NOTES: Polynomial Functions B.
Factored Form
1. Write it in Standard Form.
A. Terminologies 2. Factor out the Common Monomial Factor, if
there is.
1. Polynomial Function – a function in the form 3. Use any factoring Techniques.
𝑷(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟐 𝒙𝒏−𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟎
a) DOTS – Difference of Two Squares
where 𝒂𝒏 ≠ 𝟎 b) PST – Perfect Square Trinomial
𝒏 is a non-negative integer, c) T&E – Trial and Error
𝒂𝟎 , 𝒂𝟏 , … , 𝒂𝒏 are real nos. called coefficients, d) Synthetic Division
𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 is the leading term,
𝒂𝒏 is the leading coefficient, and Example: What is the factored form of:
𝒂𝟎 is the constant term.
𝒚 = 𝟗𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟒 + 𝒙𝟔 ?
2. Polynomial in Standard Form – any polynomial You can solve this in two ways.
function whose terms are arranged in
FIRST SOLUTION (Factoring Techniques)
decreasing powers of x.
𝒚 = 𝟗𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟒 + 𝒙𝟔
3. Intercepts – points on the graph where either 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟔 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟒 + 𝟗𝒙𝟐 Standard Form
the x–coordinate or y–coordinate is zero. 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 ൫𝒙𝟒 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗൯ Factor CMF
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 ൫𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏൯൫𝒙𝟐 − 𝟗൯ Use DOTS
4. Multiplicity – tells how many times the factor is
used in a given polynomial. 𝒚= 𝒙𝟐 (𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙 − 𝟑)
SECOND SOLUTION (Rational Root Theorem)
5. Irreducible Factor – factors that can no longer
be factored using coefficients that are real 𝒚 = 𝟗𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟒 + 𝒙𝟔
numbers. 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟔 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟒 + 𝟗𝒙𝟐 Standard Form
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 ൫𝒙𝟒 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗൯ CMF /Synthetic Division
6. Non-negative Integer – zero or any positive Trial & Error Method
integer.
−𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 −𝟏𝟎 𝟎 𝟗
7. Irreducible Factor – factors that can no longer −𝟏 𝟏 𝟗 −𝟗
be factored using coefficients that are real
−𝟑 𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟗 𝟗 𝟎
numbers.
−𝟑 𝟏𝟐 −𝟗
8. Turning Point – a point where the function 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟒 𝟑 𝟎
changes from increasing to decreasing or 𝟏 −𝟑
from decreasing to increasing values.
𝟏 −𝟑 𝟎
9. Zeroes / Zeros – the answers of a polynomial
∴ If the zeros is −𝟏, then 𝒙 + 𝟏 is a factor.
function.
∴ If the zeros is −𝟑, then 𝒙 + 𝟑 is a factor.
∴ If the zeros is 𝟏, then 𝒙 − 𝟏 is a factor.
It is NOT POLYNOMIAL if: ∴ The last difference, 𝟏 and −𝟑 is the factor 𝒙 − 𝟑 .
? Exponent is negative. 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 (𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟑)
? Exponent is fraction.
? Exponent is radicand.
x-intercepts 𝒙 = −𝟑, −𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟑
? Variable is in the denominator.
? Variable is in the radical sign. 𝒙𝟐 =𝟎
ඥ𝒙𝟐 = ξ𝟎 𝒙+𝟏=𝟎 𝒙+𝟑=𝟎
𝒙 = −𝟏 𝒙 = −𝟑
Type of Function Degree 𝒙=𝟎
Constant 0 𝒙−𝟏=𝟎 𝒙−𝟑=𝟎
Linear 1 𝒙=𝟏 𝒙=𝟑
Quadratic 2
Cubic 3 y-intercept
Quartic 4 𝒚 = 𝟎𝟐 (𝟎 + 𝟏)(𝟎 + 𝟑)(𝟎 − 𝟏)(𝟎 − 𝟑)
Quintic 5 𝒚 = 𝟎(𝟏)(𝟑)(−𝟏)(−𝟑)
𝒚=𝟎 NOTE: The constant term is the y-intercept.
