracks are further divided into
sectors.
3. Read/Write Head: A read/write head moves over the platters, either
writing data by magnetizing specific spots or reading data by detecting
the magnetic state of those spots.
4. Spindle: The platters are mounted on a spindle that rotates them at high
speeds, allowing the read/write head to access different locations on the
disk.
5. Binary Representation: Data is represented as a series of magnetic
"spots" on the disk, with each spot representing a binary digit (bit) –
either a 1 or a 0.

Cartridge tape
Cartridge tape is a type of secondary storage device used for long-term
data storage and archiving. It's a cost-effective and high-capacity method for
backing up and storing large amounts of data, particularly in situations where
quick access is not the primary concern.
Here's a breakdown:
• Secondary Storage:
Cartridge tapes are considered secondary storage because they are non-
volatile, meaning data is retained even when the device is powered off, unlike
primary storage like RAM.

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 • How it works:
Data is stored magnetically on a tape housed within a cartridge, and a tape
drive is used to read and write data sequentially.
• Applications:
Tape cartridges are frequently used for backing up large datasets, archiving
records, and disaster recovery purposes. They are especially useful in industries
where long-term data retention is essential and cost is a major factor.
• Advantages:
Tape cartridges offer high capacity, low cost per unit of storage, and long-term
data retention.
• Disadvantages:
They have slower access times compared to other storage options like hard
drives, as data is accessed sequentially.
• Examples:
Common tape formats include LTO (Linear Tape-Open).

Hard Disk
A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a storage device that uses magnetic
technology to store and retrieve digital data. It consists of spinning platters
coated with a magnetic material and a read/write (R-W) head that moves to
access data.
The disk is divided into tracks, and each track is further divided into sectors.
Interestingly, even though the outer tracks are larger than the inner tracks,
they contain the same number of sectors. This happens because the inner
tracks have higher storage density, meaning the data is packed more tightly,
while the outer tracks have more space between bits.
Some space in each sector is used for formatting, so the actual storage
available is slightly less than the total capacity. The R-W head moves over the
rotating disk to read and write data. To access a specific memory location, the
head must be positioned correctly, which affects the speed of data retrieval.

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How HDDs Work?
Most basic hard drives are made up of numerous disk platters, which are
circular disks composed of aluminium, glass, or ceramic that are arranged
around a spindle inside a sealed chamber
• Platters spin at high speeds (typically 5,400 to 15,000 RPM).
• Read/Write heads move to the correct track and position themselves
over the sector containing data.
• Magnetic signals are written to or read from the spinning platters.
• The disk controller processes data and transfers it to the computer.
Hard Disk Drive Components and Form Factors
• Platters: Magnetic platters are disk-like in shape and used to store data.
Typically, they are made from glass or aluminium and laid down on a
spindle where layers of such disks are kept one after the other.
• Spindle: The spindle maintains the platters in place and rotates them as
required. The Revolution Per Minute(RPM) rating controls how fast data
can be written to and read from the hard drive.
• Actuator Arm: The actuator, also known as the head actuator, is a tiny
motor that controls the movement of the read/write head and monitors
data transfer between the platters. It is in charge of ensuring that the
read/write heads are always in the proper direction.

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 • Read/write Head: The read/write arm controls the movement of the
read/write heads, that perform the actual reading and writing on the
disc platters.
Features of HDD
• Non-Volatile: Data remains stored even when the power is off, making it
ideal for long-term storage.
• High Capacity: Can store large amounts of data, with modern HDDs
reaching terabytes in size.
• Relatively Slow: Slower than RAM, with access times in milliseconds,
making it better for storage than frequent data access.
• Mechanical Parts: Contains spinning disks and moving read/write heads,
which can wear out or get damaged.
• Cost-Effective: Cheaper than SSDs, especially for high-capacity storage.
• Reliable: Despite mechanical parts, HDDs are durable and widely used
for enterprise storage.

Floppy Disk
Floppy disks also known as floppy diskettes, floppy disks or floppy disks,
are a type of storage medium that can read data storage information and are
used to store electronic data. Unlike CD-ROM, it was 8 inches in diameter when
it was initially created, and users could not write data to it.
Although later versions of this disk could hold up to 800KB of data, it could only
hold 80KB at a time. These days, network file transfers and USB devices have
taken the position of floppy disks, however they are no longer in use.

