HYDROMETALLURGY IN MINING

COURSE:

Mining Plant Design

TEACHER:

STUDENTS:

INDEX

Pages.

Introduction 2
Hydrometallurgy 4

1
Unit 1: Size Reduction and Classification Process 7
Unit 2: Leaching Process 15
Unit 3: Solvent Extraction Process 29
Unit 4: Electro Extraction Process 34
conclusions 40

INTRODUCTION

Metallurgy can be described as the process of obtaining metals and

adapt them to meet human needs.

While metallic atoms are abundant in the Earth's crust, most of

they are combined with non-metallic atoms, such as Oxygen,
in the rocky materials.

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Thus, the first step to making metals usable is to free them from the
metal atoms of their compounds (in which they are combined)

Stages of mineral concentration

Concentration of the mineral is defined as the process of improving the grade of the ore.
mineral, removing the gangue from the sterile mineral. This depending on the mineral that
whether it is oxidized or sulfurized.

1-. Hydrometallurgy of oxidized minerals: In this process, they are extracted in

a solid phase through the use of a liquid phase. Generally, the mineral is
diluted with an acidic solution.
The process in general consists of:

a) Crushed
b) Leaching
c) Separation and purification of solutions
d) Precipitation and solvent degeneration
e) Electrowinning

Hydrometallurgy

Hydrometallurgy is defined as that part of extractive metallurgy that

groups or contains all the processes that deal with an ore, through the use of a
appropriate solvent for the type of mineral, passing that or those elements
useful, or valuable from an economic point of view, from a solid phase to a phase

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liquid and leaving the bargain unchanged, to later recover through some
process, the useful element now contained in the enriched solution.

Therefore, it can be mentioned that Hydrometallurgy involves operations

of:

DISSOLUTION, which involves the transfer of the value species from

the ore (solid) to a solution (liquid)

PURIFICATION, which involves the removal of some elements.

contaminants from the solution.

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RECOVERY, that is, obtaining the species or element(s) of
value from the solution.

5
 So the processes involved in Hydrometallurgy are

Crushing and Classification (Size Reduction)

Leaching (Dissolution Operation)

Solvent Extraction (Purification and concentration of solutions), and

Electro extraction (Recovery)

Hydrometallurgical processes, compared to other processes, have advantages and

disadvantages, which must be analyzed to achieve a good design of
process, maximizing yields and economic benefit.

Advantages

Metals can be obtained directly in pure form from the

solution.
Corrosion problems are relatively minor, with respect to
pyrometallurgy process.
Processes are generally at room temperature.
The handling of products and materials is relatively easy.
They are suitable for the treatment of low-grade ores.
They do not produce major environmental pollution problems.

Disadvantages

The separation between the gangue and the solution can be difficult.
Hydrometallurgical processes are relatively slow.
Very small amounts of contaminant ions can affect the
subsequent process

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Unit 1: Size Reduction and Classification Processes

The size reduction operation (comminution) consists of the production of

smaller mass particles from larger pieces, for this it is necessary
to provoke the fracture or breaking of them, through the application of
pressures.
The objective is to prepare the solid for the subsequent extraction of valuable elements.
contents in the ore. It can be carried out using several stages of crushing (and
of grinding).

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 This number of stages depends on:
a) Characteristics of nutrition
b) Characteristics of the mineral
c) Subsequent operation.

Generally, crushing is a dry operation and is usually carried out in

two or three stages. The ore pieces extracted from the mine can be as large
like 1.5 m and these are reduced in the primary crushing stage to 10-20 cm
in heavy-duty crushing machines.

Crushing Stages

It starts with the extraction of the ore from the mine and its transportation by
trucks to a primary crusher.

The product of the primary crusher, with a size of less than 200 mm, feeds into the
secondary crushing consisting of a secondary screen of a grid, two
it includes three grills, a standard secondary cone crusher; the crushing
tertiary has short head cone crushers that operate in circuit
closed with double grid vibrating screens.