C. Multiplicity D. No. of Turning Points
? Odd multiplicity – crosses the x-axis (passes through) ? At most degree minus one at most n–1
? Even multiplicity – tangent to the x-axis (bounces back)
Example 1 𝒚 = 𝟗𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟒 + 𝒙𝟔
Example: Given the factored form of polynomial
functions, how does each point (x-intercept) of the Leading Term : 𝒙𝟔
graph relate to the x-axis?
Degree : 𝟔
1) 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 (𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟑) Turning Points : At most 𝟓
GRAPH
Factor Multiplicity Relation to x-axis
𝒙𝟐 even Tangent at (𝟎, 𝟎)
𝒙+𝟏 odd Crosses at (−𝟏, 𝟎)
𝒙+𝟑 odd Crosses at (−𝟑, 𝟎)
𝒙−𝟏 odd Crosses at (𝟏, 𝟎)
𝒙−𝟑 odd Crosses at (𝟑, 𝟎)
GRAPH
(𝟎, 𝟎)
(𝟑, 𝟎)
(−𝟑, 𝟎) (𝟏, 𝟎)
(−𝟏, 𝟎)
crosses crosses
Example 2 𝒚 = (𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟑 (𝒙 − 𝟖)(𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟒
Leading Term : 𝒙𝟖
Degree : 𝟖
Turning Points : At most 𝟕
GRAPH
2) 𝒚 = (𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟑 (𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟒
Factor Multiplicity Relation to x-axis
(𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟑 odd Crosses at (𝟏, 𝟎)
𝒙−𝟐 odd Crosses at (𝟐, 𝟎)
(𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟒 even Tangent at (−𝟐, 𝟎)
GRAPH
crosses NOTE: The highest number of turning points is at
most degree minus one, so it can be lower than
(𝟐, 𝟎) the given number of turning points.
(−𝟐, 𝟎) (𝟏, 𝟎)
E. End Behavior of the Graph Example 3 𝒚 = −𝒙(𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟑)
L. C. Degree Left Right Leading Term : −𝒙𝟒
+ odd falls rises Characteristic : − even
− odd rises falls End Behavior : falls to the left
+ even rises rises falls to the right
− even falls falls GRAPH
NOTE: The CLUE is its leading term.
Example 1 𝒚 = 𝟗𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟒 + 𝒙𝟔
Leading Term : 𝒙𝟔
Characteristic : + even
End Behavior : rises to the left
rises to the right
GRAPH
Example 4 𝒚 = −(𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐 (𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐
Leading Term : −𝒙𝟓
Characteristic : − odd
End Behavior : rises to the left
falls to the right
GRAPH
Example 2 𝒚 = (𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟑)
Leading Term : 𝒙𝟑
Characteristic : + odd
End Behavior : falls to the left
rises to the right
GRAPH
F. Zeros of a Function
Example 2 𝒙 = ൛−𝟐, 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟑ൟ
Write a polynomial function given the zeros of
the function. First, rewrite the zeros of the function into factors.
You may use the Lattice Method. 𝒙 = −𝟐 𝒙=𝟎 𝒙=𝟏 𝒙=𝟑
a) List the numerical coefficients of the first 𝒙+𝟐=𝟎 𝒙−𝟏=𝟎 𝒙−𝟑=𝟎
factor vertically. (𝒙 + 𝟐) is a (𝒙) is a (𝒙 − 𝟏) is a (𝒙 − 𝟑) is a
b) List the numerical coefficients of the second factor. factor. factor. factor.
factor horizontally.
c) Multiply the integers and write them on the 𝒚 = 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟐)(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟑) Simplify.
You may use FOIL method or rules on special products.
middle space.
d) Add them diagonally. The sum are the
𝒚 = ൫𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙൯൫𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑൯ Use Lattice method.
numerical coefficients of the polynomial
function. (see example 1) Write the coefficients of each factor, then multiply.
𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝑪
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 𝟏 −𝟒 𝟑 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑
Example 1 𝒙 = ൛−𝟑 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟏ൟ
𝒙𝟐 : 𝟏 1 −4 3
First, rewrite the zeros of the function into factors. 𝒙∶ 𝟐 2 −2 6
𝒙 = −𝟑 𝒙 = −𝟏 𝒙=𝟏 𝑪∶ 𝟎 0 0 0
𝒙+𝟑=𝟎 𝒙+𝟏=𝟎 𝒙−𝟏=𝟎 Add diagonally. 𝟏 𝒙𝟒
𝟏 −𝟒 𝟑 −𝟐 𝒙𝟑
Since it has a (𝒙 + 𝟏) is a factor. (𝒙 − 𝟏) is a
multiplicity of 2, factor. 𝟏 1 −4 3 𝟏 𝒙𝟐
(𝒙 + 𝟑)𝟐 is a factor. 𝟐 2 −2 6 𝟔 𝒙
𝟎 0 0 0 𝟎 𝑪
𝒚 = (𝒙 + 𝟑)𝟐 (𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟏) Simplify.
You may use FOIL method or rules on special products. 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙
is the polynomial function.
𝒚 = ൫𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟗൯൫𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏൯ Use Lattice method.
Write the coefficients of each factor. Multiply.
To check, you may count the no. of Positive Real Roots
𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝑪
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟗 𝟏 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟐
𝒙 −𝟏 of this polynomial function by counting the number of
sign changes.
𝒙𝟐 : 𝟏 1 0 −1
𝒙∶ 𝟔 6 0 −6
𝑪∶ 𝟗 9 0 −9
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙
Add diagonally. 𝟏 𝒙𝟒
𝟏 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟔 𝒙𝟑 Since the sign changes TWICE, out of the 4 zeros, there
𝟏 1 0 −1 𝟖 𝒙𝟐 are only TWO Positive Real Roots in this polynomial.
𝟔 6 0 −6 −𝟔 𝒙
𝟗 9 0 −9 −𝟗 𝑪 Proven by the zeros, 𝟏 and 𝟑, while the other zeros
are negative real roots.
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟒 + 𝟔𝒙𝟑 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟗 𝒙 = ൛ −𝟐, 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟑 ൟ
is the polynomial function.
To check, you may count the no. of Positive Real Roots
of this polynomial function by counting the number of
sign changes.
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟒 + 𝟔𝒙𝟑 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟗
Since the sign changes ONCE, out of the 4 zeros, there
is only ONE Positive Real Root in this polynomial.
Proven by the zeros, 𝟏, while the other zeros are
negative real roots.
𝒙 = ൛−𝟑 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝟐, − 𝟏, 𝟏 ൟ
Performance Task 2 (SAMPLE) E. End Behavior of the Graph
GIVEN: 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟑−𝒙𝟑 L. C. Degree Left Right
+ odd falls rises
Leading Term : −𝒙𝟑 Degree: 𝟑
− odd rises falls
Constant Term: −𝟑 Type: Cubic
+ even rises rises
Turning Points : At most 𝟐
− even falls falls
y-intercept The constant term is the y-intercept.
NOTE: The CLUE is its leading term.
𝒚= 𝟑(𝟎)𝟐
+ 𝟎 − 𝟑 − (𝟎)𝟑 Let 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒚=𝟎+𝟎−𝟑−𝟎 Perform the operation GIVEN: 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟑−𝒙𝟑
𝒚 = −𝟑 → ൫𝟎, −𝟑൯ Leading Term : −𝒙𝟑
Characteristic : − odd
Factored Form End Behavior : rises to the left
falls to the right
SOLUTION
𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟑 − 𝒙𝟑 SKETCH THE GRAPH
𝒚 = −𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟑 Standard Form
𝒚 = −(𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟑) Factor out −𝟏 GIVEN: 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟑−𝒙𝟑
NOTE: Use Synthetic Division, Trial & Error Method to:
Standard Form: 𝒚 = −𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟑
Factored Form: 𝒚 = −(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟑)(𝒙 + 𝟏)
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟑 x-intercepts y-intercept
Since the sign changes TWICE, out of the 3 zeros, there 𝒙 = 𝟏, 𝟑, −𝟏 𝒚 = −𝟑
are TWO Positive Real Zeros in this polynomial. Crosses at (𝟏, 𝟎)
Crosses at (𝟑, 𝟎) (𝟎, −𝟑)
(Rational Root Theorem)
Crosses at (−𝟏, 𝟎)
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟑 −𝟏 𝟑
𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟑 𝒚
𝟑 𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟑 𝟎
𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
∴ If the zeros is 𝟏, then 𝒙 − 𝟏 is a factor.
