PCE11-M

Geotechnical Engineering 1
(Lecture)

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Chapter 1: Introduction
Definition of Soil Rock Cycle

Definition of Soil Mechanics Soil–Particle Size

Soil Engineering and Geotechnical Engineering Specific Gravity

Scope of Soil Engineering Mechanical Analysis of Soil

Origin of Soil Particle–Size Distribution Curve

Formation of Soil Particle Shape

Transportation of Soil Terminology of Different Types of Soils

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Course Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1) Define and discuss the basic terms in Geotechnical
Engineering.
2) Discuss the scope of Soil Engineering.
3) Explain the origin, formation and transportation of soil.
4) Explain the rock cycle and the different types of rocks.
5) Classify soil according to particle size distribution.
6) Determine the specific gravity of soil.
7) Perform mechanical analysis of soil
8) Construct the particle size distribution curve.
9) Define the basic terminology of different types of soil.

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Definition of Soil
▪ In the field of agronomy, soil means the upper layer of the earth
that may be dug or plowed; specifically, the loose material of the
earth in which plants grow.
▪ In geology, earth’s crust is assumed to consist of
unconsolidated sediments, called mantle or regolith, overlying
rocks. Soil is the upper layer of mantle which can support
plants. It is known as topsoil in geotechnical engineering or soil
engineering.
▪ In soil engineering, soil is an unconsolidated material,
composed of solid particles, produced by the disintegration of
rocks.

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Definition of Soil Mechanics
Soil Mechanics is the application of the laws of mechanics and
hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments and
other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles produced by
the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rock, regardless of
whether they contain an admixture of organic constituents (Dr. Karl
Terzaghi, 1925). Soil Mechanics is, therefore, a branch of
mechanics which deals with the action of forces on soil and with
the flow of water in soil.
Karl Terzaghi (born October 2, 1883, Prague - died October 25, 1963, Winchester,
Massachusetts, U.S.) was a civil engineer who founded the branch of civil
engineering science known as soil mechanics, the study of the properties of soil
under stresses and under the action of flowing water.

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Soil Engineering and Geotechnical Engineering
Soil Engineering is an applied science dealing with the
applications of principles of soil mechanics to practical
problems. It has a much wider scope than soil
mechanics, as it deals with all engineering problems
related with soils. It includes site investigations, design
and construction of foundations, earth-retaining
structures and earth structures.
Geotechnical Engineering is a broader term which
includes soil engineering, rock mechanics and geology.
Rock mechanics | geology | Britannica

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Scope of Soil Engineering
1) Foundations – every civil engineering structure,
whether it is a building, a bridge, or a dam, is founded
on or below the surface of the earth. Foundations are
required to transmit the load of the structure to soil
safely and efficiently.

2) Retaining Structures – when sufficient space is not

available for a mass of soil to spread and form a safe
slope, a structure is required to retain the soil. An earth
retaining structure is also required to keep the soil at
different levels on its either side. The retaining structure
may be a rigid retaining wall or a sheet pile bulkhead
which is relatively flexible. Soil engineering gives the
theories of earth pressure on retaining structures.

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Scope of Soil Engineering
3) Stability of slopes – if soil surface is not
horizontal, there is a component of weight of the
soil which tends to move it downward and thus
causes instability of slope. The slopes may be
natural or man-made. Soil engineering provides
the methods for checking the stability of slopes.

4) Underground structures – the design and

construction of underground structures, such as
tunnels, shafts, and conduits, require evaluation
of forces exerted by the soil on these structures.
Tunnel Heights - Blue Ridge Parkway new water pipe in the ground
(U.S. National Park Service)

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Scope of Soil Engineering
5) Pavement design – a pavement is hard crust placed on
soil (subgrade) for the purpose of providing a smooth
surface on which vehicles can move. The pavement
consist of surfacing, such as bitumen layer, base and
subbase. The behavior of subgrade under various
conditions of loading and environmental changes is
studied in soil engineering.

6) Earth Dam – earth dams are huge structures in which

soil is used as a construction material. The earth dams
are built for creating water reservoirs. Since the failure
of an earth dam may cause widespread catastrophe,
extreme care is taken in its design and construction. It
Creator: CHUNYIP WONG
requires thorough knowledge of soil engineering. Credit: Getty Images

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Scope of Soil Engineering
7) Miscellaneous Soil Problems – the
geotechnical engineer has sometimes
to tackle miscellaneous problems
related with soil, such as soil heave,
soil subsidence, frost heave, shrinkage
and swelling of soils. Soil engineering
provides an in-depth study of such
problems.

