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MODULE 5
(a) DC to DC Convertor(Chopper)
(b) DC to AC Convertor(Inverter)

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5(a) DC to DC Convertor (Chopper)

5.1 Introduction
• Chopper is a static device.
• A variable dc voltage is obtained from a constant dc voltage source.
• Also known as dc-to-dc converter.
• Widely used for motor control.
• Also used in regenerative braking.
• Thyristor converter offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance, smaller
size and smooth control.
5.2 Choppers are of Two Types
• Step-down choppers (Buck Convertors)
• Step-up choppers (Boost Convertors)
• In step down chopper output voltage is less than input voltage.
• In step up chopper output voltage is more than input voltage.
5.3 Performance Parameters of DC–DC Converters:
Both the input and output voltages of a dc–dc converter are dc. This type of converter can produce
a fixed or variable dc output voltage from a fixed or variable dc voltage as shown in Figure(a)
Figure 5.1 (a) Block diagram (b) Output voltage (c) Input current

The

converter draws current from the dc source only when the converter connects the load to the
supply source and the input current is discontinuous
The dc output power is 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 -----------1
𝑉𝑎 &𝐼𝑎 =Average load voltage and Load current.
AC output power is given by
𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 ---------- 2
𝑉𝑜 , 𝐼𝑜 are the rms value of load output Voltage and current.
𝑃𝑑𝑐
The convertor Efficiency 𝜂𝑐 = 𝑃𝑎𝑐
The rms ripple content of the output voltage is

𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜 2 − 𝑉𝑎 2 ------------3
The rms ripple content of the input current is

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𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼𝑜 2 − 𝐼𝑎 2 ------------4
The ripple factor of the output voltage is
𝑉𝑟
𝑅𝐹𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠
The ripple factor of the input current is
𝐼
𝑅𝐹𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟
𝑠

5.4 Principle of Step-Down Operation with Resistive load:

Figure 5.2 Basic Step down chopper with Resistive Load

• The Figure 5.2 shows the circuit configuration of a step-down chopper connected to an R-load.
Switch SW can be a power transistor, SCR, GTO, MOSFET, IGBT or any other switching power
electronics devices. A chopper is connected between the resistive load and the source. The
chopper is fed from a fixed dc supply and stepped-down dc output from the chopper is given to
the resistive load.
• When the chopper is switched ON that is from 0 to 𝛿𝑇, the load is connected in the circuit and
the load voltage 𝑉𝐿 follows the source voltage 𝑉𝑑𝑐 i.e., 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 .
• When the chopper is turned OFF that is from 𝛿𝑇 to T, the load is disconnected from the circuit,
due to which the load voltage and load current become zero. Since the load is purely resistive, the
load current will be same as that of load voltage but with a lesser magnitude.
• The voltage and current waveforms when the chopper is connected to a resistive load are shown
in the figure.Again the chopper is turned ON at t = T and the same process repeats.

Derivation of Average output voltage: From the waveforms, we can see that the load voltage
flows only during the turn ON period (TON) of the chopper. The average output voltage is given
1 𝑇
by,𝑉𝐿(𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) = 𝑇 0 𝐿
𝑉 𝑑𝑡.
1 𝑇𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓
=𝑇 0
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑑𝑡 + 0
0 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑇𝑜𝑛
= 0
1 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑉𝐷𝐶
= 𝑇𝑜𝑛
𝑇

∴ 𝑉𝐿(𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) = 𝛿𝑉𝑠

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Where δ = TON/(TON + TOFF) = TON/T is known as duty cycle. Thus, by varying the duty cycle
(δ) from 0 to 1, we can obtain load voltage from 0 to Vdc. Hence the load voltage will be
always less than the input voltage, thereby calling it a Step-Down Chopper.

Figure 5.3 The Output voltage and Output current Waveform

Expression for rms output voltage

1 𝑇
𝑉𝑜(𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) = 0
𝑣𝑜 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
From the wave form we know that 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 from 0 to 𝛿𝑇. Hence above equation becomes,
1 𝛿𝑇 2 𝑉 𝛿𝑇 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑜(𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) = 0
𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑇𝑠 0
1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛿𝑇
𝑇 𝑇

𝑉𝑜(𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) = 𝛿𝑉𝑠

Average output power

1 𝛿𝑇 𝑣𝑜 2
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑇 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑅
1 𝛿𝑇 𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑐𝑕 2
=𝑇 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑅
1 𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑐𝑕 2 𝛿𝑇
=𝑇 0
1 𝑑𝑡
𝑅
1 𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑐𝑕 2
=𝑇 𝛿𝑇
𝑅
𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑐𝑕 2
=𝛿 𝑅
If the chopper is lossless, then 𝑉𝑐𝑕 = 0 and power will be,
𝛿𝑉𝑠 2
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑅

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Effective input Resistance Effective input resistance will be,

