UNIT-3

Solar Collectors
Solar collectors:
Def: Solar collectors are the heat exchangers that uses solar radiation
to heat a working fluid, usually liquid or air. They can be classified in
three groups:
1. Flat-plate collectors,
2. Evacuated-tube collectors,
3. Focusing collectors.
Working Principle of Solar Collectors:
Radiation Radiation Heat Energy Heat Transfer Fluid
Sun Collector Absorber

Heat Energy

Application
Application of Solar Energy:

➢ Solar drying
➢ Solar distillation
➢ Solar cookers
➢ Solar furnaces
➢ Solar photovoltaic cells, etc.
➢ Solar water heating
➢ Heating and cooling of residential buildings
Types of Solar Collector:
Flat Plate Collectors –
It is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover (glazing) on top and a
dark-colored absorber plate on the bottom with insulation at sides and
bottom of the collector to minimize heat loss—typically mounted on a roof
that heats water using the sun’s energy.
▪Temperature achieved up to 40-90°C

Figure: Flat Plate Collector Section.

Energy diagram of typical flat plate collector:
➢92 % of the total sunshine reaches to the copper absorber.
➢8 % of the total sunshine is reflected from glass.
➢5 % of the sunshine is emitted from the panel,
➢12 % is lost through convection and conduction.
 Materials
1) Absorber plate
➢Of the commonly available materials copper is the best because of its high
thermal conductivity. Black Ni-Cr plating (2 μm thick)used as a selective
absorber for surface coating of copper absorber plate.
➢ Adequate tensile and compressive strength
➢The Cu- absorber plate having high resistance to corrosion.
➢The Cu -absorber plate withstand high stagnation temperature (up to 200°C)
Table: Properties of metals used for absorber plates
Material Density Specific Heat Thermal conductivity
(Kg/m3 ) (KJ/Kg°C) (W/mk)
Copper 8954 0.383 376
Aluminium 2707 0.996 205
Mild steel 7833 0.465 50
Brass 8522 0.385 111
Silver 10524 0.234 419
2) Cover plate:
❑ Tempered glass (4mm thickness) of low- iron content has been
the principal material used to glaze solar collectors.
❑ Because it has relatively high transmittance (τ) as much as 91%
of the incoming short-wave radiation as shown in Figure.
❑ Rigidity, High impact and thermal shock resistance

Figure: Cross Section of a Cover Part of a Flat-Plate Collector.

 Thermal and Optical Properties of Cover plate materials:
➢Table gives transmittances for various glazing materials when the direct
solar beam is perpendicular to the glazing.
➢Exact value depends also on the thickness of the glazing.
Table: Glazing Materials
Material Index of Short wave Thickness Density
refraction Transmittance (mm) (Kg/m3 )
Tempered Glass 1.518 0.91 4 2.489 x 103
(low iron)
Acrylic( Plexiglass) 1.490 0.90 3.175 2.489 x 103

Teflon 1.343 0.96 3.175 2.148 x 103

Fiberglass 1.54 0.87 6.35 1.399 x 103

Polycarbonate (Lexan) 1.586 0.84 3.175 1.199 x 103

3) Collector Thermal Insulation:
Properties:
▪ Low thermal conductivity
▪ Structural stability at high temperature (up to 200°C)
▪ No contribution in corrosion
▪ Ease of application
Table: Properties of Thermal insulating materials for solar collectors
Material Thermal conductivity Density Out Saging Colour Remarks
(Kg/m3 ) gassing change
(W/m°C )
Glass wool 0.044 48 No Yes Yes Good

Rockwool 0.120 48 No No No Good, Reasonable

cost
Crown White 0.034 48 No Yes No Good but
wool Expensive
ISO Cyanurate 0.020 32 No No Yes Under Testing