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Origin of Soil
Residual soil or sedimentary soil – soil that stays at the place of its
formation just above the parent rock.
Transported soil – soil that has been deposited at a place away from the
place of its origin.

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Formation of Soil
Weathering is the process of breaking Physical Disintegration – or mechanical
down rocks by mechanical and chemical weathering of rocks occurs due to the following
processes into smaller pieces.
physical processes:
❑ Mechanical weathering - may be
1) Temperature changes – different minerals of a
caused by the expansion and
contraction of rocks from the continuous rock have different coefficients of thermal
gain and loss of heat, which results in expansion. Unequal expansion and contraction
ultimate disintegration. of these minerals occur due to temperature
❑ Chemical weathering - the original rock changes. When the stresses induced due to
minerals are transformed into new such changes are repeated many times, the
minerals by chemical reaction. particles get detached from the rocks and the
soils are formed.

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Formation of Soil
2) Wedging action of ice – water in the pores 4) Abrasion – as water, wind and glaciers move
and minute cracks of rocks gets frozen in very over the surface of rock, abrasion and scouring
cold climates. As the volume of ice formed is takes place. It results in the formation of soil.
more than that of water, expansion occurs.
Rocks get broken into pieces when large In all the processes of physical integration, there is
stresses develop in the cracks due to no change in the chemical composition. The soil
wedging action of the ice formed. formed has the properties of the parent rock.
Coarse grained soils, such as gravel and sand, are
3) Spreading of roots of plants – as the roots of formed by the process of physical disintegration.
trees and shrubs grow in the cracks and
fissures of the rocks, forces act on the rock.
The segments of the rock are forced apart
and disintegration of rocks occurs.

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Formation of Soil
Chemical Decomposition – when chemical 2) Carbonation – it is a type of chemical
decomposition or chemical weathering of rocks decomposition in which carbon dioxide in the
takes place, original rock minerals are atmosphere combines with water to form
transformed into new minerals by chemical carbonic acid. Carbonic acid reacts chemically
reactions. The soil formed does not have the with rocks and causes their decomposition.
properties of the parent rock. The following 3) Oxidation – oxidation occurs when oxygen ions
chemical processes generally occur in nature: combine with minerals in rocks. Oxidation
results in decomposition of rocks. The
1) Hydration – water combines with rock
oxidation of rocks is somewhat similar to
minerals and results in the formation of a
rusting steel.
new chemical compound. The chemical
reaction causes a change in volume and 4) Solution – some of the rock minerals form a
decomposition of rocks into small particles. solution with water when they get dissolved in
water. A chemical reaction takes place in the
solution and the soil is formed.

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Formation of Soil
5) Hydrolysis – it is a chemical process in
which water gets dissociated into H+ and
OH ions. Hydrogen cations replace
metallic ions such as calcium, sodium
and potassium in rock minerals and soils
are formed with a new chemical
decomposition.

Chemical decomposition of rocks results in

formation of clay minerals. These clay
minerals impart plastic properties to soils.
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Hydrolysis-unit-1-water-bath-2-
Clayey soils are formed by chemical three-necked-flask-3-thermometer-4-condenser_fig1_347679148

decomposition.

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Transportation of Soil
1) Water transported soils – flowing water is one 2) Wind transported soils – soil particles are
of the most important agents of transportation transported by winds.
of soils. Swift running water carries large Aeolian deposits - soils deposited by wind a
quantity of soil either in suspension or by
Large sand dunes are formed by winds. Sand
rolling along the bed. Water erodes the hills
dunes occur in arid regions and on the leeward
and deposits the soils in the valleys.
side of sea with sandy beaches.
Alluvial deposits – all type of soils carried and
Loess is a silt deposit made by wind. These
deposited by water.
deposits have low density and high
Lacustrine deposits – deposits made in lakes. compressibility. The bearing capacity of such
Marine deposits – formed when the flowing soils is very low. The permeability in the vertical
water carries soils to ocean or sea. direction is large.

