INTRODUCTION

For over 50 years, development aid has been established for countries characterized by a
degree of poverty related to underdevelopment. Among the mechanisms put in place by countries
developed and international financial institutions include funding for the purposes of
creation of activities or strengthening of infrastructures. This funding allows to
set up projects or programs aimed at reducing poverty in countries
development. Some of this funding goes towards projects of a character
social

As of today, most donors are providing significant financial resources to

allow different countries to significantly reduce the rate of contagious diseases
on one hand and also to achieve the millennium goals on the other hand.
The funds received from the different donors must be managed according to the specifications outlined for
the project.

This principle of strict management imposed by the donors allows for the implementation of
transparency in the management of project funds through control mechanisms and
monitoring and evaluation that allows for the regular adjustment of certain weaknesses in order to achieve the

objectives of the projects previously set.

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CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INFORMATION ON DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

The development projects subject to our study are those financed by the donors.
funds through the various agreements made with the States or non-profit Organizations
lucrative.
These projects are generally situated within a context of improving social conditions.
and economic characteristics of developing countries. These have characteristics
varied that most often target low-income living environments, underemployment
staffing, remarkable poverty, lack of infrastructure, populations affected by
pandemics, low level of education, high cost of capital.
Their objective can be of several kinds:
To finance support for the development of the primary sectors of the economy and
basic and social infrastructures;
To provide institutional and organizational support through capacity building.
techniques of public administrations and village populations. Thus, this
The chapter will address the various points related to the decisions to create these structures.
beneficiaries of this funding in the first section, we will then present
their financial and accounting organizations.

Funding agreements and guidelines from donors

In principle, development projects or programs are created by a joint order of the

Minister in charge of technical oversight and Minister in charge of financial oversight who
specify the category of the project, the composition of the administrative and management bodies. These
Parastatal structures are entities with legal personality and autonomy.
financial.

The supervising technical minister is primarily responsible for ensuring that the projects or
development programs are in line with national policies and guidelines and to this
that their activities respect the previously defined development objectives in the
project documents. The supervising Minister, for his part, is mainly responsible for ensuring
the financing of the project's activities is part of the financial policy of
in accordance with the accounting and financial legislation in force within the project area.

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1.1. Origin of development projects
Development projects contribute to the availability of additional resources
To meet the necessary investment needs, enable developing countries to
development to catch up on their delays in all sectors of the national economy as well
supplement the insufficient national savings in these countries. It is, in fact, a transfer of
technology and an advance of capital.

In the aftermath of the Second World War, the Western and communist countries, barely
emerging from the conflict and all occupied with reconstruction, discover with astonishment the existence and

even the inhuman destitution, the sordid misery of a third world, a world of
multiple and little consensual appellations: the 'Third World', the 'underdeveloped countries', the
"developing countries", "developing nations", "the South", "the Periphery".
With the 'decade of development' proclaimed by the UN in the 1960s, countries
Western countries and Japan will establish international development organizations.

This is the case of USAID (United States Agency for International Development), of the Ministry
French Cooperation, from the German Cooperation Agency GTZ (German Society for Technical Cooperation)

technical cooperation) and the Canadian International Development Agency

(ACDI), to name just a few examples. Similarly, we are witnessing the creation of banks
regional development funds to finance development projects: in 1959, the IDB
(Inter-American Development Bank); in 1963, the ADB (African Development Bank)
Development) and in 1967, the ADB (Asian Development Bank).

The World Bank will begin providing loans to developing countries starting in 1948,
only a year after granting these loans to European countries. It will create the AID
International Development Association.

1.2. Sources of funding

A development project is a structure that aims to change the situation of a territory.
and its inhabitants. He tries to enhance its qualities (resources, assets, values), to
minimize disabilities, to circumvent constraints. It is initiated and implemented with the
participation of its residents and institutions, namely:
- State: it most often refers to the national counterpart (taxes, duties, and fees)
customs, subsidies received in kind or in cash, budget registration, etc.
- Specialized international organizations (EU, UNDP, UNIDO, UNESCO, UNICEF, FAO,
WHO, ICAO;

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 - The international financial institutions specialized in Global, IMF, AfDB,
FIDA, BID, BOAD, etc.) ;
- non-governmental organizations (PSI, GTZ...)
- the beneficiary populations of the project.

However, these different forms of funding are comparable to loans, grants, donations or
contributions from beneficiaries and in some cases, from resources coming from activities
revenue generators. These financings are realized legally through agreements of
loans and gifts or agreements in various forms.

1.3 Implementation and conditions related to disbursements

1.3.1 Preparation and assessment

The implementation of development projects focuses respectively on the preparation of

projects and their evaluation. The preparation of development projects involves converting a
project ideas in a formal plan. The description of the project preparation is brief by
report on the assessment that enables funders to determine the viability of projects in terms of
technique, financial and economic in light of national investment needs,
sectorial, the economic and financial accuracy of the expected results, the sustainability of the project
and/or of the entity, the level of the project's contribution to human development and progress
technological; and the aspects of the project related to governance.

Financial analysis is essential to assess the viability of the project and on the basis
financial capacity of the implementing body and its ability to successfully carry out the project.
the responsibility for the management and execution of projects lies with the executing bodies and
implementation agencies

1.3.2 Conditions related to disbursements

The conditions related to the disbursement of funds vary depending on the donors. They establish
provisions regarding disbursements that notably take into account the assessment of the
financial management of the beneficiary and the provisions related to the awarding of contracts,
cash flow needs of the operation and the beneficiary's experience in the area of
disbursement.