The product of crushing consists of material sized -15 mm of the

tertiary and secondary feeders that are transported by means of belts to the
subsequent processes.
TABLE I

Size Reduction Size Product Size

Diet

Destructive explosion Infinite 1m

Primary Crushing 1m 100 mm
Secondary Crushing 100 mm 10 mm

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 Coarse grinding 10 mm 1 mm
Fine grinding 1 mm 100 m
Grinding 100 m 10 m
Superfine Grinding 10 m 1 m

Crushing plants are the result of the combination of equipment

crushers and classifiers in a rational way, so that
obtain as a product of that processing unit, fragments of rock of size
convenient for subsequent operations and to maximize returns and
benefits. The crushers, the feeding and transport means and of
classification they are part of, therefore, are designed to receive the
rock fragments of sizes, volumes, and times, according to the demand of the
operation, to deliver a desired product or products, according to the
demand.

Elements of a Crushing Plant

Primary Crushing

In the majority of operations, the primary crushing program is the

same as that of mining. When the primary crushing is done underground, this
operation is normally the responsibility of the mining department; when the
Primary crushing is on the surface, it is customary for the department to
mining delivered the ore to the crusher and the processing department of
Crush minerals and handle the ore from this point through the operations.
successive unit operations of mineral processing. The primary crushers
they are commonly designed to operate 75% of the available time, mainly
due to interruptions caused by insufficient feeding to the crusher
and due to mechanical delays in the Crusher.

Secondary Crushing

Secondary crushing includes all operations to take advantage of the product.

from the primary crusher from the ore storage to the disposal
of the final product of the crusher which is usually between 0.5 and 2 cm
diameter. The product of the primary crusher in most of the ores

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metaliferous materials can be crushed and screened satisfactorily and the plant
secondary generally consists of one or two stages of size reduction with
crushers and appropriate screens. On the other hand, more than two can be used.
stages of size reduction of secondary crushing if the ore is extra hard or
in special cases where it is important to minimize the production of fines.
Sometimes the vibrating screens are placed in front of the crushers.
secondary to remove fine material or scalp (clean) the feed and
increase the capacity of the secondary crushing plant. The fine material
tends to fill the gaps between the large particles in the crushing chamber and
it can drown the crusher, causing damage, because the packed mass of rock is
unable to increase in volume while being crushed

Tertiary Crushing

If the ore tends to be slippery and hard, the tertiary crushing stage
it can be replaced by a coarse grinding in rod mills. Normally
these circuits are accompanied by the corresponding classification stages
to avoid excessive fine production and increase the capacity of the equipment

Crushing Equipment

Figure No. 1
Jaw Crusher

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 Gyratory Crusher

As in jaw crushers, the maximum movement of the head

It happens near the discharge. The central axis can return to its axis in the eccentric.
thus, during crushing, the material is compressed between the rotating head and the
walls of the casing, so that the abrasion in the horizontal direction is
despicable. In any cross-section, there are two sets of jaws.
opening and closing like jaw crushers. Thus, the crusher
A rotary can be considered as an infinitely large number of crushers.
of jaw, each of infinitely small width

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Because a large opening is not required, a larger area can be achieved.
crushed towards the discharge, with a greater cone angle than in the gyratory ones,
maintaining the same angle between the crushing pieces These crushers
operate at a higher speed than the rotary ones. This allows the material to
changes more quickly due to the better flow of material through the large opening
that is created when the cone moves. They are built in two types, long head or
standard and short head, characterized by having a crushing cone more
leaning, reducing the size of the product.
This type of short-head crusher is used more in tertiary crushing when
the material comes from an open-pit extraction and secondary when it is
subterranean.

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 Primary Crushing Area

Primary Gyratory Crusher

60" x 89"
Discharge height: 1.3 meters
Download size: 250 mm
50,000 t/d
67%
Design capacity 3,109 t/h
Mineral work index: 15 kWh/t

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 Secondary and tertiary crushing and classification

Crushing and classification:

Secondary classification: 8' x 24' classification grids
Secondary Crushing: 2 Standard MP1000 crushers
Tertiary crushing: 5 short head crushers MP1000
Tertiary classification: 5 'Banana' type screens 12' x 27'
Final size of crushed ore: 98% - ¾" and 92% - ½"

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Unit 2: Leaching Process

The hydrometallurgical process for obtaining copper is carried out in three stages that
they work as a productive chain, fully synchronized, being these:
Agglomeration System - Leaching
Solvent Extraction
Electro Extraction

Global process of heap leaching, solvent extraction, and electro-winning

Leaching, in a very generalized definition, is a hydrometallurgical process.

by which a metallic species is transferred from a solid phase to a
aqueous phase through a chemical reaction
Components of a Leaching Process:
Agglomeration system
Stacking system
Leaching system

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 Solution storage system

Agglomeration:

The agglomeration provides both physical and chemical activation of the mineral.
crushed, which forms aggregates (clusters of the finer particles of
minerals joined to the thicker ones). This process involves moistening the mineral
with measured amounts of refining, fresh water, and concentrated sulfuric acid, and
let this damp mineral (agglomerate) rest for a short period of
time. The humidity of the aggregate varies in a range from 7 to 12%.