𝑉
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼 𝑠
𝑜 (𝑎𝑣 )
𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣 )
Putting for𝐼𝑜(𝑎𝑣 ) = in above equation,
𝑅
𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉 𝑜 (𝑎𝑣 )
𝑅
𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅 𝑉𝑜 (𝑎𝑣 )
𝑉𝑠
Since 𝛿 = 𝑉
𝑜 (𝑎𝑣 )
1
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅 𝛿

5.5 Working of Step-Down Chopper with R-L Load:

Generally, choppers are used to drive separately excited dc motors. The armature in the dc motor
is represented by a combination of resistance and inductance. Hence, motors are considered as
RL-load. For a step-down chopper, with RL-load, two modes are possible for the load current.
They are,
 Continuous load current.
 Discontinuous load current.

Figure 5.4 Circuit diagram of step-down chopper with R-L load

Continuous Current Mode:
 If the value of the load inductance is very high, then the continuous load current is obtained.
When the chopper is turned on for a period of 0 to δT, the RL load is connected in the circuit, load
voltage VL follows source voltage Vdc the load current rises from its lower limit and reaches the
maximum value at t = δT.
 Thus once the chopper is turned OFF, the stored current in the load inductance free-wheels
through the free-wheeling diode Df as shown above. Then after the load current decreases
gradually and reaches its lower limit as shown in the below waveforms
 When the chopper is turned OFF for a period of δT to T, the load voltage becomes zero but the
load current does not become zero due to the presence of load inductance. This is because an
inductor doesn’t allow a sudden change in the current.

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 Thus once the chopper is turned OFF, the stored current in the load inductance free-wheels
through the free-wheeling diode Df as shown above. Then after the load current decreases
gradually and reaches its lower limit as shown in the below waveforms
 When the chopper is turned OFF for a period of δT to T, the load voltage becomes zero but the
load current does not become zero due to the presence of load inductance. This is because an
inductor doesn’t allow a sudden change in the current.

Figure 5.5 Wave form for continuous load current

Discontinuous Load Current:
 If the value of load inductance is small then a discontinuous load current is obtained.
 During the chopper OFF period, load voltage becomes zero, and load current decreases.
 Then after the load current becomes zero at a certain instant of time and it remains zero until the
chopper is turned ON again i.e., until t = T. Hence, in this way discontinuous current appears in
the load. Below shows the waveform for the discontinuous load current.

Figure 5.6 Wave form for discontinuous load current

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Derivation of Average output voltage : From the waveforms, we can see that the load voltage
flows only during the turn ON period (TON) of the chopper. The average output voltage is given
by,
1 𝑇
𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) = 𝑇 0 𝑉𝐿 𝑑𝑡.
1 𝑇𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓
=𝑇 0
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑑𝑡 + 0
0 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝑇
= 𝑇𝐷𝐶 0 𝑜𝑛 1 𝑑𝑡
𝑉
= 𝑇𝐷𝐶 𝑇𝑜𝑛
∴ 𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) = 𝛿𝑉𝑠
Considering the chopper drop
𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) = 𝛿 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑐𝑕
Where δ = TON/(TON + TOFF) = TON/T is known as duty cycle. Thus, by varying the duty cycle(δ)
from 0 to 1, we can obtain load voltage from 0 to Vdc. Hence the load voltage will be always less
than the input voltage, thereby calling it a Step-Down Chopper.

Expression for rms output voltage

1 𝑇
𝑉𝑜(𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) = 𝑣 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑜
From the wave form we know that 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 from 0 to 𝛿𝑇.
Hence above equation becomes,
1 𝛿𝑇 2 𝑉 𝛿𝑇 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑜(𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) = 𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑇𝑠 1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛿𝑇
𝑇 0 0 𝑇
𝑉𝑜(𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) = 𝛿𝑉𝑠
Considering chopper drop
𝑉𝑜(𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) = 𝛿( 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑐𝑕 )

Average output power

1 𝛿𝑇 𝑣𝑜 2
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑇 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑅
1 𝛿𝑇 𝑉 −𝑉 2
=𝑇 0 𝑠 𝑅 𝑐𝑕 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑐𝑕 2
=𝑇 𝑅
If the chopper is lossless, then 𝑉𝑐𝑕 = 0 and power will be,
𝛿𝑉𝑠 2
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑅

5.6 Working Principle of Step-up Chopper:

Step-up chopper is a static device whose average output DC voltage is greater than its
input DC voltage. It is different from the step-down chopper. In step-down chopper, theaverage
value of output voltage stepped down i.e. it is less than its input voltage.
To understand the working principle, let us first have a look at the circuit diagram of step-
up chopper. This is shown in figure below. In the circuit diagram, chopper is shown as a switch
CH. We will understand the working of this chopper in two steps: Switch ON period and Switch
OFF Period of chopper

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.7 Step up chopper and its working

Switch ON Period:
 When chopper (CH) is switched ON, the current will flow through the closed path formed by
supply source Vs, inductor L and chopper CH. During this period, no current will flow through
the load. Only source current is will flow and the value of load current io will be ZERO during the
ON period. This case is depicted in figure 5.7 (b)
 Also, during the TON period, energy is stored in the inductor L. This energy storage in L is
essential to boost the load output voltage above the source voltage. Therefore, a large value of L is
essential in a step-up chopper.

