SYNCHROTRON: A BRIEF

DESCRIPTION
(ASSIGNMENT-1)

ARIJIT BARMAN (23PH40008)

FEBRUARY 14, 2025
 1. My Approach to This Term Paper
This will be a very short-term paper as a part of assignment in the subject ‘Nuclear
Techniques for Materials Studies’ and will be very straight forward. At the beginning, I
will discuss about the historical developments of the synchrotron, i.e, the main milestones.
We will not go to the theoretical calculations of this because the calculations are not in
our scope. Then, the need for the inventions will be discussed. Next, I will go to the
construction of the instrument in our terms (LINAC, bending magnets etc.). Finally, the
applications of synchrotron radiations will be discussed mainly in medical purposes and
in physics and engineering. But to start the term paper we must give the brief description
of the synchrotron.
A synchrotron is a particular type of cyclic particle accelerator coming from the idea
of cyclotron, in which the accelerating particle beam travels around a ixed closed-loop
path. The strength of the magnetic ield which bends the particle beam into its closed path
increases with time during the accelerating process which is being synchronized to the
increasing kinetic energy of the particles.

2. Historical Developments of the Synchrotron

“The synchrotron principle was invented by Vladimir Veksler in 1944. Edwin
McMillan constructed the first electron synchrotron in 1945, arriving at the idea
independently, having missed Veksler's publica on (which was only available in
a Soviet journal, although in English). The first proton synchrotron was designed by Sir Marcus
Oliphant[5][7] and built in 1952.” ___ Wikipedia.

This part of paper shows that the paper was published just after the irst some inventions
of the synchrotron. As mentioned before that synchrotron idea is related by somewhat to
the cyclotron but there are lot of differences in structure and in working procedures. We
will not go to that very much but will describe the outcomes in cyclotron very brie ly. In
the cyclotron, ions revolve with approximately constant angular velocity in a magnetic
 ield, passing through accelerating gaps across which an alternating electric ield is
applied. The frequency of the electric ield is chosen to match the angular velocity of the
ions, so that many successive accelerations can be occurred. However, when the velocity
of the ions becomes appreciable compared to that of light, the angular velocity
diminishes; as a consequence of this, the ions fall out of step with the alternating electric
ield, and only a inite number of accelerations can be achieved. Now let’s go to the early
theoretical predictions (1897–1940s).
2.1 Discovery of Electron (1897)

 The discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson at the Cavendish Laboratory marked
the beginning of modern particle physics.
 The understanding of electron dynamics in electric and magnetic ields became
essential for later developments in particle accelerators.
2.2 Larmor’s Formula (1897–1900)

Joseph Larmor formulated the classical expression for electromagnetic radiation

emitted by an accelerating charge:
𝑒 𝑎
𝑃=
6πε 𝑐
where P is the power radiated, e is the charge, a is acceleration, ε0 is the
permittivity of free space, and c is the speed of light. This formula laid the
groundwork for understanding radiation emission from charged particles in
circular motion.
2.3 Rela vis c Electrodynamics

 Albert Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity (1905) introduced the concept of

relativistic motion, crucial for understanding high speeds of electron beams.
 Oliver Heaviside (1902) and Liénard (1898) independently derived the
relativistic form of electromagnetic radiation from moving charges.
# In 1905, Einstein proposed that the photons can show par cle nature.
2.4 Development of Cyclotrons and Betatrons

 Cyclotron (1930s):
o Invented by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1931, the cyclotron accelerated
charged particles in a spiral trajectory. (Wikipedia)
o Although cyclotrons are not used to produce radiations, they paved the way
for controlled acceleration of particles.
 Betatron (1940s):

o The concept of the betatron had been proposed as early as 1922 by Joseph
Slepian. Through the 1920s and 30s a number of theoretical problems
related to the device were considered by scientists including Rolf
 Wideroe, Ernest Walton, and Max Steenbeck. The irst working betatron
was constructed by Donald Kerst at the University of Illinois Urbana-
Champaign in 1940.
o The irst circular accelerator in which particles orbited at a constant radius.
The next milestone was synchrotron itself as information has been given at the
starting of this paragraph.

3. Need for the Developments around 1944

Synchrotron can produce more highly energetic particles than the normal cyclotron (still
it is not completely discussed why that is so; this can only be understood after
understanding the construction of the synchrotron which will be described at section-4).
The need for high-energy particles in nuclear and particle physics during the 1940s,
particularly around 1944, was driven by several key scienti ic and technological factors:
3.1 Par cle Accelerators for Controlled Experiments

The rapid advancement of nuclear physics necessitated more powerful tools to

probe atomic nuclei. Scientists needed accelerators capable of producing highly energetic
protons, alpha particles, and other ions to study nuclear transformations and interactions.
Such studies were essential for understanding neutron-induced reactions, which played
a signi icant role in nuclear theory developments.
3.2 Tes ng Einstein’s E=mc² in Experimental Physics
The theoretical foundation laid by Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence (E=mc²)
required experimental validation. Scientists used high-energy particles to explore the
conversion between mass and energy, helping con irm theoretical predictions related to
nuclear ission and fusion. These experiments were crucial for developing nuclear
reactors. This experiments also opened the way for the theoretical developments of
relativistic phenomena.
3.3 Early Efforts in High-Energy Physics and Fundamental Par cles
By 1944, the study of fundamental particles beyond protons and neutrons was
gaining momentum. High-energy beams allowed physicists to explore subatomic
interactions, leading to the discovery of new particles and the foundations of quantum
ield theory. These investigations later contributed to the development of the Standard
Model of particle physics.
That is, around 1944, there were very large requirements for the high energetic particle
beam. But at that time there were mainly two devices for that purpose: cyclotron and
betatron. I have already mentioned the main limitation of cyclotron at section-2.
However, the main point is that cyclotron and betatron can produce very less energetic
particles. Maximum typical energy ranges are cyclotron ∼ 50 MeV, betatron ∼ 300 MeV
where for synchrotron this is generally 10 GeV. This was the main reason for the invention
of synchrotron.
 4. Construc on of Synchrotron

I will describe the construction of synchrotron with the schematic diagram of

components.
Principal structure:
a. e-gun and LINAC
b. Booster Ring
c. Storage Ring
(bending magnets
and undulators)
d. Beamlines (E.M.
spectrum)

Fig: 1 (from internet)

e-gun and LINAC: The electron gun serves as the source of electrons for the synchrotron.
It generates and injects electrons into the accelerator system. The electron gun typically
operates on one of the following principles:
Cathode Tube Emission or Thermionic Emission: In a Ultra High Vacuum
chamber, a cathode ilament (often made of tungsten or lanthanum hexaboride) is
heated at a high temperature and a high ejection voltage is applied between the
cathode and anode. Since electrons are negatively charged, they are attracted
towards the anode.

Fig: 2 (6mzbV.png (875×400))

# Photoemission: A laser or high-voltage electric field is used to eject electrons from a metal
surface.
The emitted electrons are of a few keV before being injected into the linear accelerator
(linac). The linac provides the irst stage of acceleration to electrons before they enter to
the booster ring. The linac consists of a series of radiofrequency (RF) cavities, which
generate oscillating electromagnetic ields. The electrons gain energy as they pass
through these RF cavities. By the time, when they exit the linac, they typically reach to the
energies of 50 MeV to 200 MeV. After exiting the linac, the electron beam is injected into
the booster ring for further acceleration.
Booster Ring: The booster synchrotron increases the energy of electrons to their inal
operating energy before they enter to the storage ring. The booster is a circular or
elliptical accelerator that contains dipole magnets, quadrupole magnets, and RF
cavities (these terms will be discussed in accordance of storage ring). The electrons travel
in a circular path under the in luence of magnetic ields. As they complete multiple
revolutions, RF cavities accelerate them in small increments. The energy of electrons is
gradually raised to a range of 1 GeV to 10 GeV, depending on the synchrotron facility.
Once the desired energy is reached, the electrons are transferred into the storage ring.
Storage Ring: This is the main part of a synchrotron for the generation and collection of
radiation. High-energy electrons circulate for extended periods and emit synchrotron
radiation as our requirements. But the storage ring construction is very much
complicated.
(a) Dipole Magnets (Bending Magnets)

 These are large magnets placed around the ring to

bend the electron trajectory into a circular path
(almost circular).
 As electrons are de lected, they emit synchrotron
radiation in a direction tangential to their motion.
Fig: 3 (Electron Accelerator Dipole
Magnet - Search Images)

(b) Quadrupole Magnets (Focusing Magnets)

 These are used to focus the electron beam and maintain its stability as it travels
around the ring.
 They work like optical lenses but
for charged particles, ensuring
that the beam remains narrow
and well-collimated. But here
aberrations can play role to spoil
this set up, so, we have to
maintain it properly and at the
accurate positions. Fig: 4 (quadrupole magnet - Search Images)

# Hexapole Magnets (Correc ng Magnets)

These are used to correct chroma c aberra ons in the beam caused by energy spread
among electrons. They help maintain the long-term stability of the beam.
(c) Radiofrequency (RF) Cavi es
  These cavities supply energy to compensate for the energy lost by electrons due to
synchrotron radiation.
 They ensure that electrons maintain a constant high energy while circulating in
the storage ring.
(d) Beam Posi on Monitors (BPMs)

These are simply detectors to track the position of the electron beam and provide
real-time feedback to optimize beam alignment.
Beamlines:
Undulators: Undulators consist of a periodic array of magnets with alternating
polarities. Electrons undergo small oscillations as
they pass through the undulators, emitting a highly
collimated and monochromatic photon beam.
Wigglers: Wigglers have a stronger magnetic
ield than undulators, causing larger oscillations of
the electron beam. This results in a broader
spectrum of radiation with higher intensity butless
coherence, i.e, wigglers are used when intense
Fig:5 (undulator and wiggler - Search Images)
broadband radiation is required.
The emitted synchrotron radiations is directed into beamlines and in experimental
centres it is processed and used for scienti ic experiments.

Fig: 6 (Note of ‘Physics of Radia on Generators’)

 5. Applica ons of Synchrotron Radia ons
We have already mentioned the usefulness of synchrotron for producing high energetic
particles in section-3. Here, we will only discuss about the usefulness of synchrotron
radiations.
Synchrotron radiation is millions of times brighter than conventional X-ray sources.
It covers a wide range of electromagnetic waves, from infrared (IR) to X-rays and even
gamma rays. The energy of synchrotron radiation can be precisely controlled by
adjusting the electron beam energy or magnet con igurations. The radiation can be
linearly or circularly polarized.
This facts about the synchrotron radiations make it highly acceptable in scienti ic and
medical ields. The applications are described pointwise.
Biology and Medicine

 X-ray imaging at synchrotrons enables detailed 3D imaging of tissues and cells,

improving medical diagnostics.
 Used in advanced cancer radiation therapy (such as Microbeam Radiation
Therapy, MRT).
 Synchrotron X-rays are used for protein crystallography, allowing researchers to
determine the structure of biological macromolecules.
 This is critical for drug discovery and vaccine development.
Physics and Engineering

 Used for studying the fundamental properties of matter, including atomic and
electronic structures.
 Helps in particle physics by providing high-energy beams for advanced research.
 Used for studying crystal structures using X-ray diffraction.
 Helps in analyzing nanomaterials, thin ilms, and composite materials.

Thank you