The production of agglomerated ore helps to increase the permeability of

mineral in the battery in order to ensure good contact with sulfuric acid and
standardize the leaching solution flow within the pile. This improves the activity
of leaching and, in this way, increases copper recovery.

With a proportion of 10 to 20% of these fine materials, they can be generated

permeability problems in the leaching beds, so serious that it reaches the extent of
that there is no percolation, nor contact, nor dissolution nor extraction of the species of
value, this is due to the fines forming impermeable areas which decrease the
percolation, favoring compaction, which may occur that the particles
go to the bottom of the pile preventing the uniform flow of the impregnated solution to
through the stack.

The agglomeration is achieved in variable speed inclined drums, with

rubber interior lining. The mineral is removed from the stockpile of ore
finely through adjustable speed belt feeders and is fed into the
aggregation drums by conveyor belts

In the agglomeration, fine particles adhere to the coarse ones.

which act as nuclei, based on the distribution of feeding sizes

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PERMEABILITY.

Permeability is a property that depends on the physical characteristics of the

material in relation to the proportion of pores, which in turn depends on the
proportion between:

Lamas (grain sizes less than 5-10 microns)

Fines (particle sizes less than 100-500 microns) and

Thick and the method of forming stacks or deposits

With a proportion of 10 to 20% of these fine materials, there may be

problems of permeability in the leaching beds, there is no percolation, nor
contact, dissolution or extraction of values, due to the fact that the fine materials form areas

impermeable and reducing percolation, favoring compaction,

It may occur that the particles settle at the bottom of the pile, preventing the flow.
uniform solution impregnated through the stack.

In agglomeration, fine particles adhere to coarse ones.

which act as nuclei, based on the distribution of feeding sizes.

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Sometimes clustering can happen naturally by manipulating the
materials with some moisture, for example, in conveyor belts, in the
mixed or even at the moment of falling onto the pile.

Availability 75%
Nominal Capacity 2,800 t/h
Simple agglomeration drum
4.7 m
Acid for agglomeration
Variable amount over two thirds of the estimated consumption.

Power supply solution

• Refined extracted from sulfides or oxides
The acid and refining ratio is controlled proportionally according to the
load fed into the drum.

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SILO AND AGGLOMERATING DRUM SCHEME

CRUSHING - AGGLOMERATION OPERATION

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 Stacking or Formation of the Stack
The crushed material is transported by conveyor belts to the
aggregation and curing tank, whose purpose is to form material clumps
fine with medium and coarse products from irrigation with a solution of water and
sulfuric acid and that it also starts the path of the copper sulfatation process
content in the oxidized minerals before leaching occurs in the pile.
Subsequently, these glomeruli are transported by a conveyor belt to
the place where the stack will form.
At its destination, the mineral is unloaded by a gigantic spreading equipment.
(stacker or pile driver), which deposits it in an orderly manner forming an embankment
continuation of 10 m in height: which corresponds to the leaching pile. On this pile
a drip and/or sprinkler irrigation system is installed that covers the entire
exposed area.
A membrane is installed beforehand under the piles of material to be leached.
impermeable on which a drainage system (slotted pipes) is installed
that allow the solutions that infiltrate through the material to be collected.

STACKING STAGE

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 Constructive Aspects of a Pile

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 There are two types of batteries:

Permanent pile (disposable floor): in which the mineral is deposited in

a pile from which the rubble is not removed once completed
leaching.
Renewable pile (reusable floor): in which the gravel is removed at the end of the
leaching to replace it with fresh ore.

Renewable or permanent batteries can adapt the configuration of:

Single cells: all the deposited material passes simultaneously through the
various stages of the treatment cycle Dynamic pile: in the same pile
There are minerals that are at various stages of the treatment cycle.
The following figure is the diagram of the dynamic stack system

Figure No. 8
Types of Renewable Batteries

Components of a Stack and their Properties

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 Substrate
It generally corresponds to land with a slope of around 3 to 4% in
a direction towards the gutter. A favorable condition is to be free from
sharp stones, however possible.

