Geotechnical Engineering (CEGTEC30)

Chapter 2 – Part 2: Soil Structure and Classifications of Soils

A. Introduction

Soil structure is defined as the geometric arrangement of soil

particles with respect to one another. Among the many factors that
affect the structure are the shape, size and mineralogical
composition of soil particles, and the nature of the composition of
soil water.
 Two Groups Structures of Soils

1. Structures in Cohesion less Soil: Single grained and honeycomb

In single-grained structures, soil particles are in stable positions,

with each particle in contact with the surrounding ones.
Soils that exhibit a honeycombed structure have large void ratios,
and they can carry an ordinary static load. However, under a heavy
load or when subjected to shock loading, the structure breaks down,
which results in a large amount of settlement.
2. Structures in Cohesive Soils:
A. Classification of Soil

A classification scheme provides a method of identifying soils in

a particular group that would likely exhibit similar
characteristics. Soil classification is used to specify a certain soil
type that is best suitable for a given application. There are several
classification schemes available. Each was device for a specific
use.
1. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Textural Classification Chart
(See figure)
Soil texture is influenced by the size of the individual particles
present in it.
Sand size: 2.0 to 0.05mm in diameter
Silt size: 0.05 to 0.002 mm in diameter
Clay size: smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter
Formula:
% 𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
% 𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
% 𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
 2. Classification by Engineering Behavior
Textural Classification is based entirely on the particle size
distribution.
3. American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials
(AASSHTO) Classification System. ( See figure )

Notes: When computing GI for soil belonging to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7 use the partial
GI = 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10) . Where F = % Passing No. 200 (0. 075 mm)
When GI is negative, use GI = 0
 Problems

1. Classify the following soils by using the USDA’s textural

classification chart.

Particle Size Distribution in %

Soil
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
A 15 20 35 30
B 20 40 22 18
C 14 50 20 16
D 18 52 22 8
E 15 32 25 28
Solution:
1. Soil A – Clay Loam
% 𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
𝟐𝟎
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q𝟏𝟓
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟓𝟑%
% 𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
𝟑𝟓
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q𝟏𝟓
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟖%
% 𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟑𝟎
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎Q𝟏𝟓
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟐𝟗%
Solution:
2. Soil B – Sandy Clay Loam
% 𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
𝟒𝟎
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q𝟐𝟎
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟓𝟎%
% 𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
𝟐𝟐
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q𝟐𝟎
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟓%
% 𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟖
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎Q𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓%
Solution:
3. Soil C – Sandy Loam
% 𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
𝟓𝟎
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q𝟏𝟒
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟏𝟒%
% 𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
𝟐𝟎
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q𝟏𝟒
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟐𝟔%
% 𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟔
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎Q𝟏𝟒
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟔𝟎%
Solution:
4. Soil D – Sandy Loam
% 𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
𝟓𝟐
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q𝟏𝟖
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟒𝟏%
% 𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
𝟐𝟐
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q𝟏𝟖
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟖𝟑%
% 𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟖
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎Q𝟏𝟖
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟗. 𝟕𝟔%
Solution:
5. Soil E – Clay Loam
% 𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
𝟑𝟐
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q𝟏𝟓
𝐒𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟔𝟓%
% 𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥
𝟐𝟓
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 Q𝟏𝟓
𝐒𝐢𝐥𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟒𝟏%
% 𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎Q %𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐𝟖
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎Q𝟏𝟓
𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐲 𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟗𝟒%
2. Classify the following soils according to the AASHTO classification
system and give the group indices

