Practice notes: Fields and Galois Theory
We denote 0 as additive identity and 1 as multiplicative identity.
Definition of Ring:
A Ring R is a non-empty set equipped with two binary operations “+” and “·”
such that the following are true:
(i) R is an abelian group under “+”.
(ii) R is closed under multiplication.
(iii) “·” is distributive over “+” i.e for any a, b, c ∈ R, a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c).
(iv) 1 ̸= 0 (if 1 ∈ R)
(v) If 1 ∈ R, for ∀ x ∈ R, 1 · x = x · 1 = x
A field F is a commutative ring with 1 such that for every non-zero element in
F, there exists a multiplicative inverse.
Commutative ring 1∈F
FIELD
α ∈ F \{0} =⇒ ∃ α−1 ∈ F such that α · α−1 = α−1 · α = 1
In other words F × = F \{0} is an abelian group under multiplication!
Now we are going to encounter one of the first invariants associated with field
F which is characteristic and we will now observe the following behaviour in F:
As F is a field, 1F ∈ F =⇒ 1F +1F ∈ F =⇒ (1F +1F )+1F = (1F +1F +1F ) ∈
F.... =⇒ (1F + 1F + .... n times ) ∈ F i.e F contains additive subgroup
generated by 1F
So let us define n · 1F = (1F + 1F + .... n times )
1
n · 1F is distinct for every positive integer n
There are two possibilities:
∃ n ∈ Z+ such that n · 1F = 0
CHARACTERISTIC OF A FIELD: DEFINITION
A characteristic of a field, denoted by Ch(F ) is the smallest positive integer “p”
such that (p · 1F ) = 0 if such a “p” exists or Ch(F ) = 0 otherwise.
Examples :
(i) Fields Q and R have characteristic 0 each.
(ii) Finite field Z/pZ has characteristic “p” for any prime “p”.
(iii) The integral domain Fp [x] wth polynomials in variable x with coefficients
in Fp has characteristic p.
Define (−n) · 1F = −(n · 1F ) = additive inverse of (n · 1F )
Proposition 1: The characteristic of a field F is either 0 or a prime “p”.
Proof: Given a field F, we can have two possibilities :
(i)Ch(F ) = 0 (nothing needs to be explained further)
(ii)Ch(F ) ̸= 0 =⇒ ∃ n ∈ Z+ such that n is the smallest positive integer such
that n · 1F = 0. Suppose n is composite =⇒ n = rs where r, s ∈ / {0, 1, n}.
Thus n · 1F = 0 =⇒ (r · s) · 1F = 0 =⇒ r · (s · 1F ) = 0.
Now as 0 < s < n =⇒ (s · 1F ) ̸= 0. Thus ∃ α ∈ F such that α is mult. inv. of
(s · 1F ). Thus r · (s · 1F ) · α = 0 =⇒ r = 0 ( =⇒ ⇐=)
We can see a natural ring homomorphism φ : Z −→ F defined by φ(n) =
(n · 1F ) with kernel(φ)=Ch(F )Z. Now basically φ maps Z to additive subgroup
generated by 1F .
Now By first isomorphism theorem, we can take quotient ring Z/(Ker(φ)) and
say that Z/(Ker(φ)) ∼ = Im(φ) ∼= < 1F , + > ( smallest additive subgroup gen-
erated by 1F ).
Thus we see that F has a subfield (specifically < 1F , + > for finite character-
istic) which is isomorphic to either Q (field of fractions of Z) or to Fp = Z/pZ
(field of fractions of Z/pZ) depending on Ch(F ).
Proposition 2: The characteristics of a field F is either 0 or a prime “p”. Then
for any α ∈ F , p · α = 0
Proof: Ch(F ) = p =⇒ p · 1F = 0 =⇒ (p · 1F ) · α = 0 =⇒ p · α = 0
2
Prime subfield: The prime subfield of a field F is the subfield generated by
1F , multiplicative identity of F. It is isomorphic to either Q or Z/pZ
Examples:
(i) The prime subfield of both Q and R is Q.