Cellular Foam 0.093 400 Yes No Yes Not Good

Thermocole 0.035 16 Yes No Yes Not Good

Calcium silicate 0.07 251.60 No No No Good but heavy

4) Collector Housing
➢Anodized extruded aluminium channel of 1.6 mm thickness is used for making
the collector housing.
➢Thickness of back aluminium sheet is 0.71 mm for supporting absorber plate and
insulating material.
5) Storage Tank
➢Stainless steel -304 L grade- thickness 2 mm for tank material I.S.I. marked G.I
pipe fittings for hot water insulation pipe line are used.
➢Rockwool insulation thickness 100 mm for hot pipe line for minimum heat
loss.
6) Collector Support
➢It is advisable to use the same material for collector support structure and
housing to avoid contact corrosion.
➢M.S channel or square pipe stand is suitable to withstand the weight of
collector and water storage tank.
Testing of Collectors:
Performance testing, type testing:
➢This requires experienced laboratory personnel and first class
measuring equipment (with traceable calibration for irradiance,
fluid flow rate and temperature difference across the collector) to
achieve accurate, high quality results.
Development testing:
➢This is less demanding on personnel and less advanced
equipment is needed compared with the standard’s requirements.
➢The level of instrument accuracy as well as accuracy in final
results will be much lower.
 Testing of Collectors:
Sr. No. Test Purpose
1 Internal pressure To assess if the absorber can withstand the pressures
which it might meet in service.
2 High-temperature To assess if the collector can withstand stagnation
resistance under high irradiance levels without failures.
3 Exposure A short term ageing test aimed at sorting out low
quality products. Collector in stagnation for
minimum 30 days.
4 External thermal To assess the capability of a collector to withstand a
shock severe thermal shock that can result from a sudden
rainstorm on a hot sunny day
5 Internal thermal To assess the capability of a collector to withstand a
shock severe thermal shock that can result from an intake
of cold heat transfer fluid a hot sunny day.
6 Rain penetration To assess if glazed collectors are substantially
resistant to rain penetration.
Sr. No. Test Purpose
9 Freeze resistance To assess if a collector which is claimed to be freeze
resistant can withstand freezing and freeze/thaw
cycling.
10 Mechanical load To assess the extent to which the transparent cover
and the collector box are able to resist the positive
and negative pressure load due to the effect of wind
and snow
11 Impact resistance To assess the extent to which a collector can
(optional) withstand the effects of heavy impacts caused by
hailstones.
12 Final inspection To assess any severe failures such as permanent
deformation of components resulting from the tests
above.
13 Thermal To assess how energy can be gained from the
performance collector at different temperatures, irradiances and
more.
Major failures occurs during testing:
Thermal Performance Test:
➢For the thermal efficiency test the FPC was placed 30 degree inclined and its
lower end was attached to receive hot water at given temperature and outer
end was attached to storage tank to deliver hot water to the storage tank.
➢Both inlet and outlet of Testing Method to Determine Thermal Performance of
Flat Plate Solar Collector.
➢The FPC were provided with thermocouple to record the inlet ‘Ti’ & outlet
‘To’ water temperatures.
➢The solar collector was tested over its operating temperature range under clear
sky conditions, close to solar noon for determining its efficiency.
➢The measurements are carried out under steady state conditions during (1100 h
to 1300 h), in this period beam radiation were in the range of 680 to 895 W/m2
and angle of incidence of the beam radiation was less than 30 degree.
Test Set Up:
The following measurements shall be obtained:
a) Gross area (Ag) and aperture area (Ac.),
b) Global solar irradiance (It),
c) Diffuse solar irradiance at the collector aperture,
d) Surrounding air speed (Ws),
e) Surrounding air temperature (Ta),
f) Temperature of the heat transfer fluid at the collector inlet (Ti),
g) Temperature of the heat transfer fluid at the collector outlet (To),
h) Mass flow rate of the heat transfer fluid (m).
 Test Conditions:
✓The collector should be tested under steady state condition over a given
period of time and the experimental parameters given in Table. Need to be
monitored during test so that they should not deviate from the permissible values.
 COLLECTOR PERFORMANCE:
The thermal performance of a collector can be calculated from a first-law energy
balance. according to the first law of thermodynamics, for a simple flat-plate
collector an instantaneous steady-state energy balance
Useful energy = energy absorbed – heat loss to
gain (Qu) by the collector surroundings