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Transportation of Soil
3) Glacier-Deposited Soils – Glaciers are large Till - deposits directly made by melting of glaciers
masses of ice formed by the compaction of are called
snow. As they move and shift, they carry Terminal moraine, also called an end moraine, is a
various soil particles, ranging from tiny grains type of moraine that forms at the terminal (edge) of
to large boulders. These materials become a glacier, marking its maximum advance.
embedded in the ice and are transported far
Ground moraine – consists of an irregular blanket
from their original sites. When the ice melts,
of till deposited under a glacier.
water streams carry the sediments, resulting
in their eventual deposition. These deposits Out-wash - the soil carried by melting water from
frequently display distinct layers. the front of a glacier is termed.

Drift - is the general term used for the deposits Deposits of glacial till are generally well-graded
made by the glaciers directly or indirectly. and can be compacted to a high dry density. These
have generally high shearing strength.

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Transportation of Soil
4) Gravity-deposited soils – soils can be 5) Soils transported by combined action –
transported through short distances under the sometimes, two or more agents of
action of gravity. Rock fragments and soil transportation act jointly and transport the soil.
masses collected at the foot of the cliffs or For example, a soil particle may fall under
steep slopes had fallen from higher elevation gravity and may be carried by wind to a far-off
under the action of the gravitational force. place. It might be picked up again by flowing
Colluvial soils, such as talus, have been water and deposited. A glacier may carry it still
deposited by the gravity. further.
Talus - consists of irregular, coarse particles. It
is a good source of broken rock pieces and
coarse-grained soils for many engineering
works.

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Rock Cycle

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Rock Cycle
❑ Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling
of magma. Fast cooling occurs above
the surface, producing igneous rocks
such as basalt, whereas slow cooling
occurs below the surface, producing
other types of igneous rocks, such as
granite and dolerite. These rocks are the
ancestors of sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks.

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Rock Cycle
❑ Sedimentary Rock
Sedimentary rocks are made up of
particles and fragments derived from
disintegrated rocks that are subjected
to pressure and cementation caused
by calcite and silica. Limestone (chalk)
is a familiar example of a sedimentary
rock.

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Rock Cycle
❑ Metamorphic Rock
Metamorphic rocks are the product of
existing rocks subjected to changes
in pressure and temperature, causing
changes in mineral composition of
the original rocks. Marble, slate, and
schist are examples of metamorphic
rocks.

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Rock Cycle
Bowen's reaction principle outlines the process by which
new minerals are created as magma cools. As the magma
solidifies, mineral crystals grow larger, and some settle to the
bottom. The crystals that remain suspended in the liquid
interact with the remaining melt, resulting in the formation of
new minerals at lower temperatures. This cycle continues until
the entire melt solidifies.
Bowen categorized these reactions into two main groups:
(1) the discontinuous ferromagnesian reaction series, where
the minerals produced differ in both chemical composition
and crystalline structure, and
(2) the continuous plagioclase feldspar reaction series, where
the minerals formed have varying chemical compositions
but share similar crystalline structures.

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Rock Cycle

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Rock Cycle

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Rock Cycle
Sedimentary rocks

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Soil–Particle Size

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Soil–Particle Size

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Specific Gravity
Specific gravity - is defined as the
ratio of the unit weight of a given
material to the unit weight of water.
The specific gravity of soil solids is
often needed for various
calculations in soil mechanics. It
can be determined accurately in the
laboratory.

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Mechanical Analysis of Soil
Mechanical analysis – the
determination of the size range of
particles present in a soil, expressed as a
percentage of the total dry weight.
❑ Sieve analysis – for particle sizes
larger than 0.075 mm in diameter
❑ Hydrometer analysis – for particle
sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in
diameter.

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Mechanical Analysis of Soil
Procedures:
1) Determine the mass of soil retained on each sieve
(𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑀1 , 𝑀2 ,· · · 𝑀𝑛 ) and in the pan (𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑀𝑝 )
2) Determine the total mass of the soil: 𝑀1 + 𝑀2 + · · · +𝑀𝑖 +· · ·
𝑀𝑛 + 𝑀𝑝 = σ 𝑀
3) Determine the cumulative mass of soil retained above each
sieve. For the 𝑖𝑡ℎ sieve, it is 𝑀1 + 𝑀2 + ⋯ + 𝑀𝑖
4) The mass of soil passing the 𝑖𝑡ℎ sieve is σ 𝑀 − (𝑀1 + 𝑀2 +
⋯ + 𝑀𝑖 )
5) The percent of soil passing the 𝑖𝑡ℎ sieve (or percent finer) is
A set of sieves for a test in the laboratory
(Courtesy of Braja M. Das, Henderson, Nevada)
σ 𝑀− 𝑀1 +𝑀2 +⋯+𝑀𝑖
𝐹= σ𝑀
∗ 100

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Mechanical Analysis of Soil
Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of
sedimentation of soil grains in water. When a soil
specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at
different velocities, depending on their shape, size,
weight, and the viscosity of the water.
Stokes Law:
𝜌𝑠 −𝜌𝑤 2
𝜈= 𝐷 eq. 1.1
18𝜂
Where: 𝜈 = velocity
𝜂 = viscosity of water
𝜌𝑤 = density of water
𝜌𝑠 = density of soil particles

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Mechanical Analysis of Soil
or
18𝜂𝜈
From eq. 1.1: 𝐷= eq. 1.2 30𝜂 𝐿
𝜌𝑠 −𝜌𝑤
𝐷=
𝐺𝑠 −1 𝜌𝑤 𝑡
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿
Where: 𝜈= =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 Assume 𝜌𝑤 to be approximately equal to 1 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 ,
Note that: 𝜌𝑠 = 𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤 eq. 1.3 so that
𝐿 𝑐𝑚
Combining eqs. 1.2 and 1.3 𝐷 𝑚𝑚 = 𝐾 eq. 1.5
𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐷=
18𝜂 𝐿
eq. 1.4 Where:
𝐺𝑠 −1 𝜌𝑤 𝑡
30𝜂
𝐾= eq. 1.6
If the units of 𝜂 are (𝑔 ∗ sec)/𝑐𝑚2 , 𝜌𝑤 is in 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 , 𝐺𝑠 −1 𝜌𝑤
𝐿 is in 𝑐𝑚, 𝑡 is in min , and 𝐷 is in 𝑚𝑚, then,

𝐷 𝑚𝑚 18𝜂 𝑔∗𝑐𝑚 /𝑐𝑚2 𝐿 𝑐𝑚

=
10 𝐺𝑠 −1 𝜌𝑤 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∗60

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Mechanical Analysis of Soil

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Mechanical Analysis of Soil
The value of 𝐿 (𝑐𝑚) for the ASTM 152H hydrometer
The value of 𝐿1 is 10.5 𝑐𝑚 for a reading of 𝑅 =
can be given by the expression (see Figure 2.24)
0 and 2.3 𝑐𝑚 for a reading of 𝑅 = 50. Hence,
1 𝑉𝐵
𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 2 𝐿2 − eq. 1.7 𝐿1 = 10.5 −
10.5−2.3
𝑅
𝐴
50
Where: 𝐿1 = 10.5 − 0.164𝑅 𝑐𝑚
𝐿1 = distance along the stem of the hydrometer
from the top of the bulb to the mark for a
hydrometer reading (cm)
𝐿2 = length of the hydrometer bulb (14 cm)
𝑉𝐵 = volume of the hydrometer bulb (67 𝑐𝑚3 )
𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the sedimentation
cylinder (27.8 𝑐𝑚2 )

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Mechanical Analysis of Soil
from Eq. (1.7),
1 67
𝐿 = 10.5 − 0.164𝑅 + 2 14 − 27.8
𝐿 = 16.29 − 0.164𝑅 eq. 1.8
Where: 𝑅 = hydrometer reading corrected for the meniscus
Based on Eq. (1.8), the variations of L with the hydrometer
readings R are given in Table 2.7.

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Particle–Size Distribution Curve
A particle-size distribution curve can be used to
determine the following four parameters for a given
soil.
1) Effective size (𝑫𝟏𝟎 ) : This parameter is the
diameter in the particle-size distribution curve
corresponding to 10 % finer. The effective size of a
granular soil is a good measure to estimate the
hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.
2) Uniformity coefficient (𝑪𝒖 ): This parameter is
defined as
𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 = eq. 1.9
𝐷10
where 𝐷60 = diameter corresponding to 60 %
finer

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Particle–Size Distribution Curve
3) Coefficient of gradation (𝑪𝑪 ): This parameter
is defined as
𝐷30 2
𝐶𝐶 = eq. 1.10
𝐷60 ∗𝐷10

4) Sorting coefficient (𝑺𝑶 ): This parameter is

another measure of uniformity and is generally
encountered in geologic works and expressed
as

𝐷75
𝑆𝑂 = eq. 1.11
𝐷25

The sorting coefficient is not frequently used as

a parameter by geotechnical engineers.

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Particle–Size Distribution Curve
From Figure 2.25, the percentage of gravel, sand,
silt, and clay size particles (according to the
Unified Soil Classification System) are shown in
the table below:

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Particle–Size Distribution Curve
Semi-log plot
A semi-log plot, also known as a semi-logarithmic plot or graph, is a
graph where one axis is plotted on a logarithmic scale (the x-axis),
and the other axis is plotted on a normal, linear scale (the y-axis).

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 Semi-Log Paper (4 cycle)

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Particle Shape
The particle shape generally can be divided into three major categories:
1) Bulky - are formed mostly by mechanical weathering of rock and minerals
The angularity, A, is defined as
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝐴 = 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
The sphericity of bulky particles is defined as
3 6𝑉
where 𝐷𝑒 = equivalent diameter of the particle = 𝜋

𝑉 = volume of particle
𝐿𝑝 = length of particle
2) Flaky - have very low sphericity – usually 0.01 or less. These particles are predominantly clay minerals
3) Needle shaped - are much less common than the other two particle types. Examples of soils containing
needle-shaped particles are some coral deposits and attapulgite clays.

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Particle Shape

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Cohesive and Cohesionless Soils
1) Soils in which the adsorbed water and particle attraction act such that it deforms plastically at
varying water contents are known as cohesive soils or clays. These cohesive property is due to
presence of clay minerals in soils. Therefore, the term cohesive soil is used synonymously for clayey
soils.
2) The soils composed of bulky grains are cohesionless regardless of the fineness of the particles. The
rock flour is cohesionless even when it has the particle size smaller than 2𝜇 size. Non-plastic silts
and coarse-grained soils are cohesionless. [Note: 1𝜇 = 1 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 10−6 𝑚 = 10−3 𝑚𝑚]
3) The term cohesive soil is used for clays and plastic silt, and the term cohesionless soil, for non-
plastic silts, sand and gravel.

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Terminology of Different Types of Soils
1) Bentonite – it is a type of clay with a very high 4) Calcareous soils – these soils contain a
percentage of clay mineral montmorillonite. It large quantity of calcium carbonate. Such
is a highly plastic clay, resulting from the soils effervesce when tested with weak
decomposition of volcanic ash. It is highly hydrochloric acid.
water absorbent and has high shrinkage and 5) Caliche – it is a type of soil which contains
swelling characteristics. gravel, sand and silt. The particles are
2) Black Cotton Soil – it is a residual soil cemented by calcium carbonate.
containing a high percentage of the clay 6) Cobbles – are large size particles in the range
mineral montmorillonite. It has very low of 80 mm to 300 mm.
bearing capacity and high swelling and
7) Dispersive clays – these are special type of
shrinkage properties.
clays which deflocculates in still water. Such
3) Boulders – are rock fragments of large size, soils erode if exposed to low velocity water.
more than 300 mm in size.

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Terminology of Different Types of Soils
8) Clay – it consists of microscopic and sub- 9) Diatomaceous earth – diatoms are minute
microscopic particles derived from the unicellular marine organisms. Diatomaceous
chemical decomposition of rocks. It contains a earth is a fine, light gray, soft sedimentary
large quantity of clay minerals. It can be made deposit of the silicious remains of skeleton of
plastic by adjusting the water content. It diatoms.
exhibits considerable strength when dry. Clay 10) Dune sands – these are wind transported
is fine-grained soil. It is a cohesive soil. The soils. These are composed of relatively
particle size is less than 0.002 mm. uniform particles of fine to medium sand.
Organic clay contains finely divided organic 11) Expansive clays – these are prone to large
matter and is usually dark gray or black in volume changes as the water content is
color. It has a conspicuous odor. Organic clay changed.
is highly compressible, and its strength is very
high when dry.

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Terminology of Different Types of Soils
12) Fills – all man-made deposits of soil and 15) Hardpans – hardpans are types of soils that
waste materials are called fills. These are the offer great resistance to the penetration of
soil embankments raised above the ground drilling tools during soil exploration. The soil is
surface. Engineering properties of fills depend designated hardpans regardless of their
upon the type of soil, its water content and the particle size. These are generally dense, well-
degree of compaction. graded, cohesive aggregates of mineral
13) Gravel – gravel is a type of coarse-grained soil. particles. Hardpans do not disintegrate when
The particle sizes range from 4.75 mm to 80 submerged in water.
mm. It is a cohesionless material. 16) Kankar – it is an impure form of limestone. It
14) Humus – it is a dark brown, organic contains calcium carbonate mixed with some
amorphous earth of the topsoil. It consists of silicious material.
partly decomposed vegetable matter. It is not
suitable for engineering work.

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Terminology of Different Types of Soils
17) Laterites – are residual soils formed in tropical 20) Loess – it is a windblown deposit of silt. It is
regions. Laterites are very soft when freshly cut generally of uniform gradation, with the particle
but become hard after long exposure. Hardness size between 0.01 to 0.05 mm. it consists of
is due to cementing action of iron oxide and quartz and feldspar particles, cemented with
aluminum oxide. These soils are also called calcium carbonate or iron oxide. When wet, it
lateritic soils. becomes soft and compressible because
18) Loam – it is a mixture of sand, silt and clay. The cementing action is lost. A loess deposit has a
term is generally used in agronomy. The soil is loose structure with numerous root holes which
well-suited to tilling operations. produce vertical cleavage. The permeability in
the vertical direction is generally much greater
19) Moorum – the word moorum is derived from the
than that in the horizontal direction.
Tamil word, meaning powdered rock. It consists
of small pieces of disintegrated rock or shale, 21) Marl – it is a stiff, marine calcareous clay of
with or without boulders. greenish color.

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Terminology of Different Types of Soils
22) Muck – it denotes a mixture of fine soil particles 24) Sand – it is a coarse-grained soil, having a
and highly decomposed organic matter. It is particle size between 0.075 and 4.75 mm. the
black in color and of extremely soft consistency. particles are visible to the naked eye. The soil is
It cannot be used for engineering work. Organic cohesionless and pervious.
matter is in an advanced stage of 25) Silt – it is a fine-grained soil, with particle size
decomposition. between 0.002 to 0.075 mm. the particles are
23) Peat – it is an organic soil having fibrous not visible to naked eyes. Inorganic silt consists
aggregates of macroscopic and microscopic of bulky, equidimensional grains of quartz. It has
particles. It is formed from vegetable matter little or no plasticity and is cohesionless. Organic
under conditions of excess moisture, such as silt contains an admixture of organic matter. It is
swamps. It is highly compressible and not a plastic soil and is cohesive.
suitable for foundations.

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Terminology of Different Types of Soils
26) Till – it is an unstratified deposit formed by 29) Tundra – it is a mat of peat and shrubby
melting of a glacier. The deposit consists of vegetation that covers clayey subsoil in arctic
particles of different sizes, ranging from boulders regions. The deeper layers are permanently
to clay. The soil is generally well-graded. It can frozen and are called permafrost. The surface
be easily densified by compaction. Till is also deposit is the active layer which alternately
known as boulder clay. freezes and thaws.
30) Varved clays – these are sedimentary deposits
27) Topsoil – are surface soils that support plants.
consisting of alternate thin layers of silt and clay.
They contain a large quantity of organic matter
The thickness of each layer seldom exceeds 1
and are not suitable for foundations.
cm. These clays are the results of deposition in
28) Tuff – it is a fine-grained soil composed of very lakes during periods of alternately high and low
small particles ejected from volcanoes during its waters.
explosion and deposited by wind or water.

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Summary
1) Rocks can be classified into three basic categories: (a) igneous, (b) sedimentary, and (c)
metamorphic.
2) Soils are formed by chemical and mechanical weathering of rocks.
3) Based on the size of the soil particles, soil can be classified as gravel, sand, silt, or clay.
4) Clays are mostly flake-shaped microscopic and submicroscopic particles of mica, clay
minerals, and other minerals.
5) Clay minerals are complex aluminum silicates that develop plasticity when mixed with a
limited amount of water.
6) Mechanical analysis is a process for determining the size range of particles present in a soil
mass. Sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis are two tests used in the mechanical
analysis of soil

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Problem 1:
For a soil, suppose that 𝐷10 = 0.08 𝑚𝑚,
𝐷30 = 0.22 𝑚𝑚 , and 𝐷60 = 0.41 𝑚𝑚 .
Calculate the uniformity coefficient and the
coefficient of gradation.
Solution:
𝐷60 0.41
❖ 𝐶𝑢 = = = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝐷10 0.08

𝐷30 2 0.22 2
❖ 𝐶𝐶 = =
𝐷60 ∗𝐷10 0.41 0.08

𝑪𝑪 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕𝟔

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Problem 2:
The following are the results of a sieve U.S. sieve no. Mass of soil retained (g)
analysis: 4 0
a) Determine the percent finer than each 10 18.5
sieve and plot a grain-size distribution 20 53.2
curve. 40 90.5
b) Determine 𝐷10 , 𝐷30 , and 𝐷60 from the 60 81.8
grain-size distribution curve. 100 92.2

c) Calculate the uniformity coefficient, 𝐶𝑢 . 200 58.5

Pan 26.5
d) Calculate the coefficient of gradation, 𝐶𝐶 .

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Problem 2:
Solution: Solution:
From the graph
Cumulative mass Percent finer
U.S. Sieve Mass of soil
No. retained, M (g)
retained above σ 𝑴−𝑪𝑴 𝐷60 = 0.41 𝑚𝑚
each sieve, CM (g) σ𝑴
∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐷30 = 0.19 𝑚𝑚
4 0 0.000 100.00
10 18.5 18.500 95.61 𝐷10 = 0.091 𝑚𝑚
20 53.2 71.700 82.98 𝐷60 0.41
❖ 𝐶𝑢 = = = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟎𝟓𝟓 Answer
40 90.5 162.200 61.49 𝐷10 0.091
60 81.8 244.000 42.07 𝐷30 2 0.19 2
100 92.2 336.200 20.18
❖ 𝐶𝐶 = =
𝐷60 ∗𝐷10 0.41 0.081
200 58.5 394.700 6.29
𝑪𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟔 Answer
Pan 26.5 421.200 0.00
Total 421.2

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 Particle Size Distribution
100.00

90.00

80.00

70.00

𝑫𝟔𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏 𝒎𝒎
60.00
Percent finer

50.00

40.00

𝑫𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎𝒎
30.00

20.00

𝑫𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝒎𝒎
10.00

0.00
10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010
Particle size (mm)

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Problem 3:
The following are the results of a sieve and Analysis Sieve number/ Percent finer
grain size than
hydrometer analysis.
Sieve 40 100
a) Draw the grain-size distribution curve.
80 97
b) Determine the percentages of gravel,
170 92
sand, silt, and clay according to the MIT
200 90
system.
Hydrometer 0.04 mm 74
c) Repeat part b according to the USDA
0.015 mm 42
system.
0.008 mm 27
d) Repeat part b according to the AASHTO 0.004 mm 17
system 0.002 mm 11

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 Grain Size Distribution

100

90
𝟖𝟒. 𝟓 %
80
𝟖𝟎 %
70
Percent Finer

60

50

40

𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝒎
𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎
30

20

10

0
1 0.1 0.01 0.001

Grain Size (mm)

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Problem 3: Analysis Grain size (mm) Percent finer

Answers: Sieve 0.425 100

❖ MIT system 0.18 97

Gravel = 0 % Sand = 15.5 % 0.09 92
Silt = 73.5 % % Clay = 11 %
0.075 90
❖ USDA system
Hydrometer 0.04 74
Gravel = 0 % Sand = 20%
Silt = 69% Clay = 11% 0.015 42

❖ AASHTO system 0.008 27

Gravel = 0% Sand = 10% 0.004 17
Silt = 79% Clay = 11%
0.002 11

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Problem 4:
In a hydrometer test, the results are as follows:
𝐺𝑠 = 2.60, temperature of water 24°𝐶, and 𝑅 =
43 at 60 min after the start of sedimentation
(see Figure 2.24). What is the diameter, D, of the
smallest-size particles that have settled beyond
the zone of measurement at that time (that is,
𝑡 = 60 min)?

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Problem 4:
Solutions:
❖ 𝐿 = 16.29 − 0.164𝑅 = 16.29 − (0.164)(43)
𝐿 = 9.24 𝑐𝑚
❖ At temperature of 24°𝐶 and specific gravity of 2.60,
𝐾 = 0.01321 (from Table 2.6)
❖ Diameter of the smallest particle is

9.24 𝑐𝑚
𝐷 = 0.01321
60 𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟐 𝒎𝒎

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References:
1) Das, Braja M., Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 7th Edition,
Cengage Learning 2010
2) Budhu, Muni, Soil Mechanics and Foundations, 3rd Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 2011
3) Murthy, V. N. S., Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices of
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
4) Craig, R. F., Soil Mechanics, 7th edition, E & FN Spon, 2004
5) Arora, Dr. K. R., Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 2004
6) https://www.soilbook.info/soil_samples/99?lang=en

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