(ii) The prime subfield of Fp [x] is isomorphic to Fp .
How does the subfield look like for non-zero characteristic? −→ It is additive
subgroup generated by 1F . .Let us write this in form of a proposition.
Proposition: The subfield generated by 1F in case of Ch(F ) ̸= 0 is
simply the additive subgroup generated by 1F .
Proof:
Two ways of approaching it :
Simply use the map φ : Z −→ F where we will see that basically the image is
the subfield generated by 1F (Call it SI ) and by first isomorphism theorem it
will be isomorphic to Z/pZ where p = Ch(F ). As Z/pZ is basically < 1, + >
and φ(1) = 1F =⇒ SI =< 1F , +F >.
For Q whose characteristic is 0, we see that 1 does not add to give 1/2. Thus
additive subgroup generated by 1 here is simply a proper subset of subfield
generated by 1.
Next is simply by using definition of field F(do later)
DEFINITION OF EXTENSION FIELD:
If K is a field and F is a subfield contained in K, then K is called extension field
(or simply extension) of field F, denoted by K/F or simply by a diagram
K
|
F
Directly from definition, Every field is an extension of its prime subfield.
Now If K is the extension field of F, then F is called the base field of the
extension.
Given K/F is any extension, then multiplication in K makes it a
vector space over F
Proof:
We are given a field extension K/F i.e F is contained in K. For any α ∈ F =⇒
α ∈ K, we can say that α · k ∈ K for any k ∈ K =⇒ and For any k1 , k2 ∈ K
and α, β ∈ F , αk1 , βk2 ∈ K =⇒ αk1 + βk2 ∈ K =⇒ K is a vector space
over F
y
3
Every field F is a vector space over its prime subfield (subfield generated by
multiplicative identity 1F ).
Definition: Degree of a field extension: The degree (or relative degree or
index) of a field extension K/F is the dimension of field K as a vector space
over field F denoted by [K : F ].
Extension is finite. −→ Degree [K : F ] is finite.
Otherwise INFINITE!
An important class of field extensions are obtained by trying to solve equations
over a field F.
For example for F = R, we see that there is no solution to the simple equation
x2 + 1 = 0.
Thus the question arises: Does there exist a larger field that contains R that
solves this equation?
This led Gauss to introduce complex numbers C = R + Ri where i is defined
such that it solves x2 + 1 = 0
Now one defines addition and multiplication using usual elementary algebra and
it is easy to show that C is a field and contains R.
QUESTION: Given any field F and a polynomial p(x) ∈ F [x], does there exist
an extension K of F such that K contains a solution to p(x)? We may assume
that p(x) is irreducible in F [x] −→ Yes!
That comes from following two propositions in Ring theory:
Proposition 2: Let φ : F −→ F ′ be a homomorphism. Then φ is either
identically 0 or injective so that the image is either 0 or isomorphic
to F .
Proof: We know fact that:
F is a field ⇐⇒ The only ideals of F are 0 and F .
Thus For the map φ : F −→ F ′ , Ker(φ) is an ideal in F =⇒ Ker(φ) = 0 or
Ker(φ) = F .
→ Ker(φ) = 0 =⇒ φ is injective
→ Ker(φ) = F =⇒ φ(F ) = 0 =⇒ the map is identically zero.
∗∗
THEOREM: Let F be a field and p(x) ∈ F [x] be an irreducible poly-
nomial. Then there exists a field K containing an isomorphic copy of
F such that it contains a root of p(x). Identifying F with this isomor-
phic copy shows that there exists a field extension of F such that it
contains a root of p(x).
Proof:
Given F is a field =⇒ F [x] is a Principal Integral Domain =⇒ Ideal
generated by p(x) is maximal as prime ideals are maximal in PIDs.