Sieve Analysis % Finer Liquid Plastic

Soil No. 10 No. 40 No. 200 Limit Limit
A 100 82 38 42 23
B 100 71 46 32 18
C 92 81 51 29 16
D 100 58 32 32 14
E 95 69 30 42 24
Solution:
1. Soil A
Solution:
a. No.10 (2.00 mm) = 100 (not A-1-a, 50 max exceeded)
b. No. 40 (0.42 mm) = 82 (not A-1-b, 50 max exceeded, the soil
is either A-3 to A-7-6)
c. No. 200 (0.075 mm) =38 (not A-3 to A-2-7 exceeded the max
value, the soil is either A-4 to A-7-6)
d. LL = 42 (not A-4 neither A-6, exceeded the max value, the soil is either
A-5, A-7-5 or A-7-6)
e. PI = LL – PL =19 (not A-5 exceeded max value, the soil is either A-7-5 or A-7-6)
f. Consider the following conditions
For A-7-5 → 𝐏𝐈 < = 𝐋𝐋 − 𝟑𝟎 For A-7-6 → 𝐏𝐈 > 𝐋𝐋 − 𝟑𝟎
PI = LL – PL PI = 19
PI = 42 -23 LL – 30 = 12
PI = 19 PI > (LL – 30)
LL – 30 = 12 ∗ 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐒𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐢𝐬 𝐀 − 𝟕 − 𝟔 (Silty-Clay Materials)
PI > (LL – 30) Not A-7-5
g. GI = (F – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10)
GI = (38 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(42 – 40)] + 0.01(38 -15)(19 – 10)
GI = 2.70
Solution:
2. Soil B
Solution:

a. No. 10 (2.00 mm) = 100 (not A-1-a, 50 max exceeded)

b. No. 40 (0.42 mm) = 71 (not A-1-b, 50 max exceeded, the soil
is either A-3 to A-7-6)
c. No. 200 (0.075 mm) = 46 (not A-3 to A-2-7 exceeded the max
value, the soil is either A-4 to A-7-6)
d. LL = 32 (not A-5 neither A-7-5 or A-7-6, the soil is either A-4 or
A-6)
e. PI = LL – PL =18 (not A-4 exceeded the max value)
f. The soil is A-6 (Silty-Clay Materials)
g. GI = (F – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10)
GI = (46 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(32 -40)] + 0.01(46 – 15)(18 -10)
GI = 4.24
Solution:
3. Soil C
Solution:

a. No. 10 (2.00 mm) = 92 (not A-1-a, 50 max exceeded)

b. No. 40 (0.42 mm) = 81 (not A-1-b, 50 max exceeded, the soil
is either A-3 to A-7-6)
c. No. 200 (0.075 mm) = 51 (not A-3 to A-2-7 exceeded the max
value, the soil is either A-4 to A-7-6)
d. LL = 29 (not A-5 neither A-7-5 or A-7-6, the soil is either A-4 or
A-6)
e. PI = LL – PL =13 (not A-4 exceeded the max value)
f. The soil is A-6 (Silty-Clay Materials)
Solution:
4. Soil D
Solution:

a. No. 10 (2.00 mm) = 100 (not A-1-a is 50 max exceeded)

b. No. 40 (0.42 mm) = 58 (not A-1-b is 50 max exceeded, the soil
is either A-3 to A-7-6)
c. No. 200 (0.075 mm) = 32 (not A-3 neither A-4 to A-7-6 exceeded
the max value, the soil is either A-2-4 to A-2-7)
d. LL = 32 (not A-2-5 neither A-2-7, the soil is either A-2-4 or A-2-
6)
e. PI = LL – PL = 18 (not A-2-4)
f. The soil is A-2-6 (Granular Materials)
g. GI = 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10)
GI = 0.01(32 – 15)(18 -10)
GI = 1.36
Solution:
5. Soil E
Solution:

a. No. 10 (2.00 mm) = 95 (not A-1-a, 50 max exceeded)

b. No. 40 (0.42 mm) = 69 (not A-1-b, 50 max exceeded, the soil
is either A-3 to A-7-6)
c. No. 200 (0.075 mm) = 30 (not A-3 neither A-4 to A-7-6 exceeded the
max value, the soil is either A-2-4 to A-2-7)
d. LL = 32 (not A-2-5 or A-2-7)
e. PI = LL – PL = 18 (not A-2-4)
f. The soil is A-2-6(Granular Materials)
3. A particle size analysis on a soil sample yields the following
data.
Determine the % finer at the No. 200 Sieve.
Weight
Sieve Accumulated Percent
Retained
No. Weight Finer (%)
(N)
4 3. 1 3.1 87.19
10 5. 8 8.9 63.22
20 3. 8 12.7 47.52
60 2. 6 15.3 36.78
200 6. 8 22.1 8.68
Pan 2. 1 24.2 0
Total 24.2
Solution:

1. Accumulated Weight

a. For #4
𝐖#𝟒 = 𝟑. 𝟏 𝐍

b. For #10
𝐖#𝟏𝟎 = 𝐖#𝟒 + 𝐖#𝟏𝟎
𝐖#𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟏 + 𝟓. 𝟖
𝐖#𝟏𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟗 𝐍

c. For #20
𝐖#𝟐𝟎 = 𝐖#𝟒 + 𝐖#𝟏𝟎 + 𝐖#𝟐𝟎
𝐖#𝟐𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟏 + 𝟓. 𝟖 + 𝟑. 𝟖
𝐖#𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟕 𝐍
d. For #60
𝐖#𝟔𝟎 = 𝐖#𝟒 + 𝐖#𝟏𝟎 + 𝐖#𝟐𝟎 + 𝐖#𝟔𝟎
𝐖#𝟔𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟏 + 𝟓. 𝟖 + 𝟑. 𝟖 + 𝟐. 𝟔
𝐖#𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟑 𝐍

e. For #200
𝐖#𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝐖#𝟒 + 𝐖#𝟏𝟎 + 𝐖#𝟐𝟎 + 𝐖#𝟔𝟎 + 𝐖#𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝐖#𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟏 + 𝟓. 𝟖 + 𝟑. 𝟖 + 𝟐. 𝟔 + 𝟔. 𝟖
𝐖#𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟏 𝐍

f. For Pan
𝐖𝐏𝐚𝐧 = 𝐖#𝟒 + 𝐖#𝟏𝟎 + 𝐖#𝟐𝟎 + 𝐖#𝟔𝟎 + 𝐖#𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝐖𝐏𝐚𝐧
𝐖𝐏𝐚𝐧 = 𝟑. 𝟏 + 𝟓. 𝟖 + 𝟑. 𝟖 + 𝟐. 𝟔 + 𝟔. 𝟖 + 𝟐. 𝟏
𝐖𝐏𝐚𝐧 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟐 𝐍
2. For Percent Finer

a. For #4
𝐖#𝟒
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐖 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐓
𝟑.𝟏
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟒.𝟐
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟒 = 𝟖𝟕. 𝟏𝟗%

b. For #10
𝐖#𝟏𝟎
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐖𝐓
𝟖. 𝟗
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟒. 𝟐
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟏𝟎 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟐𝟐%
c. For #20
𝐖#𝟐𝟎
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐖 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐓
𝟏𝟐.𝟕
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟒.𝟐
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟐𝟎 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟓𝟐%

d. For #60
𝐖#𝟔𝟎
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐖𝐓
×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟓.𝟑
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟒.𝟐
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟔𝟎 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟕𝟖%
e. For #200
𝐖#𝟐𝟎𝟎
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐖 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐓
𝟐𝟐.𝟏
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟒.𝟐
%𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 #𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟔𝟖%

3. For %Finer in #200 = 8.68%

4. For %Retained in #200 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − %𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫 𝐢𝐧 #𝟐𝟎𝟎
For %Retained in #200 = 100 – 8. 68%
For %Retained in #200 = 91. 32%
References:
1. Images are Retrieved from https://www.google.com
2. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C.
Venkatramaiah, 2012
3. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja
M. Das, 2010
4. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu,
2011
5. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
6. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L.
Besavilla Jr., 1998
7. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T.
Gillesania, 2006