Switch OFF period:

 When the chopper CH is switched OFF, the current through the L can not die instantaneously
rather it decays exponentially. Due to this behavior of L, it will force the current through the diode
D and load for the entire time period TOFF. This is shown in figure 5.7 (c).
 Since, the current through the inductor L tends to decrease, the polarity of the emf induced in
inductor L is reversed as shown in above figure. As a result, the voltage across the load becomes
equal to the sum of source voltage and emf induced in inductor. Thus, the output voltage exceeds
the source voltage Vs. The load / output voltage may be written as below
Vo = Vs + L(di/dt) , Hence Vo >Vs
 Thus, the circuit works as a step-up chopper. It may be noted here that, the voltage across the
load increases because the inductor releases its stored energy to the load during the OFF period.

Analysis of Waveform:
 Various waveform i.e. source voltage, source current, load voltage and load current waveform
are shown in figure below.The first waveform represents the source voltage which is a DC voltage
equal to Vs. Therefore, it is shown as a straight line parallel to time axis. Second waveform shows
the source current is.
 When chopper (CH) is switched ON, the source current increases from its minimum value I1 to
maximum value I2. It may also be noted that, this source current flows through the inductor during
ON time. Therefore, it may be said that the current through the inductor L rises from I1 to
I2 during ON period. During this time, no current flows through the load as shown in i o versus
time (t) graph.
 When chopper is switched OFF, the source current starts decreasing from its peak value I2 to
least value I1. Thus, the current through the inductor decreases from I2 to I1 during the OFF
period. Since, load only comes into circuit during the OFF period, it may be said that, load current
decreases from I2 to I1 during OFF time.

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Figure 5.8 Waveforms

Calculation of Output Voltage:
 Let us now find the expression for the output voltage of step-up chopper. From the above
analysis of source current and load current waveform, it is clear that, the average value of current
flowing through load and inductor are same and equal to (I1+I2)/2.
 As discussed earlier in the article, the energy is stored in L during chopper ON time. This
stored energy in L during the ON period is equal to the multiplication of voltage across the
inductor, average current through it and TON time. The voltage drop across L during ON time
equal to the source voltage Vs. This is evident from the circuit diagram.

 When chopper is switched OFF, this stored energy is transferred to the load. Let the load
voltage (output voltage) be Vo. Since, the average current through load is (I1+I2)/2, therefore, the
energy consumed by load during this OFF time of chopper is given as below.

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 This energy consumed by load is supplied by source (Vs) and the inductor L. The energy
supplied by source to load will be equal to multiplication of source voltage Vs, average current
(I1+I2)/2 and TOFF time.

From the above formula for output voltage of step-up chopper, it can be seen that output
voltage can be stepped up by varying the duty cycle α. If the chopper is always OFF, α = 0 and
hence, the output voltage Vo will be equal to source voltage Vs. Similarly, if chopper is kept
always ON, the value of duty cycle will become unity and hence output voltage will become
infinite. However, chopper is turned ON and OFF in such a manner that duty cycle is variable and
the required stepped up average output voltage, more than source voltage, is obtained.

5.7 Classification of Choppers: Choppers are classified as

 First quadrant converter/Class A Chopper
 Second quadrant converter/Class B Chopper
 First and second quadrant converter/Class C Chopper
 First and fourth quadrant converter/ Class D Chopper
• Four-quadrant converter/Class E Chopper

5.7.1 First quadrant converter/Class A Chopper:

 When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load.
 When chopper is OFF, Vo = 0 and the load current continues to flow in the samedirection
through the FWD.
 The average values of output voltage and current are always positive.
 Class A Chopper is a first quadrant chopper and a step-down chopper in which power
always flows form source to load. It is used to control the speed of dc motor.

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 The output current equations obtained in step down chopper with R-L load can be used to
study the performance of Class A Chopper.

Figure 5.8 First quadrant/Class A chopper

Figure 5.9 Wave forms of Class A chopper

5.7.2 Second quadrant converter/Class B Chopper

 When chopper is ON, E drives a current through L and R in a direction opposite to that shown
in figure 5.10.
 During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L energy.
 When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts, and part of the energy stored in inductor L is
returned to the supply.
 Average output voltage is positive and average output current is negative.
 Therefore, Class B Chopper operates in second quadrant.
 In this chopper, power flows from load to source.
 Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor and it is a step-up chopper.