Usage of Floppy Disk

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 • Floppy disks were the sole means to install new software and create data
backups on early computers as they lacked USB and CD-ROM (compact
disk read-only memory) drives.
• Installing the program from a single 3.5" floppy disk was possible if it was
small—less than 1.44 MB. Nonetheless, diskettes were often needed
because the majority of programs were bigger than 1.44 MB.
• Users also frequently stored and backed up their files on floppy disks.
• A word processing file, for instance, may be saved as a backup or
transferred to a floppy disk and used on a different machine.
How Does a Floppy Disk Work?
• Data is magnetically stored on the circular platter surface of a floppy
disk.
• A read/write head within the drive reads data that has been encoded
onto the platter by moving over it.
• After that, the drive converts these bits into text, images, or music that
the computer's CPU can understand.
• The magnetic polarity used by the read/write head is either 0 or 1.
• The computer can interpret this as binary data and determine what is on
the platter.
• The read/write head aligns the magnetic polarities so that the computer
may write data to the platter—0s and 1s that can be decoded by another
device later on.
Types of Floppy Disk
• 8-inch Drive
• Zip Drive
• 3.5" Drive
• 5.25" Drive
Advantages of Floppy Disk
• Flexibility and comparably
• Less cost
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 • Compose Protection
• Boot Disk
Disadvantages of Floppy Disk
• smaller capacity
• Dependability
• Easily Broke
• Data Deletion

Optical Disk
Optical Disk is a storage medium that relies on laser technology to read
and write data, in shape, it is a flat circular disk which is made up of
polycarbonate or a similar material with a very shiny reflective layer on the
surface. they are mainly used for sharing, storing and backup Data as they have
a great life span and capacity compared to older technologies like floppy disks.

Applications of Optical Disk

• Data Security
• Software Distribution
• Data Transfer
• Medical Imaging
• Educational Resources
• Offline Navigation Type of Optical Disk

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Types
1. Compact Disc (CD)
Compact disk is Optical Disk which are used mainly for storing music, software
and compact data on average they offer storage capacity of 400 to 800 MB
they are available in three types:
• CD-ROM (Compact Disc-Read Only Memory)
• CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable)
• CD-RW (Compact Disc-ReWritable
2. Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
Digital Versatile Disc are Optical Disk which are used mainly for storing movies,
games, and larger data files, they hold storage capacity of 4.7 GB - 18 Giga-byte
(GB). they are also available in three types:
• DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disc-Read Only Memory)
• DVD-R (Digital Versatile Disc-Recordable)
• DVD-RW (Digital Versatile Disc-ReWritable)
3. Blu-ray Disc (BD)
Blu-ray Disc are Optical Disk offering the highest capacity and resolution to user
so are used mainly for storing large movies, large games and also for the
archiving purposes they hold the vast storage capacity of 25 GB - 128 GB Giga-
byte (GB) they also available in three types:
• BD-ROM (Blu-ray Disc-Read Only Memory)
• BD-R (Blu-ray Disc-Recordable)
• BD-RW (Blu-ray Disc-ReWritable)
How they work:
• Optical disks store data as microscopic pits and lands on a reflective
surface.
• A laser beam in the optical drive reads these pits and lands, interpreting
the variations in reflected light as binary data (0s and 1s).

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 • The disk spins while the laser reads the data, and a photo sensor detects
the reflected light to decode the information.
Advantages of Optical Disk
• High Storage Capacity
• Durability
• Scratch Resistance
• Healthcare
• Government
Disadvantages of Optical Disk
• Slower Access Speeds
• Vulnerability
• Limited Rewrite ability
• Dependency on Specific Hardware
• Environmental Concerns

Compact Disk
It stores data and it has circular plastic, a single side of the plastic is
coated by aluminium alloy which stores data. It is protected by an additional
thin plastic covering. CD requires a CD drive for its operation. A CD could store
much more data than a personal computer hard drive. The CD has storage
typically up to 700 MB (up to 80 minutes audio).

Types of Compact Disk (CD) Optical Memory

1. CD-Read-Only Memory
The CD-ROM reached the market in 1985, expanding beyond audio to record
optical data storage. CD-ROMs can be read by any computer that has a CD-
ROM drive. The Yellow Book standard is followed by the CD-ROM.