Protective fins
Fine aggregate cover (sand, tailings, etc.) completely free of elements
perforators given that the waterproof layer must be gently adjusted and
to defend it from mechanical aggression that may come from any of
their faces.

Impermeable base
This layer, described in the previous section, is responsible for preventing that the
Leaching solutions filter to lower strata.

Drainage pipes
Corrugated and perforated pipes, placed spaced longitudinally,
intended to allow for a rapid evacuation of the solution once it
reaches the bottom of the stack.

Protection gravel.
It constitutes the final layer of protection for the coating. It corresponds to a
layer of material with a different appearance from the loaded mineral. The objective of

this layer is to distribute the pressures over the drainage pipe.

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RECOVERY STAGE

It consists of recovering the space occupied by a stack that has already fulfilled its purpose.

the normal irrigation cycles, this system is called recovery through

rotary shovel

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DUMPING OF RUBBLE

Leaching

Hydrometallurgy is a branch of extractive metallurgy, and it encompasses all the

processes and unit operations aimed at the extraction of metals or
metallic and non-metallic compounds in aqueous systems.

The fundamental unit process of hydrometallurgy is leaching. Which

we can define it as the partial or total dissolution of a solid matrix in a phase
liquid. The objective of this unit operation is, then, to extract some kind of
useful chemistry with economic benefit from the solid matrix, to recover it
species, subsequently from the aqueous phase

Given the definition of leaching, it requires contact with a solid

with a liquid. This contact is made to dissolve the solid
partially, at least, in such a way that the dissolved material remains
in the liquid. The material dissolved in the liquid must include the
chemical species that are useful and are desired to be recovered

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subsequently, it must include those species that are desired
remove from the solid.

The solid matrix or simply solid is, primarily, mineral.

concentrate, scrap, etc. Which contain useful species or with
economic value that they wish to recover.
The liquid or liquid phase is an aqueous solution that contains reactants.
chemicals that act on the solid to dissolve it.
Given the nature of leaching, it can be grouped according to the
objectives of the process in three categories which are: partial dissolving
or totally the solid, to extract the useful species, the stabilizing in
the liquid the useful species dissolved and minimizing the amount of
non-useful species to dissolve.
To achieve the dissolution of useful species, it is necessary to contact the
mineral with an aqueous solution (leaching solution). This contact must
to be carried out in such a way that allows the chemical reagents
(leaching agents), present in the leaching solution, interact with
the surface of the mineral for the solid-liquid interface to occur,
the chemical dissolution reactions that are desired to occur. The
mineral to leach, for this, it must present the largest exposed surface.
possible, per unit of mass, to achieve in this way a maximum
interaction of the mineral with the leaching agent of the solution.
The leaching solution comes into contact with the solid material.
in the pile, and for this, irrigation systems are used, the appropriate one for the
conditions under which it is operating, this is how the irrigation system
we can classify it into

Drip Irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation

Where the choice of one system or another depends mainly on the

environmental conditions, such as; wind speed, the rate of
solar evaporation, Day-Night temperature
The election is generally carried out as shown in the following
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figure:

If water is scarce.
2. If the working pH does not allow
precipitation from the hardness of the
DRIP IRRIGATION. water.
3.- Frostbite danger.
4.- Regime of strong winds and
permanents.

Water resources are not limiting.

2. Very hard waters and danger of
precipitation of carbonates.
IRRIGATION BY 3. Favorable weather conditions.
4. Regime of moderate winds or
SPRINKLERS. intermittent.
5. Need for Oxygen in the solution.

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 Feeding Solution on the Battery

The stabilization in the leaching solution of the dissolved useful species,

is achieved with chemical reagents also contained in the solution. These
Chemical reagents aim to interact chemically with the
useful species dissolved in such a way that they remain as such in
the solution.

The purpose of the mineral is to dissolve only the useful species.

that the lixiviant agent must interact only with those species and not others
contained in the mineral, meaning that the leaching agent must be selective, to
achieve to minimize the dissolution of the other species.
Considering that the products of leaching are aqueous solutions
those that contain useful species dissolved and stabilized, and the
solid residual material, it is necessary to separate these phases for
proceed with the process. Through the solid-separation operation
the liquid manages to separate the residual solid phase from the aqueous phase or solution

aqueous. The residual solid (waste) is discarded and, generally, is accumulated.