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They translate into the different prerequisites for the entry into force of the agreements or
conventions. This includes, among others:
- the registration of funding in the state budget;
- the decision to create the project (decree);
- the information to be brought to the landlord's attention;
- the implementation of mechanisms for the proper management of the project;

- the mid-term or interim review on the implementation of the project.

Section 2: Structures of development projects

This section concerns the administrative and legal organization of the structures of
development projects.

2.1 Administrative and legal organization

The supervising minister is responsible for the technical execution of the project and supervision of
his activities. Thus, he is responsible for: the project identification, the preparation of the formulation
evaluations, the creation and implementation of control and liquidation. Financial management
projects are most often entrusted to the ministry responsible for the economy and finance.
attribution gives him the responsibility for negotiating and signing all agreements
of funding.

As such, he is the authorized representative of the borrower to the lender. He carries out
all disbursement operations on financing. He manages the accounts daily.
special projects to ensure compliance with regulatory texts
of the use of public funds. He is a member of the steering committee. However, it is observed that
These tasks are assigned to a well-specialized structure linked to cooperation.

It may happen that the borrower and the main lessor agree to choose and
mandate a cooperating institution to manage the Loan. In this case, the cooperating institution
ensure the following functions: ensure that the provisions of the documents are respected
related to the periodic activity reports of the Project, the periodic sending of monitoring missions
evaluation, the review of audit reports, the review of consistency of withdrawal requests
funds and direct payment requests before settlement. Projects also benefit from
external auditors. They are responsible for expressing a professional opinion on the
financial situation of the project and to ensure that the resources allocated to the project
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are used for the purposes for which they were granted.

2.2 Project Execution Structure

The execution of projects or programs is done according to an approach that prioritizes

targeted, localized actions with quantifiable results (particularly financial viability)
and economic) and a deadline while avoiding exclusive control by the services of
the administration.

2.2.1 Organizational structure of project execution agencies

The organizational structure of projects is presented at three levels in an overview.

according to the organizational chart.

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CHAPTER II: ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PROJECTS

In this chapter, we will present in the first section the long-term forecasts of
project, the project objectives and the assessment of project constraints. On the other hand in the
In the second section, we will focus on the different activities of the project, the means
mobilized and the validation of the timelines for the project plan.

forecasts, objectives, and timelines of the projects

1.1 Project forecasts

It is essential to have a clear idea of what the project will bring. This is the only way
to obtain a measurable result. With the help of his team members, establish a comprehensive summary.
describing the long-term vision of the project. Certainly, one must be ambitious, but it is necessary to
not to assign oneself an impossible task. The manager must also have a clear vision of
project, to achieve the desired results. When defining the objectives of a project, one
It is often noticed that there are essential objectives (those without which the project would not exist
of reason for being) and secondary objectives (which enrich the project or increase it
the interest).

1.1.1 Define a change

To this end, it is important to provide a summary of the objectives. With the help of the
Collaborators, the manager establishes a document that clarifies the purpose and the course of the project.
To ensure that this synthesis is sufficiently clear, it must provide precise answers to
Next questions: 'What are we going to change? Why? And how?'
Subsequently, he presents his analysis to his partners, who will be able to help him refine it by
sharing their expectations. If the project seems positive to them, it is on the right track. In short, it
You must check that others approve your vision of the project.

1.1.2 The recommendations

As part of ensuring a viable project, it is important that the project manager:
be assured that the project deserves to be brought to completion;
encourage your collaborators to share all their doubts with him to verify that your
the project is viable;
ensures that everyone agrees on the actions to be taken;
make compromises if they eventually promote conditions for success;
Explain well the necessity of the project;
Do not ignore the obstacles at this stage, they may be difficult to overcome later.

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do not involve too many people at this stage of the project.

1.2 Define the scope and objectives of the project

Once all the project participants have agreed on the vision of the project, it must
define clear objectives that will allow for measuring the progress made and ultimately
the success of the project.

1.2.1 Define the purpose of the project

Expand the project's vision to explain what you are going to do, how long it will take, and how much it will cost.

will cost. You will need to take into account the relative importance of time, cost, and
performance.
Example: If you intend to create a product that will compete with the solutions
the most innovative on the market, the main goal is performance.
If you need to develop an international organization, time is the factor.
determiner.
If you are limited in budget terms, the focus shifts to cost.

1.2.2 Determine objectives and indicators

The good definition of project objectives largely contributes to real success. Indeed, the
Defining objectives involves answering the question: 'What is the need that must be satisfied?'
the final product of the project?
Establish the list of specific objectives you wish to achieve. These must cover
The entirety of the changes that the project generates must be clearly outlined.
Then make sure you can measure the balance between the progress made and the objectives.
desired, by establishing an 'indicator' for each of them.
For example, if your goal is to increase the level of a sports team, use
the indicator 'result obtained in international competition' to measure the progress made. If
If you are having difficulties defining the indicator, ask yourself the question "how will we be
We have reached our goal?

In any case, you must ensure, on the one hand, that your objectives are quantifiable,
and, on the other hand, to ask you to what extent a goal is relevant.