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Figure 5.10 Wave forms of Class A chopper

Figure 5.11 Wave forms of Class B chopper

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5.7.3 First and second quadrant converter/Class C Chopper:

Figure 5.12 First and Second Quadrant/ Class C chopper

Figure 5.13 Wave form of Class C chopper

 Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers.For first quadrant
operation, CH1is ON or D2conducts. For second quadrant operation, CH2is ON or D1conducts.
 When CH1 is ON, the load current is positive. The output voltage is equal to ‘V’ & the load
receives power from the source.
 When CH1is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through the
diode D2 and the output voltage is zero. Current continues to flow in positive direction.
 When CH2is triggered, the voltage E forces current to flow in opposite direction. Through L
and CH2.The output voltage is zero.
 On turning OFF CH2, the energy stored in the inductance drives current through diode D1and
the supply.
 Output voltage is V, the input current becomes negative and power flows from load to source.
Average output voltage is positive and average output current can take both positive and negative
values
 Choppers CH1& CH2should not be turned ON simultaneously as it would result in short
circuiting the supply.

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5.7.4 First and fourth quadrant converter/ Class D Chopper:

 Class D is a two-quadrant chopper.
 When both CH1and CH2are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 = V and output
current flows through the load.
 When CH1and CH2are turned OFF, the load current continues to flow in the same direction
through load, D1and D2, due to the energy stored in the inductor L.
 Output voltage 𝑉𝑜 = -V, Average load voltage is positive if chopper ON time is more than the
OFF time average output voltage becomes negative if 𝑡𝑂𝑁 <𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 .
 Hence the direction of load current is always positive but load voltage can be positive or
negative.

Figure 5.14 First and Fourth Quadrant/

Class D chopper

Figure 5.15 First and Fourth Quadrant/ Class D chopper

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5.7.5 Four-quadrant converter/Class E Chopper

Figure 5.16 First and Fourth Quadrant/ Class D chopper

 Class E is a four quadrant chopper. When CH1 and CH4 are triggered, output current io flows in
positive direction through CH1 and CH4, and with output voltage Vo = V.
 When both CH1 and CH4 are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives io through D2 and
D3 in the same direction, but output voltage Vo = -V. Therefore, the chopper operates in the fourth
quadrant.
 When CH2 and CH3 are triggered, the load current io flows in opposite direction &output
voltage Vo = -V. Since both io and Vo are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant.
 When both CH2 and CH3 are OFF, the load current io continues to flow in the same direction
D1 and D4 and the output voltage Vo = V. Therefore, the chopper operates in second quadrant as
Vo is positive but io is negative.

Applications of Choppers: Choppers are used in following applications:

• DC motor drives when the DC supply is available.
• Battery operated vehicles or Electric Vehicles
• Switched mode power supplies.
• Battery charges where uncontrolled rectifiers give DC to choppers.
• Traction drives use four quadrant choppers for energy saving.
• Lighting and lamp controls also prefer choppers.

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DC- AC Convertors (Inverters)

5.8 Introduction:
 Dc-to-ac converters are known as inverters. The function of an inverter is to change a dc
input voltage to a symmetric ac output voltage of desired magnitude and frequency.
 The output voltage could be fixed or variable at a fixed or variable frequency. A variable
output voltage can be obtained by varying the input dc voltage and maintaining the gain of
the inverter constant.
 On the other hand, if the dc input voltage is fixed and it is not controllable, a variable
output voltage can be obtained by varying the gain of the inverter, which is normally
accomplished by pulse-width-modulation (PWM) control within the inverter.
 The inverter gain may be defined as the ratio of the ac output voltage to dc input voltage.
 The inverters can be classified as voltage source inverters or current source inverters.
When input DC voltage remains constant, then it is called voltage source inverter (VSI) or
voltage fed inverter (VFI).
 Inverters are widely used in industrial applications (e.g., variable-speed ac motordrives,
renewable energy transportation, induction heating, standby power supplies, and
uninterruptible power supplies).

5.9 Performance Parameters:

 The input voltage to an inverter is dc and the output voltage (or current) is ac as shown in
Figure (a). The output should ideally be an ac of pure sine wave, but the output voltage of
a practical inverter contains harmonics or ripples as shown in Figure (b).
 The inverter draws current from the dc input source only when the inverter connects the
load to the supply source and the input current is not pure dc, but it contains

Figure 5.17 DC to AC Convertor

Harmonics as shown in Figure c. The quality of an inverter is normally evaluated in terms of the
following performance parameters. The output power is given by
𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑉𝑜 cos 𝜃 --------1
= 𝐼𝑜 2 𝑅

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where 𝑉𝑜 and 𝐼𝑜 are the rms load voltage and load current, Type equation here.𝜃 is the angle of the
load impedance, and R is the load resistance.
The ac input power of the inverter is
𝑃𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑠 --------------2
where 𝑉𝑠 and 𝐼𝑠 are the average input voltage and input current.
The ripple content of the input current is

𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼𝑖 2 − 𝐼𝑠 2 --------3
Where 𝐼𝑖 and 𝐼𝑠 are the rms and average values of the dc supply current.
The ripple factor of the input current is
𝐼𝑟
𝑅𝐹𝑠 = -------------4
𝐼𝑠
The power efficiency, which is the ratio of the output power to the input power, will depend on
the switching losses, which in turn depends on the switching frequency of the inverter.