Thus the quotient ring F [x]/ < p(x) > is a field.
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Now we know that there is a natural homomorphism φ : F [x] −→ F [x]/ <
p(x) > with a 7−→ a < p(x) >.
Now if we restrict the domain to F as F ⊆ F [x] (constant polynomials), the
new restricted domain map (Let’s name it φr : F −→ F [x]/ < p(x) >) actually
is a map between fields. So by previous proposition PROPOSITION 2, as
this is not a zero-map, the image must be isomorphic to F ( That is what the
propositions says).
Thus we see that F (x)/ < p(x) > has an isomorphic copy of F and as φ(F ) is
a subfield of F (x)/ < p(x) > where p(x) ≡ 0.
Now for polynomial x in F [x] we see that φ(x) = x̄ and now for x we see
p(x)= p(x) = 0 in F [x]/ < p(x) >−→ ( Essentially here what we do is that using
a polynomial in F (x), we detect and identify a root of p(x) in F (x)/ < p(x) >
using map φ (not φr ).)
Theorem: Let F be a field and p(x) ∈ F [x]. Let K = F [x]/ < p(x) >
and let θ = x(mod p(x)). Then the set {1, θ, θ2 ...., θ(n−1) } form the basis
of the field K as a vector space over field F . Thus the degree of the
extension K/F is n i.e dimension of K as a vector space over F . Thus
K = {a0 + a1 θ + a2 θ2 + ... + a(n−1) θ(n−1) ai ∈ F }
with all polynomials in θ with degree < n.
Proof: Let a(x) ∈ F [x] and we know F [x] is a PID =⇒ F [x] is a Euclidean
domain i.e we can divide a(x) by p(x).
Thus by generalised Euclid’s algorithm, ∃ q(x), r(x) ∈ F [x] such that a(x) =
q(x)p(x) + r(x) where r(x) = 0 or deg(r(x)) < deg(p(x)) = n. Thus every
polynomial in F [x] is equivalent to a polynomial of degree less than n in F[x].
Thus the set {1, x, x2 , ..., x(n−1) } forms basis of F [x].
Thus the image φ of {1, x, x2 , ..., x(n−1) } i.e {1, θ, θ2 , ..., θ(n−1) } forms basis of
K over F as a vector space.
Now we have to show that the set {1, θ, θ2 , ..., θ(n−1) } is linearly independent.
Let us take coefficients b0 , b1 , b2 , ..., b(n−1) in F such that
b0 + b1 θ + b2 θ2 + ... + b(n−1) θ(n−1) ≡ 0 =⇒ p(x) divides b0 + b1 θ + b2 θ2 + ... +
b(n−1) θ(n−1) but that is not possible as:
deg(b0 + b1 θ + b2 θ2 + ... + b(n−1) θ(n−1) ) < deg(p(x))
Thus {1, θ, θ2 , ..., θ(n−1) } forms a basis for K/F .
Examples:
(i) F = R and p(x) = x2 + 1 which is irreducible in R. Now by the theorem
above R[x]/ < (x2 + 1) > is a field that contains a copy of F = R and contains
a root of (x2 + 1) and for θ = x(mod (x2 + 1)) θ2 + 1 = 0
Basis of this R[x]/ < (x2 + 1) > is {1, θ} and thus all elements of R[x]/ <
(x2 + 1) > are of the form a0 + a1 θ.
Addition in R[x]/ < (x2 + 1) >:
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For two elements (a + bθ), (c + dθ), (a + bθ) + (c + dθ) = (a + c) + (b + d)θ
Multiplication in R[x]/ < (x2 + 1) >:
For two elements (a + bθ), (c + dθ), (a + bθ) · (c + dθ) = (ac + bdθ2 ) + (ad + bc)θ =
(ac − bd) + (ad + bc)θ
It is the same interaction as complex numbers, just that i is replaced by x
here. Now we can develop an isomorphism from R[x]/ < (x2 + 1) > to C where
(a + bx) 7−→ (a + bi)
(ii)F = Q, then Q[x]/ < (x2 + 1) >∼
= Qi i.e Q[i]
(iii)F = Q and p(x) = (x2 − 2) which is irreducible in Q by eisentein criterion.
Thus We see that K = Q[x]/ < (x2 − 2) > is a field and contains a copy of
F = Q. Now the basis set of K is {1, θ} where θ = x(mod p(x)).
Now Addition in K:
For (a + bθ), (c + dθ), (a + bθ) + (c + dθ) = (a + c) + (b + d)θ
Multiplication in K:
For (a + bθ), (c + dθ), (a + bθ) · (c + dθ) = (ac + bdθ2 ) + (ad + bc)θ = (ac + 2bd) +
(ad + bc)θ √
As we know from our knowledge √ 2 satisfies (x2 − 2) we can √
try to guess a map
φ : Q[x]/ < (x2 − 2) >−→ Q[ 2] where (a + bx) 7−→ (a + b 2) and this is an
isomorphism ! Thus
√
Q[x]/ < (x2 − 2) >∼
= Q[ 2]
(iv)F = Q and p(x) = (x3 − 2) (irreducible by Eisenstein Criterion).We will see
that :
Q[x]/ < (x3 − 2) > ∼ = {a0 + a1 ω + a2 ω 2 ai ∈ Q}
where ω 3 = 2
Now as (x3 − 2) is irreducible in Q =⇒ all polynomials of degree less than 3
are somewhat “co-prime” to (x3 − 2) . Suppose we want inverse of (1 + θ).
Then by Euclid’s algorithm, ∃ a(x), b(x) ∈ F [x] such that a(x)(x+1)+b(x)(x3 −
2) = 1 =⇒ a(θ)(1 + θ) ≡(x3 −2) 1 =⇒ a(θ) is inverse of (1 + θ) in
Q[x]/ < (x3 − 2) >. Thus for every polynomial of degree less than deg((x3 − 2)),
we can find an inverse this way.
Now from manipulations, {cleverly using the formula of x3 + 1 = (x + 1)(x2 −
x + 1)} so take a(x) = 31 (x2 − x + 1) and b(x) = − 31 .
(v) If θ ∈ K is a root of the polynomial : a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... + a(n−1) x(n−1)
Then we can find (θ)−1 by doing the following θ is root of p(x) =⇒ a0 + a1 θ +
a2 θ2
(vi) F = F2 and p(x) = (x2 + x + 1) which is irreducible over F2 . Let K =
F2 [x]/⟨(x2 + x + 1)⟩
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Let F be a subfield of the field K and let α ∈ K be an element in K. Now
the collection of subfields containg F and α is non-empty as K is a field that
contains both F and α. Thus the intersection of all subfields containg F and α
gives the unique minimal subfield containing F and α.
Field generated by a collection of elements {α, β, ...} in K over F :
Let K be an extension of field F and let {α, β, ...} be a collection of elements
in K. Then the smallest subfield of K containing field F and the set of .
elements {α, β, ...} ∈ K is called the field generated by {α, β, ...} over F
denoted by F (α, β, ...)
Definition of simple extension: Let K be an extension of field F and
there exists an α ∈ K such that K is generated by a single element α
over F . Then K = F (α) and thus K is called a simple extension of F
and α is called primitive element for the extension.
Theorem 6: Let F be a field and p(x) ∈ F [x]. Let K be an extension of
F containing α as a root of p(x) i.e p(α) = 0. If F (α) denotes subfield
of K generated by α over F , then
F (α) ∼
= F [x]/⟨p(x)⟩
Proof:
Let us take the homomorphism φ1 : F [x] −→ F (α) where a(x) 7−→ a(α).
Now it is clear that p(x) ∈ Ker(φ1 ) =⇒ ⟨p(x)⟩ ⊆ Ker(φ1 )
Thus the homomorphism φ2 : F [x]/ ⟨p(x)⟩ −→ F (α) where a(x) 7−→ r(α) where
r(x) denotes the remainder we get on dividing a(x) by p(x), is well defined
as ⟨p(x)⟩ ⊆ Ker(φ1 ) (proved earlier in Group Theory).
As p(x) is irreducible over F [x], thus F [x]/⟨p(x)⟩ and as Ker(φ2 ) ⊆ F [x]/⟨p(x)⟩ =⇒
φ2 (x) = α ̸= 0 and by PROPOSITION 2, F [x]/⟨p(x)⟩ isin isomorphism with
its image.
Now α ∈ Im(φ2 ) and Im(φ2 ) contains all constant polynomials of F [x] and
F ⊆ F [x] =⇒ Im(φ2 ) ⊆ F (α) is a subfield and F (α) is the smallest subfield
of K containing F and α =⇒ Im(φ2 ) = F (α). Thus:
F (α) ∼
= F [x]/⟨p(x)⟩
Let us take two field F and F ′ such that there is a ring isomorphism φ :
F −→ F ′ . Thus using this, we can define a ring isomorphism φ′ from F [x]
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to F ′ [x] such that a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... + a(n−1) x(n−1) 7−→ φ(a0 ) + φ(a1 )x +
φ(a2 )x2 + ... + φ(a(n−1) x(n−1) )
Then we see that for some irreducible p(x) in F [x], say φ′ (p(x)) = p′ (x). Thus
now as the ideal generated by p(x) is maximal (call it Ip(x) ), thus the ideal
generated by p′ (x) is also maximal (call it Ip′ (x) ) as φ′ is an isomorphism =⇒
F ′ [x]/Ip′ (x) is a field and p′ (x) is irreducible in F ′ [x].
Thus the map σ : F [x]/Ip(x) −→ F ′ [x]/Ip′ (x) defined by :
(a(x) + Ip(x) ) 7−→ (φ′ (a(x)) + Ip′ (x) ) is an isomorphism! Let us prove this fact
which will again prove the next theorem:
σ(a1 (x)) = σ(a2 (x)) =⇒ φ′ (a1 (x) − a2 (x)) ∈ Ip′ (x) =⇒ (a1 (x) − a2 (x)) ∈
φ−1 (Ip′ (x) ) =⇒ a1 (x)−a2 (x) = f (x)p(x) =⇒ a1 (x)+Ip(x) = a2 (x)+Ip(x) −→
ONE-ONE
As φ′ is an isomorphism, for any b′ (x) ∈ F ′ [x], ∃ b(x) ∈ F [x] such that
φ′ (b(x)) = b′ (x),
Thus for any b′ (x) + Ip′ (x) ∈ F ′ [x]/Ip′ (x) , b′ (x) + Ip′ (x) = φ′ (b(x)) + Ip′ (x) =
σ(b(x) + Ip(x) ) −→ SURJECTIVE
Theorem 8: Theorem 8. Let φ : F −→ F ′ be an isomorphism of fields.
Let p(x) ∈ F [x] be an irreducible polynomial and let p′ (x) ∈ F ′ [x] be
the irreducible polynomial obtained by applying the map φ to the
coefficients of p(x). Let α be a root of p(x) (in some extension of F )
and let β be a root of p′ (x) (in some extension of F ′ ). Then there is
an isomorphism σ : F (α) −→ F ′ (β) such that α 7−→ β mapping α to β
and extending φ, i.e., such that σ restricted to F is the isomorphism
φ.
Proof:
Combine the fact that F (α) ∼= F [x]/⟨p(x)⟩ and F ′ (β) ∼
= F ′ [x]/⟨p′ (x)⟩ and from
the fact we proved just before the theorem,we see F [x]/⟨p(x)⟩ ∼ = F ′ [x]/ ⟨p′ (x)⟩
Show