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1.2.3 Set priorities and objectives
It is unlikely that all objectives are of equal importance to your organization.
Assign a priority level to each of them on a scale of one to ten, for example,
One (01) being the least important degree. The distinction between the decisive objectives and the lesser ones.
important will be easy to operate. On the other hand, the hierarchy between the intermediate objectives is likely

to be more difficult to establish. Then, define the objectives, which can be simple, or more
complexes, after having initiated a prior discussion with your team.

In the case of complex objectives, you will need to study the strategies you
you will be able to adopt for their implementation. In the end, it will be necessary to prioritize the priorities: you

you will need to establish a summary of your objectives, your indicators, your priorities, your
current performance, and your targets. This will help you determine which aspects of the project
require the most effort and resources. Also be prepared to set aside any goals
of limited scope and do not lose sight that only clearly defined and agreed objectives
ensuring the motivation of a team.

1.3 Evaluate the constraints

Every project has constraints, such as time or funding limits.

even end up making it unattainable. Therefore, make sure that these constraints
were well integrated from the beginning of the process and understood by all.

1.3.1 Preserve what works

Change is not an end in itself, even if you identify an area likely to be

improved, it may be more appropriate to postpone the decision rather than seek to bring
improvement right away. Too significant changes could weaken the project,
to the extent that they would require employees to adapt to an environment that is too
fluctuating. Furthermore, by undertaking too many successive changes, you risk no longer
to identify those who contributed to the success or caused the failure of the project.

1.3.2 Evaluate the time constraints

1
A constantly changing business environment often limits your prospects.

Afited, project management principles and practices 2eedition, practice - practice AFNOR .1998. Page 115
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projects. If you face a competitor who is to launch a new product on a date
specifically, you will have to comply with this time constraint, and if you fail to
launching your product within the set deadlines, it would have been useless for you to have worked for
to be competitive.
1.3.3 Examine the limits in terms of resources

Most companies operate on the basis of limited resources and budgets. Projects
are subject to similar constraints. A new project may lead to a use
important resources, you will also need to ensure that they are really
available. However, if the success of your project depends on an unrealistic level of resources,
rethink it.

1.3.4 Use existing means

In order to reduce the execution time of your project, do not overlook what already exists. Thus
Can other services potentially provide you with equipment used in fields?
close, or help you with their skills and achievements. Indeed, it is very important
to try to reuse as many things as possible. Most difficulties can be
overcome them by anticipating them, it is also necessary to manage these constraints logically and
methodical, in order to define the most directly effective solutions.
In other words, and to be more concrete, it will be recommended to:
evaluate precisely the time required;
Analyze the resources you will need and check their availability;
consider using existing resources;
Identify all external constraints;
Once the constraints are defined, decide whether to go for it or not.

Section 2: The mobilization of resources and classification of activities

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Before implementing a project, it is important to examine the resources and the
necessary investments. The feasibility of a project implies that you can justify the
expenses by presenting a cost/benefit ratio.

2.1 Evaluation of personnel needs

At this level, we must ask who should be involved in each of the activities and
for how long in order to proceed with an evaluation in real working time. If a
collaborator
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Bordeaux E, douchamp., Crombergghecs, the process of a harmattan development action. 1992.
Page 185
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Follows the project for ten days, but his daily working time is only 30 minutes.
his participation in the project will only be 5 hours. If he can follow other files during the
for the rest of the time, the cost corresponding to its role in your project will be a fraction of its salary
over a period of ten days.

2.2 Identify other resources

The main source of expenses for a project is generally related to human resources.
but other resources also have a significant impact on a budget. For example, you
You may need to conduct a market study. The equipment could also generate
costs. If you fail to identify all expenses, you will lose your credibility during
the examination of the cost/benefit report of your project. A comprehensive assessment of the expenses incurred

Upstream also reduces the risk of having to resort to additional funds.

Cost estimation is a delicate operation that requires rigor and precision: the examination
details will allow you to verify that the allocated budget can fund all your activities.
For example, it is not enough to know that the team will need a work room during the
project duration. You also need to know what size this space should be and what equipment is needed.
must be installed. The more you know about the details of expenses before diving in
the project, the more chances you will have to avoid problems during its implementation. The team
will thus be able to focus on the objectives to be achieved, rather than wasting time clarifying
points that will have been poorly planned.

2.3 Choose a cost assessment method

Whatever resources you are considering, you can evaluate their costs according to
two competing ways: the actual cost or the marginal cost.

The real cost means that you calculate the exact cost of the resource. If, for example, a new
The computer is essential to the project, the amount you will pay to acquire it will become a cost
of the project. If you can use an existing computer, you will only need to allocate a
proportion of its cost to the project.

The marginal cost method means that you only consider as a cost the
expenses that would not have been incurred without the project. For example, if an existing computer,
which is not used, is required, the marginal cost, or additional cost, of the computer is zero, and therefore
its price should not then be included in the project budget. With practice, the marginal cost
becomes easy to calculate and usually represents the most accurate measure for the company of
cost of a project.
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2.4 Summarize the resources: the engagement matrix

To ensure that resources will be available in a timely manner, establish a document that
all stakeholders will be able to endorse. This document is called matrix
of commitments", because it can serve to remind stakeholders of their commitments.

To be sure you have identified all the necessary resources, check that the matrix is
complete and that each series of activities is fully represented. Once the entire set of
resources and assess their cost, report them on a commitment matrix and get them approved.
document by the partners.

2.5 The evaluation of investments

Before obtaining the official green light for a new project, you will need to demonstrate that it is
well of a priority and that its benefits for the company far exceed its costs. This is what
which is called an investment evaluation, or an analysis.
Costs / benefits. This is a very widespread discipline for which many
companies have developed formal procedures. If the costs are equivalent, or higher
higher than the profits, the initiators of the project have three solutions:
they can still carry on with the project (although this is rarely the case, unless
that its strategic value is very important in the long term;
they can modify the objectives and adjust the activities in order to reduce costs;
Finally, they can cancel the project if it is unfeasible.

2.6 The external resources of the projects

If the majority of resources come directly from your team or your company, some
will undoubtedly have to be found outside. Make sure to get interesting quotes from the
share from your suppliers and negotiate an agreement on prices and performance that allows for
two parts to easily and accurately measure the progress made. You will need without
doubt exercise your negotiating skills to ensure you make the best deals. Even
While it may seem unnecessary to go into too much detail, know that the more agreements you find
will be firm and detailed, the more chances you will have to avoid any conflict later.

2.7 Ranking of activities

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For a project to be completed on time, all activities cannot, nor should they,
start at the same time. Group them logically, assessing the duration of each, then
use precise tools to develop your schedule.

2.8 Respect: the phasing and technical organization chart

Once the list of required activities is completed, study how they interfere with each other.
they, and decide which should be undertaken immediately, which should be
completes before moving on to others, review all activities like this, knowing that
some will be the result of the association of several other activities.
For example, the team will likely have completed several tasks before making a
presentation to the involved parties.

In this regard, the evaluation meetings will be important milestones in the process.
The progress of a project can be structured in phases, which themselves consist of steps, and thus
next, up to the basic tasks. This way, we have better control over time, with a
project breakdown that goes from long term or short term. This temporal breakdown is called
“phasing,” and corresponds to a linear sequence of activities, tasks, and phases. The
the transition from one phase to another gives rise to a 'milestone'.

The milestone is a meeting between the project team and the client, which allows for measurement.
the gap between the actual progress of the project and what was initially planned. It is a point of
mandatory passage of the project, which leads to the decision to move to the next phase. The milestone is
fed by progress reports, meetings, and audits. The observation of processes
project management revealed a number of dysfunctions called 'the effect
funnel." The project stakeholders often intervened one after the other, there was a
slowdown in the transfer of information at each link of the innovation process.
The slowness of information retrieval sometimes posed such problems that the stakeholders of
project prefer creating certain study data rather than reusing the existing.

The observation of these dysfunctions gave rise in the 1980s to the technique of
"concurrent engineering", also called simultaneous, parallel, or integrated engineering. Where,
we try to parallel or rather overlap tasks, activities, state, even
phases, which were previously carried out one after the other.

Unlike phasing, which links tasks together by a calendar logic,

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the technical organization chart will link tasks to each other according to a technical, occupational or
Geographic. The tasks are interconnected by technical interfaces and not by the
time dimension. Questions to ask:

Who decides the transition from one phase to another?

Should we link the tasks according to the technical dimension or the time dimension?
What level of precision should be achieved in task segmentation?
What duration is assigned to a task?

2.9 Estimate the time for each activity

To establish a correct timeline, you need to know how long each activity will take.
It is important to accurately estimate these durations, as poor estimates (overestimation
or underestimation) can derail the entire project. Team members must
also have their say. You must ensure that they approve the proposed deadlines, and that they
will be able to comply with them. If a significant doubt remains about the duration of an activity,
establish a scenario for the worst is the best hypothesis, then determine the average path.
If a project needs to be completed as quickly as possible, this technique will help you identify the
stages where you can save time.

2.10 Management by Network Diagram

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A network diagram highlighting the relationships between activities, showing their
interlocking, can be of great help to you. This diagram can be simple or very
complex, depending on the number of activities and their interconnections. When a diagram
The network allows for multiple solutions, meaning it is possible to accomplish several tasks.
simultaneously. Calculate the duration of each task, then add up the time required for them
different solutions. You will have thus determined the longest solution, which is called
critical path, being present for the minimum duration of the project (that is to say, it can lead to
the final event). Progress on the critical path must be closely monitored, as anything
A delay in either of the suspensions will affect the final outcome of the project. You can also
use the network diagram to identify opportunities to shorten the project deadlines.

This involves determining at which stages you can reduce the time spent on this or that.
activity of the critical path, for example, by increasing the available resources for this
activity. Refer again to the network diagram to identify the downtime on the others
Bridier, Michail of practical guide to economic project analysis 1987. page 80
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paths. You may then consider redistributing certain resources.

2.11 Project management software

A certain number of resources must be implemented during the life of a project. It is

become inconceivable to manage a project, even of medium size, without a minimum of
project management logistics. There are software solutions available on the market, which means that no one is anymore

forced to manually draw task scheduling charts called Gantt charts

GANTT or PERT pathways.

However, it is necessary to adhere to it, both at the time of preparation and during the
project planning only at the stage of its monitoring:
they allow defining and valuing the different tasks that make up the project:
deadlines, resources committed, notably the time spent by each of the participants;
they allow scheduling these tasks, finding the critical path and the margins
each task in relation to this critical path;
they require valuing the various resources engaged in monetary terms, and
notably the stakeholders, in order to assess the corresponding costs. They allow for
break down the project into a set of sub-projects, which is certainly of interest,
as we will see later;
They ultimately allow for the input of times, deadlines, and resource consumption.
real, and to contribute to the project monitoring.

2.12 Set deadlines and validate the plan

Once one knows the order in which different activities should succeed each other, and once one has
I calculated the minimum duration of the project, we can set the deadlines and have them validated by
the team.

2.12.1 The GANTT chart (bar chart planning)

By Henry GANTT, is a scheduling tool presenting a list of activity labels on a single

Column and, on the x-axis, the selected calendar. For each activity, a segment allows for positioning.
in the calendar the period of its occurrence. The bar chart will help you to
set the start and end deadlines for each activity.

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Start with the first activity, then review all the others by doing them all.
start as soon as possible to give you the maximum amount of time. Finally, make it appear
the deadlines on a schedule, you thus obtain a GANTT chart. This chart will be
useful for planning in advance, to highlight the different timelines on some
complex projects and to determine, during updates, the progress or delays in relation to
in the initial planning.
2.12.1.1 Detect overlaps

To verify that the dates you have calculated are realistic, refer to your diagram.
of GANTT, to your commitment matrix and the reference planning. The diagram of
GANTT immediately shows you where activities overlap. When there is
overlap, the commitment matrix will reveal that two activities require the same
resource at the same time. If that is the case, you will need to modify the start and end dates of
these activities. Finally, the reference schedule is used to see if there is an overlap in the
project resources.

The downside of the GANTT is that it does not show the urgency of a task relative to others.
to another. In a project, certain tasks, if they fall behind, may lead to
delay on the entire project. We call these tasks 'critical tasks'. Therefore, it is necessary that they
to follow closely.

Unlike time-scale diagrams, which visualize the duration of activities and their
dates on a timeline, network methods, also known as 'critical path method',
will prioritize the logical relationships between the tasks. Indeed, the network does not include
of the timeline and visualizes the logical constraints between tasks. This allows
to analyze and express the progress of the project, primarily from the perspective of relationships
of a technical nature that exist between the project's activities.

This approach has the advantage of objectively laying out the logic of implementation.
project following the standards of the concerned professions.

2.12.2 Determine deadlines: PERT networks

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PERT networks aim to determine the shortest time frame for a project and to ensure
the respect of this deadline throughout the course of the project. They bring together two methods
similar in their objectives but differing in the method of application: PERT in the strict sense
and the 'potential method'. The purpose of PERT techniques is to calculate the duration of
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Descroix S., Leloup G., organize the evaluation of a development action in the south: Brussels. 2002
Page 82
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the shortest possible project execution, to ease the analysis of their delays.
catch-up opportunities, highlighting the link between tasks. A PERT is a network
(or a graph).

It presents an interconnection of the different tasks of the project, linked to each other by
constraints of precedence. It allows identifying the path that leads from one task to another. The
PERT highlights a critical path, a series of successive tasks that cannot be
extended without calling into question the deadlines set for the project. The other tasks of the project can
be delayed (they have some leeway) without disrupting the deadline set for the project.

2.12.2.1 Examination of the PERT method

The PERT activity is a specific project task that utilizes resources, money, and
In a PERT diagram, the tasks or activities of the project are represented by an arc.
Arrowed. The logical sequence of these tasks, called 'step', is the result of one or more
tasks. The steps are therefore the link between upstream tasks and downstream tasks. A
The step is conditioned by the completion of all upstream tasks.

Tasks are represented by a circle or a square. The PERT network is the combination of
all the tasks and all the steps. A 'path' is a sequence of connected tasks.
between two stages of the network. The adjective 'critical' qualifies a task, an event, a path
where the delay leads to the delay of the project's completion. The method5Pert is a technique that allows
to plan and monitor the execution of a project. It consists of representing in the form of a graph, a
task network whose sequence will lead to the achievement of the project's objectives
(Maders and Clet, 2005).

It is a management method that helps the project manager make decisions

adjustment of objectives, deadlines, and means. Its implementation requires prior
a precise breakdown of the project into tasks, the estimation of the duration of each task, the assignment
of a project manager responsible for monitoring, reporting if necessary, and making decisions
decisions in case there are deviations from the forecasts. The Pert provides a clear vision
of the different tasks of the project, the resources implemented and the time allocated for execution
each task.

Maders and Clet, 2005, Vallet, 1991

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It also allows for tracking the alignment between forecasts and the project throughout its duration.
achievements and possibly reassess the needs in terms of human resources,
financial and material. However, the Pert does not provide visibility on the overall evolution.
of the project, this is a limitation of this method. Indeed, it focuses its interests on the
different project activities. That said, the PERT cannot be used as an element of
communication for the various stakeholders in the project. In practice, we distinguish the
Pert-time and the Pert-charge (Vallet, 1991).

The Pert-time

The Pert-time is a date-date diagram whose continuous monitoring of achievements allows for
visualize the trend of project deadline drift. The calculation of these drifts allows for
revisions and successive adjustments to the schedule throughout the execution of the project.

The Pert-Charge
The Pert-charge is an extension of the Pert-time technique but allows to take into account
count the resources allocated to the project (Vallet, 1991). It is a resource tracking tool
allowing to show the allocation of people in man days on a given task and to
possibly revise the allocation rate of resources if a task turns out to take longer (or
shorter than initially planned.

The Pert-charge also allows for presentation for each end of period (day, week,
the number of resources that have been used, to provide visibility on a given date
on what remains to be done and consider the adjustments concerning the initial schedule (Vallet,
1991). If the Pert allows to monitor the evolution of the project in terms of completed tasks and
resources used it does not allow to provide information on the progress of the project,
This is indeed the role of the Gantt chart.

The Pert and the Gantt chart are therefore complementary, in that the Pert allows
to monitor the execution of tasks while the diagram provides an overview
global on the evolution of project execution in terms of time and resources.

2.13 The Dashboard

The dashboard 6is a document consisting of a set of indicators that allows for
project manager for monitoring, controlling, and even mastering the progress of the project and its unforeseen events

(Maders and Clet, 2005). Given the comprehensiveness of the information necessary for monitoring

Maders and Clet, 2005 op cit., p9

6

18
project and that must absolutely be collected, the project dashboard must be a document
synthetic that brings together all the dashboards monitoring the different activities of the project.
Each activity monitoring dashboard must contain different types of information and
forecasts regarding deadlines per action, workload per participant,
expenses by budget line item, the general progress of the project, and the risk portfolio.

Generally, we distinguish between dashboards for monitoring resource consumption and the
cost monitoring dashboard. The analysis of significant variances and the causes of these variances
training corrective measures and the updating of tracking tables. But the real
The problem with the dashboard remains the choice of indicators. Indeed, if the indicator that should help to ...
appreciating a situation is poorly chosen, it is obvious that the decisions made following the analysis
this indicator will not yield the expected result.

2.13.1 The different types of indicators

7
According to Casley and Kumar (1987), the choice of appropriate indicators is important.
fundamental for tracking beneficiaries, they must clarify the questions about
which the management can exert influence to improve the achievements of
project. Indeed, inappropriate indicators can doom a system to failure.
Information. Monitoring indicators can be grouped into three main categories:
the performance indicators that allow to identify and assess the performances of
project;
the indicators of beneficiaries' reactions during the execution of the project;
the external explanatory indicators that allow monitoring certain exogenous forces
on which a project cannot have influence.

The monitoring follows data collection techniques, both qualitative and quantitative.
The realization of a quantitative or qualitative analysis and the proposal of corrective actions
are elements that characterize monitoring activities. This data must be recorded
with a frequency that can be daily depending on the case, with summaries at the end of the week
or of the month. It can also be weekly or monthly.

2.13.2 The Follow-Up Frequency

The monitoring is generally internal, it is carried out by the executing agency itself. It can be
ensured by the project management or by a small committee created for this purpose and operating under

Casley and Kumar 1987

7

19
the authority of the project manager. The frequency of monitoring generally depends on the needs of the
project, it can be daily, weekly or monthly.

2.14 Project evaluation a tool for progress

There are a large number of definitions of evaluation, which reflects the reality that allows it.
to have a great diversity of approach. Evaluation has a rather broad meaning. It encompasses the
periodic exams conducted by the management team, just like interventions to
specific assessments carried out on fixed dates, such as mid-term evaluation, the assessment
terminal and retrospective evaluation (Casley and Kumar, 1987).
On the other hand, the World Bank (2008) defines evaluation as "a measure, also
systematic and as objective as possible, results of a project, a program or a
policy in order to determine its relevance, coherence, and the efficiency of its implementation,
its effectiveness and impact as well as the sustainability of the achieved effects." Finally for Neu (2001),
Evaluating is appreciating the quality to facilitate decision-making.

These three definitions taken individually remain incomplete but together, they convey
with greater fidelity to the reality of evaluation in its practice and purpose.

2.14.1 The evaluative procedures

The evaluation processes are distinguished by their rhythms and frequencies. According to (Neu,
In 2001, there are four types of evaluative approaches.

2.14.1.1 In the past

This approach aims to verify and modify an organization's strategy, to guide, to pursue.
to suspend a partnership, a project or a program. Indeed, the evaluation must assess the
the quality of a project, at a particular moment in its progress, to contribute to the directions
of a longer and broader process (Verrière, 2002). We also talk about evaluation
event" (Neu, 2001) which often needs to rely on information gathered all
over the course of the project's implementation.

Event evaluations occur in the project at different frequencies and at

specific moments to know: before, during, just after, or long after. We distinguish:
the ex ante evaluation to designate the preliminary studies for design and launch
of the project ;

the mid-term evaluation that allows for the adjustment of implementation strategies for
a smooth progress and for achieving the project's objectives;
the final evaluation which is generally carried out just after the end of the project to make
the assessment and see if there is a need to renew it;
20
 the ex post evaluation which corresponds to studies carried out several months, even several
years after the end of the project, to measure its effects on the beneficiary population.

In the game of actors

Several actors are involved in conducting an evaluation, among which we find the
project owner who is the organization for which the evaluation is carried out, the beneficiaries and the
other partners (State, funding agencies...).

2.14.1.3 The type of induced approach

The type of approach generally depends on the object being assessed. Thus, each family
The term refers to sets of tools and methods that are often shaped by approaches that are sometimes
very standardized.

2.14.1.4 In their role of aiding decision-making

8
An evaluation must help inform the manager in their decision-making. It is about
draw lessons from the project management process implemented in the past and guide the
further actions by relevant proposals, to enlighten the decisions that must be
taken into account in a well-defined area in advance9(Bergeron, 2008). Following the purpose of
Evaluation is divided into two types: formative evaluation and summative evaluation.

2.14.1.5 Formative assessment

Formative evaluation aims to improve the functioning of a project, program, or a
existing policy. That said, it is carried out during the implementation of the project and corresponds
to the ongoing or mid-term evaluation. This evaluation involves stakeholders and operators, who will
to train during the evaluation in order to then guide the course of the project if necessary.

However, this evaluation can be carried out by the internal monitoring and evaluation team as well.
to the project by an external evaluation team. When the evaluation is carried out by
the internal monitoring and evaluation team of the project, the conclusions of the study run the risk of not
not having a neutral point of view or being influenced by the direction of the project, which could
bias decision-making (Fofana, 2008). This type of assessment remains limited because it does not allow
to have a clear readability of the results and the impact of the project.

Bergeron et al., Fofana seminar project evaluation; 2008 page 25

8

Fofana, 2008
9

21
2.14.1.6The summative assessment

The summative evaluation addresses the limitations observed in the formative evaluation. Indeed,
it is carried out to assess the results of projects and programs, as well as the effects
generated. That being said, it is done just after, or a long time after the end of the project. In the
In the last case, it will be a matter of measuring the impact of the project on the beneficiary populations.

organizations in a constant quest for maximum satisfaction of this concern, are

always in a continuous process of improving his techniques and methods. He is not
not here to detail all the monitoring and evaluation methods and techniques but, of
present the most relevant used in project development management.
The main techniques and methods currently used in project evaluation and
programmes are the logical framework, the Marp, the Focus group, the Swot and the Zopp.

2.14.1.7 The logical framework

The logical framework method is an approach that is particularly important for monitoring and
evaluation of development projects. Indeed, it was developed in the 1970s.
to improve the clarity and quality of project design (IFAD Report, 2008). It is a
matrix that provides an overview of the project throughout its duration. It presents the objectives,
the hypotheses, the main activities to be undertaken, the result indicators.

To be useful, the logical framework must be detailed enough and particularly updated,
to reflect the project's situation at the given moment. For example, the logical framework
initial could include achievements or even components that are no longer relevant
and were therefore left aside (IFAD Report, 2008).

The development of a monitoring and evaluation system begins well before the project starts.
The initial design greatly influences the ease with which the follow-up will be implemented.
and also outlines how the evaluation will be conducted. When a logical framework exists in a
project, it will be easier to conduct an evaluation activity. However, when he is absent, the
The work of the person in charge of the evaluation will first be to reconstruct it. Indeed, the view
The global perspective it brings to the project helps to guide the evaluation questions (Bergeron, 2008).

The brief presentation of the project by the logical framework is a shortcoming that must provoke the
the prudence of the project manager. Indeed, he must ensure that the various tools of
data collection and analysis are always up to date, to provide detailed information
on the content of the logical framework.

22
2.14.1.8 The Marp
10
The active participatory research method (Marp) is a rapid and interactive approach with
the beneficiary populations. It was born from an observation of the failure of many projects
development. These failures could be explained by two observations: on the one hand, the projects had
were developed by external experts based on the diagnostics carried out without consultation of the
beneficiary populations. On the other hand, these diagnoses were often the result of very
delayed in time and very costly in resources and manpower that often did not manage to
quality recommendations). (IFAD Report, 2008).

According to the Urd group (2002), the Marp is a set of approaches and tools used for
allow rural and urban populations to present their knowledge about their situation
and their living conditions. This technique establishes a communication process that is closer and
more revealing than questionnaires. For example, the Marp allows direct consultation of the
beneficiaries in relation to their perception of well-being. But this method also relies on
very sophisticated tools that are often difficult to use and can skew the results.

2.14.1.9 The Focus Group

The focus group is a qualitative research technique that involves a group of people.
having the same expectations regarding a project and taking into account the specific aspects of
this group and those who are connected to its culture, social organization or standard of living, in order to
determine the attitude he adopts towards the project or the program (Wikipedia, 2009). The
low cost is an advantage that allows this method to be increasingly used in
the evaluation of projects.

2.14.1.10 The SWOT

The SWOT is a matrix that allows you to determine the possible strategic options in the
project management. The term Swot comes from English and means STRENGTHS.
weaknesses
an analysis that identifies the opportunities and threats of the external environment of the project,
as well as the strengths and weaknesses related to the management of human and material resources
financial aspects of the internal environment.

10
IFAD Report, project monitoring and evaluation in developing countries 2008
23
In the evaluation of development projects, the SWOT is primarily focused on
the ex ante evaluation but can also be used in other types of project evaluation or
programmes. It combines the factors of the project environment that can influence it.
positively or negatively, thus helping to reduce uncertainties regarding the refinement of
strategies and decision-making (Cota Report, 2008).

The Zopp
11
Zopp is a planning method that is used in all phases of the project. In
the evaluation system, This is a planning of interventions by objective. It is a
method developed in the 1980s by the GTZ it is used to carry out pre-
evaluations (Cota Report, 2009). The Zopp allows for the formulation of hypotheses that
evaluators will need to follow on the ground.

2.15 The characteristics of a qualitative evaluation

12
Several characteristics specific to the evaluation approach can be observed. They
mainly concerning the purpose of the evaluation, the objects to be evaluated, and the stakeholders.
The evaluation has four main purposes that incorporate the specificities of the object to be evaluated.
the information needs of stakeholders. Its purposes are as follows (Bank Report
worldwide, 2008:

2.15.1 Decide

The assessment allows the project manager to make a decision to the extent that it
provides the elements that enlighten and guide him in his decision-making.

2.15.2 Manage

The evaluation provides project managers and operators with the necessary information to
good management orientation as well as good control of operations on the ground.

2.15.3 Informer

The evaluation allows beneficiaries to be informed about the progress of the project, to raise awareness among
contributors the results achieved, in line with the initial objectives.

2.15.4 Knowing, understanding, and drawing lessons

11
Quota report, 2009
World Bank Report, 2008
12

24
By comparing the observations made during the evaluation of a project with the findings
carried out in other projects, the researcher can understand the reasons for this variation by trying
to explain the gaps, to understand them and finally to draw lessons in the direction of
the application in future projects.

2.16 The formalization of the project evaluation

2.16.1 The functional specifications document

To express the need in the form of functions that the future product must fulfill to
to satisfy its user, resorts to a technique, functional analysis. Any product can
to be characterized, not only by physical attributes, by components, but also
by the functions it must fulfill to provide a service to the user for whom it is intended.
Conducting a functional analysis aims to identify the functions that a product must fulfill in order to
provide a service to a given user.
Functional analysis is a structured approach that takes place in four phases:

1) Research, identification and expression of the need: it is necessary to gather the maximum

information on current or potential users of the product, to properly define the

target. Expressing the need requires answering the following questions:
Who is the product intended for?
How will she be able to use it?
And for how long?

2) Translation of needs into 'functions to ensure': a function expresses the need of

users in terms of purpose, but also the constraints of the project environment.
We distinguish several types of functions, depending on their nature, their degree of importance and the

leeway they provide in terms of solutions. The main function is the

function for which the product is created. Secondary functions translate
additional needs and are related to specific uses.

3) Hierarchization of functions and definition of evaluation criteria for functions.

4) Writing the functional specifications document: its content revolves around the four
following paragraphs: the general presentation of the problem, the functional statement of the

need, the call for variants, the response framework.

The content of the functional specifications of a standardized document aimed at obtaining

25
in response 'the product best able to provide the expected service, under the foreseen conditions and
for minimal cost." To this end, the functional specifications only express requirements
of results and, in principle, no requirement for means. The establishment of a specifications document
Functional implies that a study has allowed for the precise identification of user needs.

2.17 Evaluative approaches

13
To implement an evaluative approach, four phases are necessary and can be
envisaged from two perspectives, that of the sponsoring organization and that of the
beneficiary (World Bank Report, 2008).

2.17.1 From the sponsor's point of view

We distinguish the phase of prerequisites, the preparation phase, and the valuation phase.

2.17.1.1 The phase of prerequisites

Depending on the nature of the project, the organization and its management procedures, the prerequisites may
to be different. Generally, it is necessary to consult the partners and the project managers who
choose the right time to conduct the assessment, by making a preliminary project that is actually
a draft of the work to be done. It is then necessary to plan the budget and appoint the manager and a
steering committee.

2.17.1.2 The preparation phase

14
This is a phase that requires not only the intervention of the sponsoring organization.
but also that of the director of the evaluation. For the sponsoring organization, it includes
six stages consisting of gaining knowledge of the object to be evaluated, the precise identification of
evaluation criteria and questions, the inventory of available information, the design of a
evaluative approach and the definition of an evaluation framework, a work program, a
budget and acalendar(World Bank Report, 2008). Finally, it is necessary to draft the terms of
references that specify the evaluator's mandate.

2.17.1.3 The valuation phase

The valuation phase mainly concerns the consideration of the recommendations and
lessons from the evaluation in improving project management. It allows
also to disseminate the information generated by the evaluation to the various stakeholders of the
project.
(World Bank Report, 2008).
13
14
Op cit (World Bank Report, 2008)
26
2.17.2 From the evaluator's point of view
At the evaluator level, two phases are necessary for the completion of their mandate. It
it concerns the preparation and execution phases.

2.17.2.1 Preparation Phase

For the evaluator, this phase consists of six steps that begin with becoming acquainted with
terms of reference of the project and continues with the specification of evaluative questions with the
commissioned, the inventory of available information, the design of an approach
evaluative, the definition of a support system accompanied by a program, a budget and
from a calendar and finally the evaluator can respond to the offer and proceed with the signing of the contract.

2.17.2.3 Implementation phase

The implementation phase begins with the exploitation of available data and, if applicable, the
collection and the use of supplementary information. It continues with the analysis and
the interpretation ends with the reasoning and conclusions, the presentation of the work that
is an opportunity to discuss and confront viewpoints and finally the drafting of the final report.

The organization and management of projects are always marked by monitoring and evaluation which
allows for regular adjustments of weaknesses in management and organization. This
evaluation can be conducted for selection reasons either through the logical framework, the MARP,
Focus group and the SWOT.

The monitoring and evaluation allow for verifying the execution of all project implementation procedures.
including the disbursement procedure and the accounting of funds.

And to participate in the evaluations of the impact of the community response surveys.

27
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