5.9.1 Harmonic factor of nth harmonic (HFn). The harmonic factor (of the nth harmonic),
which is a measure of individual harmonic contribution, is defined as
𝑉𝑜𝑛
𝐻𝐹𝑛 = for n> 1------------ 5
𝑉𝑜 1
where Vo1 is the rms value of the fundamental component and Von is the rms value of the nth
harmonic component.

5.9.2 Total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic distortion, which is a measure of
closeness in shape between a waveform and its fundamental component, is defined as
1 ∞ 2
𝑇𝐻𝐷 = 𝑉 𝑛=2,3,…. 𝑉𝑜𝑛
𝑜1

5.9.3 Distortion factor (DF). The DF indicates the amount of HD that remains in a particular
waveform after the harmonics of that waveform have been subjected to a second-order attenuation
(i.e., divided by n2). Thus, DF is a measure of effectiveness in reducing unwanted harmonics
without having to specify the values of a second-order load filter and is defined as

The DF of an individual (or nth) harmonic component is defined as

5.9.10 Lowest order harmonic (LOH). The LOH is that harmonic component whose frequency
is closest to the fundamental one, and its amplitude is greater than or equal to 3% of the
fundamental component.

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5.10 Single phase Half Bridge Inverter:

Basic Operation :Consists of 2 choppers, 3-wire DC source. Transistors switched ON and OFF
alternately. Each provides opposite polarity of Vs/2 across the load.
When T1 is ON through the period 0<t<T/2, the output voltage equal to Vs/2. When T2 is ON
through the period T/2<t<T, the output voltage equal to -Vs/2.
The rms value for the output voltage can be found as

When T1 is ON through the period 0< t < T/2, the output current equal to Vs/2R. When T2 is ON
through the period T/2 <t <T, the output current equal to -Vs/2R. The output voltage frequency is

The frequency can be changed by controlling the conduction time of the transistors.

Figure 5.18 Single phase Half bridge rectifier

Figure: 5.19 Wave forms

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5.11 Single Phase Bridge Inverter with R-L load

The operation of single phase half bridge inverter with RL load can be divided into four periods

Figure: 5.19 Wave forms

1.For 𝟎 < 𝑡 < 𝒕𝟏

At t=0, the control signal is removed from T2 and a control signal

is applied to T1. At this moment the current is negative maximum.
The current can’t change the direction directly to positive value
due to the inductive load. In this case, the current will flow from
the load through D1 to the source and T1 stay disconnected in
spite of existence the control signal on it due to reverse biased. At
t=t1 the current become zero and T1 start to be forward biased.
𝑻
2. For 𝒕𝟏 < 𝑡 < 𝟐

At t=𝑡1 , the current change its direction to be positive and T1

start to conduct. The positive current is increased until reach its
positive maximum value at t=T/2. At t=T/2 the control signal is
removed from T1 and applied to T2.

𝑻
3. For 𝟐 < 𝑡 < 𝒕2

At this moment the current is positive maximum. The current

can’t change the direction directly to negative value due to the
inductive load. In this case, the current will flow from the load
through D2 to the source and T2 stay disconnected in spite of
existence the control signal on it due to reverse biased. At t=t2
the current become zero and T2 start to be forward biased. At
this period the voltage become negative and the current positive.

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4.For 𝒕𝟐 < 𝑡 < 𝑇

At t=t2, the current change its direction to be negative and T2
start to conduct. The negative current is increased until reach its
negative maximum value at t=T. At t=T the control signal is
removed from T2 and applied to T1.
The rms value for the output voltage can be found as

Figure: 5.20 Wave forms

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5.12 Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter :

The output voltage Vo in single phase full bridge inverter can be Vdc, -Vdc, or zero,
depending on which switches are closed.

Figure: 5.20 Single Phase Full wave Bridge invertor

 An inductive load will have a current that has more of a sinusoidal quality than the voltage
because of the filtering property of the inductance.
 Switches T1 and T2 close at t=0. The voltage across the load is +Vs, and current begins to
increase in the load and in T1 and T2. The current is expressed as the sum of the forced and
natural responses.

 Where A is a constant evaluated from the initial condition and τ=L/R. at t=0, i(0)=𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛

At t=T/2, T1 and T2 open, and T3 and T4 close. The voltage across the RL load becomes -Vs, and
the current has the form
𝑻
−𝑽𝒅𝒄
+ 𝑩 𝒆− for 𝑇 2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝒕−
𝒊𝒐 (𝒕) = 𝟐
𝑹

Where B is a constant evaluated from the initial condition and τ=L/R. at t=T/2, i(T/2)=𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
\

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In steady state, the current waveforms for RL load can be described by

Figure: 5.21 Single Phase Full wave Bridge invertor wave form

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5. 13 Three Phase Bridge Inverter

• Three-phase inverters are normally used for high-power applications. Three single-phase
half (or full)-bridge inverters can be connected in parallel as shown in Figure, to form the
configuration of a three-phase inverter.
• The gating signals of single-phase inverters should be advanced or delayed by 120° with
respect to each other to obtain three-phase balanced (fundamental) voltages.
• The transformer primary windings must be isolated from each other, whereas the
secondary windings may be connected in Y or delta. The transformer secondary is
normally connected in delta to eliminate triple harmonics (n = 3, 6, 9,…..) appearing on
the output voltages and the circuit arrangement is shown in Figure.
• This arrangement requires three single-phase transformers, 12 transistors, and 12 diodes. If
the output voltages of single-phase inverters are not perfectly balanced in magnitudes and
phases, the three-phase output voltages are unbalanced.
• Two types of control signals can be applied to the transistors: 180° conduction or 120°
conduction. The 180° conduction has better utilization of the switches and is the preferred
method.

Figure: 5.22 Three phase full wave Bridge invertors block diagram

• Three-phase inverters are normally used for high-power applications. Three single phase half (or
full)-bridge inverters can be connected in parallel as shown in Figure 5.22 to form the
configuration of a three-phase inverter.
 The gating signals of single-phase inverters should be advanced or delayed by 120° with
respect to each other to obtain three-phase balanced (fundamental) voltages.
 The transformer primary windings must be isolated from each other, whereas the secondary
windings may be connected in Y or delta. The transformer secondary is normally connected in
delta to eliminate triplen harmonics (n = 3, 6, 9….etc) appearing on the output voltages and the
circuit arrangement is shown in Figure 5.22(b).

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Figure: 5.23 ThreePhase Full wave Bridge invertor circuit diagram

 This arrangement requires three single-phase transformers, 12 transistors, and 12 diodes. If the
output voltages of single-phase inverters are not perfectly balanced in magnitudes and phases, the
three-phase output voltages are unbalanced.
 A three-phase output can be obtained from a configuration of six transistors andsix diodes as
shown in Figure 5.23. Two types of control signals can be applied to thetransistors: 180°
conduction or 120° conduction. The 180° conduction has better utilizationof the switches and is
the preferred method.This circuit topology is often known as a three-phase bridge inverter and is
usedin many applications, including renewable energy systems as shown in Figure5.23.
 Therectifier converts the ac voltage of the wind generator to a dc voltage and the voltagesource
inverter (VSI) converts the dc voltage into three-phase ac voltages to matchwith ac grid voltage
and frequency.
1)180-Degree Conduction:

 Each transistor conducts for 180°. Three transistors remain on at any instant of time.When
transistor Q1 is switched on, terminal a is connected to the positive terminal ofthe dc input
voltage. When transistor Q4 is switched on, terminal a is brought to thenegative terminal of the dc
source.
 There are six modes of operation in a cycle and theduration of each mode is 60°. The transistors
are numbered in the sequence of gatingthe transistors (e.g., 123, 234, 345, 456, 561, and 612). The
gating signals shown inFigure b are shifted from each other by 60° to obtain three-phase balanced
(fundamental)voltages.

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 The load may be connected in Y or delta. The switchesof any leg of the inverter (S1 and S4, S3
and S6, or S5 and S2) cannot be switched onsimultaneously; this would result in a short circuit
across the dc-linkvoltage supply.
 Similarly, to avoid undefined states and thus undefined ac output line voltages, theswitches of
any leg of the inverter cannot be switched off simultaneously; this can resultin voltages that
depend on the respective line current polarity. TransistorsQ1, Q6 in Figure (a) actas the switching
devices S1, S6, respectively.
 If two switches: one upper and one lowerconduct at the same time such that the output voltage is
±Vs, the switch state is 1,whereas if these switches are off at the same time, the switch state is 0.
States 1 to 6produce nonzero output voltages. States 7 and 8 produce zero-line voltages and
theline currents freewheel through either the upper or the lower freewheeling diodes.
 To generate a given voltage waveform, the inverter moves from one state to another.Thus, the
resulting ac output line voltages are built up of discrete values of voltages of+Vs, 0, and -Vs. To
generate the given waveform, the selection of the states is usuallydone by a modulating technique
that should assure the use of only the valid states.

For a delta-connected load, the phase currents can be obtained directly from the line-to-line
voltages. Once the phase currents are known, the line currents can be determined. For a Y-
connected load, the line-to-neutral voltages must be determined to find the line (or phase)
currents. There are three modes of operation in a half-cycle and the equivalent circuits are shown
in Figure a for a Y-connected load.

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The line-to-line rms voltage can be

2)120-Degree Conduction:In this type of control, each transistor conducts for 120°. Only two
transistors remainon at any instant of time. The gating signals are shown in wave form figure. The
conductionsequenceof transistors is 61, 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, 61. There are three modes of operation
inone half-cycle and the equivalent circuits for a Y-connected load are shown in following
figures.

Figure 5.24 Waveforms

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There is a delay of 𝜋 6 between turning off Q1 and turning on Q4. Thus, there shouldbe no
short circuit of the dc supply through one upper and one lower transistors. Atany time, two load
terminals are connected to the dc supply and the third one remainsopen. The potential of this open
terminal depends on the load characteristics andwould be unpredictable. Because one transistor
conducts for 120°, the transistors areless utilized as compared with those of 180° conduction for
the same load condition.Thus, the 180° conduction is preferred and it is generally used in three-
phase inverters.
5.13 Voltage Control and Harmonic Reduction
 The output voltage of the inverter needs to be varied as per load requirement. Whenever the
input DC varies, the output voltage can change.
 Hence these variations need to be compensated. In case of motor drives the ratio of voltage to
frequency 𝑉 𝑓 is maintained constant. The output voltage and frequency of the inverter is
adjusted to keep 𝑉 𝑓 constant. Similarly, in UPS the output voltage of inverter is to be regulated.
 These all the reasons indicate that the output voltage of inverter is to be controlled. The pulse
width modulation (PWM) techniques are mainly used for voltage control.
 These techniques are most efficient and they control the drives of the switching devices.
Following are the PWM techniques:
(i) Single pulse width modulation
(ii) Multiple pulse width modulation
(iii) Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
(iv) Modified sinusoidal pulse width modulation
(v) Phase displacement control Out of the above techniques,

5.13.1 Single pulse width Modulation techniques

 This is a PWM technique in which there is only one pulse present in each half cycle of the
output waveform.
 In this technique, the comparator circuit first compares the carrier and reference signal and
outputs the signal for switching of IGBT or power transistor.

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 The frequency of the reference/modulating signal is the deciding factor for the frequency
of output voltage.
 Observe that there is single pulse of output voltage during each half cycle. The width of
the pulse is '2d'. RMS value of output voltage can be controlled by varying the pulse
width.

Figure 5.25 Waveforms

Mathematical analysis:

We have done the complete mathematical analysis of quasi-square wave inverter. The same
analysis is applicable to single pulse modulation. Following are the relations in terms of ‘d’.

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5.13.2 Multiple pulse width Modulation:

• In multiple pulse width modulation, there is more than one pulse present in each half-
cycle. The width of each pulse is the same and can be varied by varying amplitude of
carrier signal.
• The frequency of reference signal decides the frequency of the output signal. In this
method, harmonics distortion is less in comparison to the previous one. The carrier
frequency decides the number of pulses per half cycle.
• Several pulses in each half-cycle of the output voltage are generally produced to reduce
the harmonic contents and to increase harmonic frequencies for reducing the size and costs
of filtering.The generation of gating signals for turning on and off transistors is by
comparing a reference signal with a triangular carrier wave. The frequency of reference
signal sets the output frequency fo, and the carrier frequency fc determines the number of
pulses per half-cycle p.

The modulation index controls the output voltage.This type of modulation is also known as
uniform pulse-width modulation (UPWM).The number of pulses per half-cycle is found from

where mf= fc/fo is defined as the frequency modulation ratio.

5.13.3 Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation:

Since the desired output voltage is a sine wave, a reference sinusoidal signal is usedas
thereference signal. Instead of maintaining the width of all pulses the same as inthe case of
multiple-pulse modulation, the width of each pulse is varied in proportionto the amplitude of a
sine wave evaluated at the centre of the same pulse [2]. The DFand LOH are reduced

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significantly. The gating signals as shown in Figure (a) aregenerated by comparing a sinusoidal
reference signal with a triangular carrier waveof frequency fc. This sinusoidal pulse-width
modulation (SPWM) is commonly usedin industrial applications.