∴ If the zeros is 𝟑, then 𝒙 − 𝟑 is a factor.
∴ The last difference, 𝟏 and 𝟏 is the factor 𝒙 + 𝟏 .
𝒚 = −(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟑)(𝒙 + 𝟏)
x-intercepts Use Zero Product Property 𝒙
𝒙−𝟏=𝟎 𝒙−𝟑=𝟎 𝒙+𝟏=𝟎
𝒙=𝟏 𝒙=𝟑 𝒙 = −𝟏
(𝟏, 𝟎) (𝟑, 𝟎) (−𝟏, 𝟎)
Factor Multiplicity Relation to x-axis
𝒙−𝟏 odd Crosses at (𝟏, 𝟎)
𝒙−𝟑 odd Crosses at (𝟑, 𝟎)
𝒙+𝟏 odd Crosses at (−𝟏, 𝟎)
Performance Task 2 (SAMPLE) E. End Behavior of the Graph
GIVEN: 𝒚 = −𝟓𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝒙𝟒 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐 L. C. Degree Left Right
+ odd falls rises
Leading Term : 𝒙𝟒 Degree: 𝟒
− odd rises falls
Constant Term: 𝟎 Type: Quartic
+ even rises rises
Turning Points : At most 𝟑
− even falls falls
y-intercept The constant term is the y-intercept.
NOTE: The CLUE is its leading term.
𝒚= −𝟓(𝟎)𝟑
− 𝟒(𝟎) + (𝟎)𝟒 + 𝟖(𝟎)𝟐 Let 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒚=𝟎−𝟎+𝟎+𝟎 Perform the GIVEN: 𝒚 = −𝟓𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝒙𝟒 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐
operation
Leading Term : 𝒙𝟒
𝒚=𝟎 → ൫𝟎, 𝟎൯
Characteristic : + even
End Behavior : rises to the left
Factored Form rises to the right
SOLUTION
SKETCH THE GRAPH
𝒚 = −𝟓𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝒙𝟒 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟒 − 𝟓𝒙𝟑 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 Standard Form GIVEN: 𝒚 = −𝟓𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝒙𝟒 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐
𝒚 = 𝒙(𝒙𝟑 − 𝟓𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟒) Factor out 𝒙
Standard Form: 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟒 − 𝟓𝒙𝟑 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙
NOTE: Use Synthetic Division, Trial & Error Method to: Factored Form: 𝒚 = 𝒙(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐
x-intercepts y-intercept
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟓𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟒 𝒙 = 𝟏, 𝟑, −𝟏 𝒚=𝟎
Since the sign changes THRICE, out of the 3 zeros, Crosses at (𝟎, 𝟎)
there are THREE Positive Real Zeros in this polynomial. Crosses at (𝟏, 𝟎) (𝟎, 𝟎)
(Rational Root Theorem) Tangent at (𝟐, 𝟎)
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟓 𝟖 −𝟒
𝒚
𝟏 −𝟒 𝟒
𝟐 𝟏 −𝟒 𝟒 𝟎
𝟐 −𝟒
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟎
∴ If the zeros is 𝟏, then 𝒙 − 𝟏 is a factor.
∴ If the zeros is 𝟐, then 𝒙 − 𝟐 is a factor.
∴ The last difference, 𝟏 and −𝟐 is the factor 𝒙 − 𝟐 .
𝒚 = 𝒙(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 − 𝟐)
or 𝒚 = 𝒙(𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐
𝒙
x-intercepts Use Zero Product
Property
𝒙−𝟏=𝟎 𝒙−𝟐=𝟎
𝒙=𝟎
𝒙=𝟏 𝒙=𝟐
Multiplicity 2
(𝟎, 𝟎) (𝟏, 𝟎) (𝟐, 𝟎)
Factor Multiplicity Relation to x-axis
𝒙 odd Crosses at (𝟎, 𝟎)
𝒙−𝟏 odd Crosses at (𝟏, 𝟎)
𝒙−𝟐 even Tangent at (𝟐, 𝟎)