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in defined sectors, while the aqueous solutions continue with
the process.
The outgoing or exhausted material or rubble is sent to dump sites.
they are extracted from the pile with a machine called Stacker or rototiller, and with means of

Solid transport (Belts and/or trucks) is discharged to dump sites..

The aqueous solutions resulting from leaching show, in many
cases, two problems; one is the low concentration of useful species
in these solutions and the other is the high number of non-useful species
dissolved and in some cases also undissolved, those from the point of
process view are contaminants of the solution. The resolution of these
described problems, are in the concentration operations and/or
purification of solutions, in which, on one hand, it is possible to increase the
content of useful species and on the other hand, reduce the content of the
impurities in the leaching solutions.
From leaching solutions, which have adequate levels of con-
concentration of the useful species and low levels of impurities, is recovered
the useful species (metal or compound). To achieve this recovery, it
carry out the unit processes of precipitation, in which it is already obtained
a final product of the hydrometallurgical process.

Heap Leaching

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 Unit 3: Solvent Extraction Processes (SX)

The solutions containing dissolved copper obtained in the leaching (PLS or

rich solution), are subsequently treated through the extraction process by
solvent (SX) for its purification and to obtain a copper electrolyte suitable for the
electrowinning process (EW).
The SX plant, therefore, allows feeding the EW process an electrolyte
suitable for obtaining high purity copper cathodes and reducing consumption of
energy involved in the EW.

Objectives of the SX Process

The stage called solvent extraction in the hydrometallurgical process of

copper, is an intermediary between leaching and electro-winning. Its essential role in
the process is to act as a stage of chemical purification that allows obtaining

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an electrolyte with optimal composition so that in the EW it can be obtained
high purity and high energy efficiency cathodes.
This purification process is made possible by the use of a liquid.
organic capable of separating the copper ion from its companions in the PLS and
subsequently transfer it to the electrolyte that advances to EW.

Description of the SX Process

The solvent extraction of copper is a chemical process that

allows the selective transfer of ionic copper from an aqueous phase (PLS)
towards another (ELECTROLYTE) acting as a medium of transport a liquid phase
organic (ORGANIC) that is immiscible with the previous aqueous ones. The liquid phase
organic that enables the functionality of the SX process, commonly in the
the language of the process is referred to as ORGANIC, it contains a compound
organic called EXTRACTANT and chemically represented by RH.
As can be seen, the SX process to achieve purification goals
and concentration consists of two basic stages

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 Extraction and Re-extraction.

Extraction

At this stage, the contact of the PLS with the organic liquid is made for the purpose
to transfer copper to the organic. As a result of the extraction, one obtains
a copper-poor aqueous phase that is returned to the leaching and
it is commonly referred to as REFINING. The outgoing organic phase has been enriched.
in copper and is called LOADED ORGANIC.

Reextraction

In this stage, also known as discharge, the loaded organic is contacted.

originating from the extraction with the POOR ELECTROLYTE (EP) for the purpose of
transfer copper from the loaded organic to the electrolyte. As a result of the
re-extraction, ORGANIC DISCHARGE is obtained which is recycled back to the stage of

extraction stage and RICH ELECTROLYTE (RE) that moves towards the process of

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EW.
Washing Stage

This stage is optional in an SX plant and here in Chile it is used in several of

they with the purpose of reducing the transfer of contaminant ions and
interfering with the EW process. To this end, in this stage the
organic loaded with wash water and a clean loaded organic is obtained that
advances to the re-extraction stage.

Components of an SX Plant

A SX plant to meet its objectives must have three units or

basic circuits that are the following:

- SX Train
- Electrolyte cleaning circuit
- Sludge Treatment System

SX train

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 Train set

Train operating system

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Solvent extraction scheme for the treatment of oxides and sulfides
(worked with bacteria)

PLSSulphide Raffinate PLSOxide Raffinate

Sulphide Oxide Lean Electrolyte Treated Water
Circuit Circuit

Loaded Organic Extraction - 1 Extraction - 2 Extraction - 1P Extraction - 2P Stripping Washing

Tank Sulphide Sulphide Oxide Oxide Stage Stage

Rich Electrolyte
Organic

Simple solvent extraction scheme

raffinate 2E X 1W X 1S
Spent Advance

PLS Wash Aqueous

E.W.

E1 E2 S.O. S1 W.L.O. 1W

L.O.

2E X 1P X 1S
Raffinate Series Parallel
PLEASE Raffinate
Spent Advance
PLS
E.W.

1E 2E 1P S.O. S1

L.O.

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Unit 4: Electrowinning Process (EW)

Hydrometallurgical leaching processes generally produce two types of

solutions:

Strong solutions: With copper content in solutions within the ranges

30-50 g/L.
Weak solutions: With copper content < 10 g/l

Strong solutions are suitable for directly entering the subsequent process of
electro-extraction but often have significant levels of contaminants, due to
what is necessary to subject them to purification processes beforehand, in
weak solutions change, they must necessarily go through a stage of
concentration via solvent extraction and then electro winning or
simply be treated by cementation.

Objective of the Electro extraction

Recover the copper contained in the leaching solutions through the application
of current and obtain metallic copper in the form of cathodes. The electrodes used
for this purpose are: stainless steel cathode (thin sheet) and an anode
inert of Pb-Sb or Pb-Ca.
Produce cathodes of the highest possible quality and at low cost.
Regenerate sulfuric acid simultaneously with copper deposition, which
recycle to the Solvent Extraction (SX) plant (or also to Leaching in the
processes without SX).

Main Reactions
Anodic Reaction: H2O 1/2 O2+ 2H+ + 2e- 1.23(V)
Cathodic Reaction: Cu+2+ 2e- Cuº Eº: 0.34 (V)

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 H+ Cu+2

H+
Electrolyte SO4 -2 Electrolyte
Rich Poor
SO4 -2

Process Description

In the electrowinning plant, mechanical copper is obtained from

a solution that contains copper sulfate and sulfuric acid using the step of
an electric current from an insoluble lead anode to a cathode of
stainless steel permanent. Copper is gradually deposited on it.
cathode, the one that increases its thickness and weight, while in the anode proceeds the

dissociation of water into free hydrogen and oxygen ions. Hydrogen ions
increases the acid concentration and oxygen is released in the form of
small bubbles on the lead anode.
The excess electrical energy beyond the theoretically required amount is dissipated in the form of

caloric in the electrolyte. In order to maintain the cells at the desired temperature
between 38 and 45ºC the discharged hot electrolyte that leaves the plant is used
to heat the cold inlet electrolyte

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 VAPOR
ENERGY OXYGEN HEAT
ELECTRIC AEROSOL
DISCARD
ELECTROLYTE
ACID WATER

Rich Electrolyte ELECTROEXTRACTION Poor Electrolite

HEAT SULFATE
FERROUS AND/OR
COBALT

GALACTASOL

CATHODES

Copper in solution (cation, with a positive charge +2: Cu+2) is attracted by the pole
negative represented by the cathodes, so it migrates towards them sticking
particle by particle on its metallic surface (zero charge).

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Once six to seven days have passed in this electroextraction process, we
produce the cathode harvest. During this time, copper has been deposited with a
purity of 99.99% on both sides of the cathode with a thickness of 3 to 4 mm, which
provides a total weight of 70 to 80 kg per cathode.
Each electrorefining cell contains 78 cathodes and the harvest is carried out in
of 26 cathodes per maneuver. The cathodes are washed with hot water to
remove possible impurities from its surface and then they are taken to the machine
unwinder, where the sheets are completely mechanically separated.
both sides, keeping the permanent cathode clean that is reintegrated into the cycle of
electrowinning process.

Electroextraction plant

Automated harvesting system

Cathode tracking system by radio frequency (RFID)
Cathodic Quality (QC/QA)
Refinery plans
3 Circuits with 126 cells

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 78 Cathodes per cell
Air Injection
Current density of 362 A/m2 to 414 A/m2.

conclusions

With the hydrometallurgy process, the intention is to achieve a result of a

final product whose concentration has the most characteristic features
appropriate to increase their law and thereby raise the price of the
mineral to satisfy human needs.

Hydrometallurgical processes are relatively non-polluting.

air and allow for the processing of low-grade or waste minerals
(clearings and tailings).

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