WS / HW / / RS /657 : 2019 - 2020: TERM: I/II
NAME________________________ CLASS: 10 DIV: A B C D F ROLL NO.: ____ DATE: ____________
SUBJECT: Biology TOPIC: inheritance notes TEACHER’S NAME: Ms. Seema Bajpai
Note: This sheet can be assessed. MARKS / GRADE: ___
____________________________________________________________________________
Key definitions-
• inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.
• The Inheritance of such characteristics is called heredity and the branch of biology that studies how
heredity works is called genetics.
• chromosome is a thread-like structure of DNA, carrying genetic information in the form of genes
• gene is a length of DNA that codes for a protein
• allele is a version of a gene
Chromosomes
The cell’s nucleus contains chromosomes. These are long threads of DNA, each made up of many genes.
A human body (somatic) cell nucleus contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.
These are difficult to distinguish when packed inside the nucleus, so scientists separate them and arranged
them according to size and appearance. The outcome is called karyotype.
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Human karyotype: chromosome 1 to 22 pairs are body chromosomes, 23rd pair is sex
chromosome, which is XX in females and XY in males
Human cells contain 46 chromosomes, which are in pairs. Gametes or Sex cells (sperm and ova) contain
only 23 chromosomes. The 23 chromosomes comprise one from each pair.
Number of chromosomes:
• Haploid nucleus: is a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes present, for
example, in sperm and egg cells.
• Diploid nucleus: is a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes present, for example, in body
cells.
• In a diploid cell, there is a pair of each type of chromosome and in a human diploid cell there are 23
pairs.
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Inheritance of sex in humans
Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes present is each human cell, one pair is the sex chromosomes. These
determine the sex of the individual. Male have XY, female have XX. So the presence of a Y chromosome
results in male features developing.
The gametes contain 23 single chromosomes, and therefore only one of the two sex chromosomes that
exist in normal body cells.
In females, all gametes contain an ‘X’ chromosome (she has no other type to give).
In males, 50% of the gametes contain an ‘X’ chromosome and 50% contain a ‘Y’ chromosome.
There is an exactly equal chance of the ‘X’ chromosomes in the ovum:
(i) Fusing with an ‘X’-carrying sperm to produce a daughter, or
(ii) Fusing with a ‘Y’-carrying sperm to produce a son.
This can be explained using genetic diagram-
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DNA-Each chromosome contains one very long molecule of DNA. The DNA molecule carries a code that
instructs the cell about which kind of proteins it should make. Each chromosome carries instructions for
making many different proteins.
DNA double helical structure
showing complementary bases
Base pairs
Each strand of DNA is made of chemicals called bases. Note that these are different to bases in relation to
acids and alkalis in chemistry. There are four different bases in DNA:
• thymine, T
• adenine, A
• guanine, G
• cytosine, C
There are chemical cross-links between the two strands in DNA, formed by pairs of bases. They always
pair up in a particular way, called complementary base pairing:
• thymine pairs with adenine (T–A)
• guanine pairs with cytosine (G–C)
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The genetic code:
• Each nucleotide carries one of four bases (A, T, C or G). a string of nucleotides therefore holds a sequence
of bases. This sequence forms a code, which instructs the cell to make particular proteins.
• Proteins are made from amino acids linked together. The type and sequence of the amino acids joined
together will determine the kind of protein formed.
• Its is the sequence of bases in the DNA molecule that decides which amino acids are used and in which
order they are joined. Each group of three bases stands for one amino acid.
• A gene, then, is a sequence of triplets of the four bases, which specifies an entire protein.
• The chemical reactions that take place in a cell determine what sort of a cell it is and what its functions are.
These chemical reactions are, in turn, controlled by enzymes.
• Enzymes are proteins. It follows, therefore, that the genetic code of DNA, in determining which proteins,
particularly enzymes, are produced in a cell, also determines the cell’s structure and function. In this way,
the genes also determine the structure and function of the whole organism.
• Other proteins coded for in DNA include antibodies and the receptors for neurotransmitters.
The manufacture of proteins in cells:
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• DNA molecules remain in the nucleus, but the proteins they carry the codes for are needed elsewhere in
the cell. A molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to transfer the information from the nucleus.
• mRNA is much smaller than a DNA molecule and is made up of only one strand. Also it contains slightly
different bases (A,C,G and U). Base U is uracil.
• To pass on the protein code, the double helix of DNA unwinds to expose the chains of bases.
• One strand acts as template. A messenger RNA molecule is formed along part of this strand, made up of a
chain of nucleotides with complementary bases to a section of the DNA strand.
• The mRNA molecule carrying the protein code then passes out of the nucleus, through a nuclear pore in
the membrane. Once in the cytoplasm it attaches itself to a ribosome.
• Ribosomes make proteins. The mRNA molecule instructs the ribosomes to put together a chain of amino
acids in a specific sequence, thus making a protein.
In short-
• the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
• mRNA molecules carry a copy of the gene to the cytoplasm
• the mRNA passes through ribosomes
• the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein molecules
• the specific order of amino acids is determined by the sequence of bases in the mRNA
Gene expression:
• Body cells do not all have the same requirements for proteins. For example, the function of some cells in
the stomach is to make the protein pepsin. Bone marrow cells make the protein haemoglobin, but do not
need digestive enzymes.