Figure 5.26 Wave forms

The frequency of reference signal fr determines the inverter output frequency fo; and its
peak amplitude Ar controls the modulation index M, andthen in turn the rms output voltage Vo.
Comparing the bidirectional carrier signal Vcr with two sinusoidal reference signals Vr and –Vr
shown in Figure 5.26 a producesgating signals g1 and g4, respectively, as shown in Figure 5.26b.
The output voltage isvo= Vs(g1 - g4). However, g1 and g4 cannot be released at the same time.
The numberof pulses per half-cycle depends on the carrier frequency. Within the constraintthat
two transistors of the same arm (Q1 and Q4) cannot conduct at the same time, theinstantaneous
output voltage is shown in Figure(c). The same gating signals can begenerated by using
unidirectional triangular carrier wave as shown in Figure (d). Itis easier to implement this method
and is preferable.
The rms output voltage can be varied by varying the modulation index M, definedby M =
Ar/Ac. It can be observed that the area of each pulse corresponds approximatelyto the area under
the sine wave between the adjacent midpoints of off periodson the gating signals.If 𝛿m is the
width of mth pulse, to find the rms output voltage by summing the average areas under each pulse
as

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5.14 Current Source Inverter

• Current Source Inverter is a type of inverter circuit that changes the dc current at its input into
equivalent ac current.
• It is abbreviated as CSI and sometimes called a current fed inverter. Here the input provided to
the circuit is a stiff dc current source rather than dc voltage source.
• In CSI, the input voltage is kept invariable and the amplitude of output voltage does not show
dependency on load.
• But the waveform representation and the magnitude of the current flowing through the load
depends upon the nature of the load impedance.

Figure 5.15 Thyristor based current source inverter

Figure 5.16 Working of current source inverter

Figure 1.7 Wave form of current source Inverter

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• Assumption regarding thyristor is made over here that it possesses zero commutation time.
Here voltage source is connected in series with the inductor provides constant current at
the input terminal of the current source inverter.
• Four thyristors in the configuration of pair of 𝑇1 − 𝑇3 and 𝑇2 − 𝑇4 conduct alternatively.
• Initially when thyristors 𝑇1 − 𝑇3 are On then the positive current 𝐼𝑠 which is having the
magnitude equal to source current flows through the load by passing through thyristors
𝑇1 − 𝑇3 .
• While when T2 and T4 are on then the direction of flow of load current is opposite to the
former case and so the load current will be negative but equivalent to the applied input
current. A noteworthy point over here is that in both cases the frequency of the obtained
output waveform shows dependency on the triggering instant of the thyristors.
• The square wave shown below represents the output of an ideal single-phase current
source inverter:
• Here the amplitude of the square wave obtained is equal to the magnitude of applied dc
input current. It can be clearly seen from the waveform representation that the two pairs of
thyristors get turned on alternatively and possess a reverse direction of flow of current.

5.14 Transistorised Current Source Inverter:

Figure 5.27Transistorised Current source Inverter circuit

An assumption regarding thyristor is made over here that it possesses zero commutation
time. Here we are having a voltage source in series with an inductor that provides constant current
at the input terminal of the current source inverter. More simply, we have realized a high current
source by using the inductance of a specific value and a limited dc voltage source.
Although there are four transistors in the configuration pair of Q1-Q2 and Q3-Q4 conduct
alternatively. Initially when transistors Q1 and Q2 are on then the current Is flows through the load
bypassing through transistors Q1 and Q2. When Q3 and Q4 conduct then the current flows through
the load and the load current is positive and equal to the applied input current.

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Figure 5.28 Current source inverter waveforms

• While when Q3 and Q4 are on then the direction of flow of load current is opposite to the former
case and so the load current will be negative but equivalent to the applied input current.
Anoteworthy point over here is that in both cases the frequency of the obtained output waveform
shows dependency on the triggering instant of the thyristors.
• The square wave shown figure 5.28 represents the output of an ideal single-phase current source
inverter:
• Here the amplitude of the square wave obtained is equal to the magnitude of applied dc input
current. It can be clearly seen from the waveform representation that the two pairs of thyristors get
turned on alternatively and possess a reverse direction of flow of current.
• A CSI requires a relatively large reactor to exhibit current-source characteristicsand an extra
converter stage to control the current. The dynamic response is slower.Due to current transfer
from one pair of switches to another, an output filter is requiredto suppress the output voltage
spikes.
Advantages
• It offers easy operation as the circuit working is controlled by controlled current source
i.e., the combination of current limited voltage source serially connected to the large
inductance.
• The circuit is designed in a way that it can handle large voltage spikes at the time of
commutation.
• The four-quadrant operation can be achieved without the need for extra power usage.
Disadvantages
• An unstable performance is noticed at light load and high-frequency operation.
• The commutation of the thyristor in the circuit shows dependency on the load current
which limits the operating frequency.

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Applications of Current Source Inverter

The various applications of CSI are as follows:
1. It is used for speed control of ac motors.
2. Induction heating
3. UPS units
4. Plasma generatorsSwitching devices
5. Synchronous motor starting
6. Lagging VAr compensation

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