and,
Absorbed energy = AC FR S
Lost energy = AC FR UL (Ti-Ta)
where ;
AC = Collector area, m2
FR = Heat removal factor, unitless
S = Absorbed solar radiation, J/m2
UL = Heat transfer loss coefficient, J/m2 °C
Ti = The mean absorber plate temperature, °C
Ta = The ambient temperature, °C.
So,
QU = AC FR S - AC FR UL (Ti-Ta)
Evacuated Tube Collector (ETC):
Working Principle:
✓It works on a simple principle ‘Black body heat absorption
principle’ i. e. ‘black colour absorbs maximum heat, more than any
other colour’.
✓Solar water heating systems using vacuum tubes made of
borosilicate glass with special coating to absorb the solar energy
are called as Evacuated Tube Collector system (ETC Systems).
✓Material of Vacuum Tube: Borosilicate Glass/ Soda Lime
Length: 1800 mm and 2100 mm
Outer diameter: 58 mm
Inner diameter: 47 mm
Outer tube thickness: 1.8 mm
inner tube thickness: 1.6 mm
Selective coating type: AL-N
Value of absorptance and emittance of the black coating:
Absorptance: α ≥ 93.5%, Emission rate: ε ≤ 5%
Evacuated Tube Collector (ETC):

Vacuum tube, as shown in the sketch, is the main component, which

absorbs solar energy. The vacuum tube is an assembly of two
concentric, borosilicate glass tubes.
 Flat plate type EYC

Concentric tubes type

ETC
Working:
✓When the solar radiations falls on vacuum tube, the black
coating on the inner tube absorbs the solar energy and transfers
it to the water.
✓Air between the gap of two glass tubes is evacuated. It results
in high level of vacuum, which acts as the best insulation to
minimize the heat loss from inner tube.
✓The water on upper side of Vacuum Tube becomes hot and
thus lighter, so it starts moving upwards in the tank. At the same
time cold water, which is heavy, comes downward from the tank
and is stored at the bottom. The phenomenon is called as natural
Thermosyphon circulation, which occurs in every tube.
Features of ETC:
1. Heats water to a very high temperature up to 140°C
2. No clogging/choking
3. Long lasting
4. Better performance in winter and cloudy days
5. Vacuum jacket insulation to reduce heat loss due to conduction
and convection.
6. Works efficiently with hard water
7. High quality PUF insulation for maintaining high temperature of
water inside the tank & also, galvanized iron tank for hot water
storage.
8. Compact, easy to install, operate and maintain.
9. Safe and environment friendly.
10.Inner glass tube is coated with the world best magnetron
sputtering Hi-Tech, layers of AL – N with AL base.
11.Tubes can be easily replaced if breaks.
S. N. Evacuated Tube Collector Flat Plate Collector
Collector efficiency on higher temperature is Collector efficiency on higher temperature is
1
high low.
Heat loss in the tubes during the daytime is Heat loss in the collector & tank during the
2
negligible (evacuated tubes) day-time is high due to convection.
Satisfactory performance even in extreme cold Freezing of water will take place at high
3
condition (-18 deg. C) altitude causing damage to the collector.