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2. CD-interactive
CD-i, which was released in 1993, could be played on CD players but not in a
CD-ROM drive. The format was then adjusted so that it could be read by both.
The CD-i adheres to the Green Book criteria.
3. CD-Rewritable
The metallic alloy used in the CD-RW reflected differently than normal compact
discs. Because of this shift in reflectivity, a CD-RW was rendered unreadable by
many early CD players. The Orange Book standard is followed by the CD-RW.
4. CD-Recordable
A compact disc (CD-R) is a disc that can be written to once and read numerous
times. It follows the Orange Book, like the CD-RW, but unlike the CD-RW,
the CD-R can be read by CD players released prior to its own introduction.
5. CD-ROM extended Architecture
The CD-ROM XA is an expansion of the conventional CD-ROM that permits
simultaneous access to audio, video, and computer data. It adheres to the
Yellow Book standard and was designed as a bridge between CD-ROM and CD-i.
6. Photo CD
The photo CD was invented by Kodak for the sole purpose of storing
photographs in a digital format that could be accessed and altered on a
computer. It first appeared in 1992 and was intended to carry 100 high-quality
photos. It adhered to the Beige Book standard.
7. Video CD
The video CD, or VCD, was developed in 1993 in accordance with the White
Book standard. VCD quality was designed to be equal to VHS recordings,
however it has far lesser resolution than a current digital video disk (DVD).
Advantages of Compact Disk (CD)
• Portable: CDs are more compact and lightweight, they are easier to store
and travel.
• Reliable: In that time, an entire software can be stored on one CD, so its
very reliable for the software industries in the days.

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 • Multiple Applications: It is also adaptable. The higher capacity of the
compact disc was exploited for uses other than storing digital audio. CDs
became a popular media for distributing home films, software packages,
and other digital content.
• Random Access: CD provides random data access. Users can use this
random access to choose music tracks, specific files or data, or explore a
menu via a user interface.
• Rewritable Formats: Another benefit of compact discs is the availability
of rewritable versions such as CD-R and CD-RW.
Disadvantages of Compact Disk (CD)
• Inferior Capacity: CDs have more storage capacity than their
predecessors, but subsequent storage mediums have more capacity.
Storage capacity is lower than a hard drive or DVD, nowadays CD is not
used at all.
• Older Technology: A compact disc's limitation stems from its older read
and write mechanism technology, which is based on 780nm wavelength.
• Inferior Quality: It should be noted that audio-video files with higher
audio and video quality can be stored on DVDs and Blu-ray Discs.
• Durability Issues: Magnetic tapes are less durable than CDs. However, it
is still fragile because it is easily scratched if not treated carefully. When
exposed to severe heat and humidity, it might deform and become
unusable.
• Obsolete Medium: Another issue of CDs is that they have become
obsolete as better storage methods have become available.
• It's also worth noting that compact discs aren't suitable for backup
storage because of their limited storage capacity, susceptibility to
breakage, and obsolescence. It is preferable to use hard drives or solid-
state drives.

Zip Drive
A Zip drive is a secondary storage device that uses removable magnetic
disks called Zip disks. It was introduced in the mid-1990s as a higher-capacity
alternative to floppy disks. Zip drives come in both internal and external

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models, and Zip disks were initially available in 100MB and 250MB capacities,
with later versions reaching 750MB.

Key characteristics of Zip drives and Zip disks:

• Removable storage: Zip disks could be inserted and removed from the
drive, allowing users to easily transport files and back up data.
• Higher capacity than floppy disks: Zip disks offered significantly more
storage space than traditional floppy disks, making them suitable for
storing larger files and applications.
• Magnetic storage: Zip disks, like floppy disks and hard drives, used
magnetic storage to store data.
• Internal and external options: Zip drives could be installed internally
within a computer or connected externally via a cable.
• Legacy technology: While popular for a time, Zip drives and Zip disks are
now considered legacy technology due to the advent of newer, higher-
capacity storage solutions.
• Data transfer: Zip drives could transmit data to the computer using
various interfaces, including IDE, SCSI, parallel port, and USB.
• Similar appearance to floppy disks: Zip disks were roughly the same size
as 3.5-inch floppy disks but were thicker and housed in a more robust
plastic casing.

Flash Drives
USB flash drives are considered secondary storage devices. They are
portable, rewritable, and use flash memory to store data, allowing users to
easily transfer and store files. Unlike primary storage (like RAM), secondary
storage devices retain data even when the computer is turned off.

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Here's why flash drives fit the definition of secondary storage:
• Non-volatile: Data on a flash drive is preserved even when the power is
off.
• External: They connect to a computer via a USB port, making them
external to the main system memory.
• Permanent storage: They provide a means to store files, applications,
and even the operating system long-term.
• Examples: Common examples of secondary storage include hard drives,
solid-state drives, and USB flash drives.

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