• Specialised cells all contain the same genes in their nuclei, but only the genes needed to code for the
specific proteins are switched on (expressed). This enables the cell to make only the proteins it needs to
fulfil its function.
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Mitosis (key definition): is nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells.
• Cells have a finite life: they wear out or become damaged, so they need to be replaced constantly.
• The processes of growth, repair and replacement of cells all rely on mitosis.
• Organisms that reproduce asexually also use mitosis to create more cells.
The process of mitosis:
• Each chromosome duplicates itself and is seen to be made up of two parallel strands, called
chromatids.
• When the nucleus divides into two, one chromatid from each chromosomes and later they will make
copies of themselves ready for the next cell division.
• The process of copying is called replication because each chromosome makes a replica of itself.
• Mitosis produces two genetically identical cells in which the number of chromosomes is the same
as in the original cell.
• Stem cells are unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to produce daughter cells that can become
specialised for specific functions
• Examples are the basal cells of the skin, which keep dividing to make new skin cells, and cells in the
red bone marrow, which constantly divide to produce the whole range of blood cells.
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Meiosis (key definition): is nuclear division, which gives rise to cells that are genetically different.
• Meiosis takes place in the gonads of animals (eg. the testes and ovaries of mammals)
• The cells formed are gametes (sperm and egg cells in mammals). Gametes are different from other
cells because they have half the normal number of chromosomes (they are haploid).
• Meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells. Unlike mitosis, meiosis is a reduction
division – the chromosome number is halved from diploid
• As a result of meiosis and fertilisation, the maternal and paternal chromosomes meet in different
combinations in the zygotes. Consequently, the offspring will differ from their parents and from each
other in a variety of ways.
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Comparison between mitosis and meiosis
Alleles
• There are pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of a body cell. The chromosomes in a pair carry the
same genes in the same places. But there are different versions of the same gene.
• Different versions of the same gene are called alleles. For example, the gene for eye colour has an
allele for blue eye colour and an allele for brown eye colour. For any gene, a person may have the
same two alleles or two different ones.
•
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Dominant or recessive alleles
Alleles may be either dominant or recessive:
• A dominant allele is always expressed, even if the individual only has one copy of it. For example,
the allele for brown eyes is dominant. You only need one copy of it to have brown eyes. Two copies will
still give you brown eyes.
• A recessive allele is only expressed if the individual has two copies of it and does not have the
dominant allele of that gene. For example, the allele for blue eyes is recessive. You need two copies of
this allele to have blue eyes.
Key definitions-
• genotype is the genetic make-up of an organism in terms of the alleles present
• phenotype is the observable features of an organism
• homozygous is having two identical alleles of a particular gene. Two identical homozygous
individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding
• heterozygous is having two different alleles of a particular gene. A heterozygous individual will not
be pure-breeding
• dominant is an allele that is expressed if it is present
• recessive is an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present
Pedigree diagrams and inheritance:
Pedigree diagrams are similar to family trees and can be used to demonstrate how genetic diseases can be
inherited.
They include symbols to indicate whether individuals are male or female and what their genotype is for a
particular genetic characteristic.
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Pedigree diagram showing inheritance of colour blindness -
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Genetic Diagrams-
the example given below shows a genetic cross between a homozygous tall plant with a dwarf
plant-
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Testcross:
1. the organism with the dominant trait is always crossed with an organism with the recessive trait
2. if ANY offspring show the recessive trait, the unknown genotype is heterozygous
3. if ALL the offspring have the dominant trait, the unknown genotype is homozygous dominant
4. large numbers of offspring are needed for reliable results
Example: Of the brown mice in the F2 generation in the example given below, approximately one-third of
them will be homozygous dominant (BB), and two- thirds will be heterozygous (Bb). There is no way of
telling from their phenotype which type they are. Therefore, a test (or ‘back’) cross is performed.
In a test cross, the individual is mated with a homozygous recessive (bb) partner.
If the individual is heterozygous (Bb):
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Co-dominance:
If both genes of an allelomorphic pair produce their effects in an individual (ie. neither allele is dominant to
the other) the alleles are said to be co-dominant.
The inheritance of the human ABO blood groups provides an example of codominance.
The gene controlling human ABO blood groups has three alleles, not just two:
• I^A and I^B are not dominant over one another
• both are dominant over I^O
The table shows the possible genotypes (alleles present) and phenotypes (blood group).
Since the alleles for groups A and B are dominant to that for group O, a group A person could have the
genotype I^AI^A or I^AI^O. Similarly for group B. There are no alternative genotypes for groups AB and O.
Example genetic diagram-
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Sex linkage:
Sex-linked characteristic is one in which the gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome,
which makes it more common in one sex than the other.
Colour blindness is an example:
• In the following case, the mother is a carrier of colorblindness (X^CX^c). This means she shows no
symptoms of colour blindness, but the recessive allele causing color blindness is present on one of
her X chromosomes.
• The father has normal colour vision (X^CY).
• If the gene responsible for a particular condition is present only on the Y chromosome, only males
can suffer from the condition because females do not possess the Y chromosome.
• F1 genotypes: X^CX^C X^CX^c X^CY X^cY
• F1 phenotypes: 2 females with normal vision; 2 males, one with normal vision, one with colour
blindness.
Draw the genetic cross for above example here -
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