4 Temperature range from 60deg. to 140 deg. Temperature range from 60 deg. to 90 deg.
Collector & tank insulated with glass wool/
System hot water tank only is insulated using
Rockwool, absorbs moisture & gets wet
5 polyurethane insulation material which does
during monsoons reducing the efficiency of
not absorb water or moisture
the system
The collector glass tube absorbers being
The collector fins & tubes being flat the
cylindrical the incident sun's rays on the tubes
6 incident sun's rays will be at 90 degrees at
is at 90 degrees throughout the day. Hence
noon only for peak absorption
peak heat absorption always.
As ETCs are made of glass (fragile in nature Longer life as compared ETC i.e. more than
7
)and hence life up to 15 years. 15 years
8 It is very easy to replace glass tube. Difficult and expensive to replace glass sheet
Water quality effect the heating system
9 Water quality is not effect the system.
forming scale over metal tube.
10 It has low maintenance Its required high maintenance.
 Selection criteria for flat plate collectors:
1. The purpose for which hot water/air is being used.
2. Consistent schedule of hot water/air use (constant from day-to-
day)
3. Diversity of loads
4. Installed cost of the system
5. Ease of installation in readily accessible location and
inexpensive connection to structure
6. Utility electricity cost (this determines the cost savings for a
given energy savings)
7. Collector properties (including efficiency)
8. Site location (this determines solar resource, ambient
temperatures, and other related factors)
9. Annual operation and maintenance costs
10. Life expectancy of the system
11. Discount rate
12. Fuel cost growth rate.
13. Flat plate collector (FPC) based systems are of metallic type and
have longer life as compared to Evacuated tube collector (ETC) based
system as ETCs are made of glass which are of fragile in nature.
14. ETC perform better in colder regions and avoid freezing problem
during sub-zero temperature. FPC based systems also perform good
with anti-freeze solution at sub zero temperature but their cost
increases.
15. At places where water is hard and have larger chlorine content,
FPC based system with heat exchanger must be installed as it will
avoid scale deposition in copper tubes of solar collectors.
Concentrating Type Collectors:
✓Focusing collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar
radiation on the energy absorbing surface.
✓Such collector generally used optical system in the form of reflectors or
refractors.
✓In these collectors radiation falling on a relatively large area is focused on to a
receiver (absorber) of considerably smaller area.
✓As a result of energy concentration, fluids can be heated to temperatures 500oC
or more.
Concentrating Type Collectors:
 Advantages of Concentrating Type Collectors:
1. Reflecting surfaces require less material in concentrating
collectors than in flat plate collectors.
2. Absorber area is smaller in concentrating collectors. So insulation
intensity is greater in concentrating collectors than flat plate
collectors.
3. Small area of absorber/unit is there in concentrating collectors
than in flat plate collectors.
4. Little or no antifreeze is required in concentrating collectors to
protect absorber in a concentrator system.
5. Because temperature attainable with concentrator collector is
high, amount of heat stored is larger in concentrator collector.
6. Concentrating collector is used for power generation while flat
plate collector is not used for power generation.
7. In solar heating & cooling, application high temperature of
working fluid is attainable.
Disadvantages of Concentrating Type Collectors:
1. Non uniform flux on absorber is there in concentrating collectors
than in flat plate collectors. While in flat plate collectors uniform
flux is there.
2. Additional optical losses occur in concentrating collectors than in
flat plate collectors.
3. High initial cost is there for concentrating collectors. Flat plate
collectors are cheaper.
4. Additional requirement for maintenance is required in
concentrating collectors than in flat plate collectors. While in flat
plate collectors, not much maintenance is required.
5. Only beam component is collected in concentrating. While in flat
plate collectors ,both diffused & beam radiations are collected in
concentrating collectors.
6. It is necessary to have an absorber to track sun image in
concentrating collectors. Hence tracking system is necessary.
Concentrating Collectors: Focusing Types
1.Parabolic Trough Reflector:

Vertex
1.Parabolic Trough Reflector:
 Working:
➢It is a line focusing type collector. In this type of collector, the solar radiations
falling on the area of the parabolic reflector are concentrated at the focus of the
parabola.
➢When the reflector is manufactured in the form of a trough with the parabolic
cross-section, the solar radiations gets focused along a line. An absorber pipe is
placed along this line and a working fluid water flows through it.
➢When the focused solar radiations fall on the absorber pipe, it heats the fluid to a
high temperature (temperature is between 250oC to 500oC)
➢The focus of solar radiations changes with the change in sun’s elevation. In order
to focus the solar radiations on the absorber pipe, either the trough or the collector
pipe is rotated continuously about the axis of the absorber pipe.
➢The parabolic trough collectors are generally preferred over dish collectors
because of low cost and requirement of sun tracking in one plane only.
Parabolic Dish Collector:
Heliostat Concentrator:
PROPER ORIENTATION and ANGLE of SOLAR COLLECTOR:
Flat plate collectorts are divided in three main groups according to how they are
oriented:
1. Flat-plate collectors facing south at fixed tilt
2. One-axis tracking flat-plate collectors with axis oriented north-south
3. Two-axis tracking flat-plate collectors

A. Flat-plate collectors facing south at fixed tilt:

To optimize performance in the winter, the collector can be tilted 15 ° greater
than the latitude; to optimize performance in the summer, the collector can be
tilted 15 ° less than the latitude. Figure show how the collector is tilted.
B. One-axis tracking flat-plate collectors with axis oriented
north-south:
These trackers pivot on their single axis to track the sun, facing
east in the morning and west in the afternoon as shown in fig.
C. Two-axis tracking flat-plate collectors:

Tracking the sun in both azimuth and elevation, these collectors

keep the sun's rays normal to the collector surface as shown in
figure: