Antenna & Wave Propagation (Unit-II) – Problems

with Step-by-Step Solutions

Covers: choosing antennas, radiation, patterns, intensity & solid angle, gain & directivity, dBi vs dBd,
EIRP, efficiency, radiation resistance, effective area, antenna impedance & matching, VSWR, bandwidth,
polarization & axial ratio, and link budget.

Antenna Gain: dBi vs dBd

Problem 1. An antenna has a gain of 7 dBd. Convert it to dBi.
We use the relation: dBi = dBd + 2.15.

Thus, dBi = 7 + 2.15 = 9.15 dBi.

Antenna Gain: dBi vs dBd

Problem 2. An antenna datasheet specifies 11.5 dBi. Express this in dBd.
Use dBd = dBi − 2.15.

dBd = 11.5 − 2.15 = 9.35 dBd.

EIRP
Problem 3. A transmitter outputs 27 dBm to a feeder with 1.5 dB loss feeding a 10 dBi antenna.
Compute the EIRP.
EIRP = P_tx + G_ant − L_cable.

EIRP = 27 + 10 − 1.5 = 35.5 dBm.

EIRP
Problem 4. A 20 W transmitter feeds an antenna of 9 dBd via a cable with 2 dB loss. Find the
EIRP in dBW.
First convert 20 W to dBW: 10·log10(20) = 13.01 dBW.

Convert 9 dBd to dBi: 9 + 2.15 = 11.15 dBi.

EIRP = 13.01 + 11.15 − 2 = 22.16 dBW.

Choosing Antennas
Problem 5. A base-station needs 60° horizontal beamwidth for sector coverage. If available
antennas are: (A) 6 dBi omni, (B) 14 dBi 90° panel, (C) 16 dBi 60° panel—choose the best and
justify numerically by sector count to cover 360°.
60° sector requires 360°/60° = 6 sectors; 90° requires 4 sectors; omni requires 1 but lacks
gain and directionality.

Given requirement is 60° coverage per sector; pick 16 dBi 60° panel. The higher gain (16 dBi)
improves link margin compared to 14 dBi, while meeting the beamwidth spec.
Radiation Conditions
Problem 6. A straight infinite wire carries DC of 2 A. Does it radiate? What about if the current is
I(t)=2cos(ωt) A?
DC in a straight infinite wire does not radiate (no time-varying fields).

An AC current I(t)=2cos(ωt) is time-varying; even in a straight wire, if it is of finite length and

terminated/discontinuous, it will radiate.

Radiation Pattern & Directivity

Problem 7. An antenna has half-power beamwidths of 30° (H-plane) and 25° (E-plane). Estimate
its directivity D using the empirical formula D ≈ 41253/(HPBW_H·HPBW_E) with angles in
degrees.
Compute: D ≈ 41253 / (30 × 25) = 41253 / 750 ≈ 55.0.

In dBi: 10·log10(55.0) ≈ 17.4 dBi.

Radiation Intensity & Solid Angle

Problem 8. An antenna radiates a total power of 5 W uniformly over a solid angle of 2 sr. Find the
average radiation intensity U_avg within that region.
Radiation intensity U = dP/dΩ.

U_avg = P/Ω = 5/2 = 2.5 W/sr.

Solid Angle
Problem 9. Calculate the solid angle (in steradians) subtended by a 90° by 60° rectangular beam
(assume small-angle approx is not valid—use Ω ≈ (π/180)^2·(θ_H·θ_V) for narrow beams; here
90°×60° is moderate but we'll use the approximation for an estimate).
Convert to radians: θ_H=π/2, θ_V=π/3.

Approximate Ω ≈ (π/180)^2·(90×60) = (π/180)^2·5400 ≈ 0.0003046×5400 ≈ 1.64 sr (rough

estimate).

Gain, Directivity & Efficiency

Problem 10. An antenna has directivity D = 10 (linear) and radiation efficiency η_rad = 0.7. Find
its power gain G (linear and dBi).
G = η_rad·D = 0.7×10 = 7.

In dBi: 10·log10(7) ≈ 8.45 dBi.

Power Gain Chain

Problem 11. A transmitter outputs 10 dBW, followed by feeder loss 3 dB, antenna gain 15 dBi.
What is the radiated EIRP?
EIRP = 10 − 3 + 15 = 22 dBW.
Radiation Resistance
Problem 12. If an antenna radiates 8 W when 2 A RMS current flows at its feed, compute the
radiation resistance R_r.
P_rad = I^2·R_r ⇒ R_r = P_rad/I^2 = 8 / (2^2) = 8/4 = 2 Ω.

Effective Area (A_e) & Gain

Problem 13. For a receiving antenna operating at 2.4 GHz with power gain G = 9 dBi, compute
its effective aperture A_e. (Use A_e = (λ^2·G_linear)/(4π)).
λ = c/f = 3×10^8 / 2.4×10^9 = 0.125 m.

G_linear = 10^(9/10) ≈ 7.943.

A_e = (0.125^2 × 7.943)/(4π) = (0.015625 × 7.943)/(12.566) ≈ 0.1241/12.566 ≈ 0.00988 m².

Antenna Impedance & Phase

Problem 14. An antenna has input impedance Z_A = 50 + j50 Ω. What is the magnitude and
phase of Z_A?
|Z_A| = √(50^2 + 50^2) = √(5000) ≈ 70.71 Ω.

∠Z_A = arctan(50/50) = 45°. So Z_A = 70.7∠45° Ω.

Impedance Matching
Problem 15. If source impedance is Z_S = 30 + j20 Ω, what antenna impedance Z_A provides
maximum power transfer?
For maximum power transfer, Z_A = complex conjugate of Z_S ⇒ Z_A = 30 − j20 Ω.

Mismatch Loss
Problem 16. A 50 Ω line is terminated in 100 Ω. Find reflection coefficient magnitude, VSWR,
and mismatch loss (in dB).
Γ = (Z_L − Z_0)/(Z_L + Z_0) = (100 − 50)/(100 + 50) = 50/150 = 0.333.

VSWR = (1+|Γ|)/(1−|Γ|) = 1.333/0.667 ≈ 2.0.

Mismatch loss ML = −10·log10(1 − |Γ|^2) = −10·log10(1 − 0.111) = −10·log10(0.889) ≈ 0.51

dB.

Return Loss
Problem 17. Given |Γ| = 0.2, compute the return loss (RL) in dB and VSWR.
RL = −20·log10|Γ| = −20·log10(0.2) = 13.98 dB.

VSWR = (1+0.2)/(1−0.2) = 1.2/0.8 = 1.5.

Bandwidth
Problem 18. An antenna operates satisfactorily from 900 MHz to 930 MHz with center frequency
915 MHz. Find the fractional bandwidth (in %).
Fractional BW = (f_H − f_L)/f_center × 100% = (930−900)/915×100% ≈ 30/915×100% ≈
3.28%.

Bandwidth & Q (approx.)

Problem 19. If a narrowband antenna has fractional bandwidth of 2% at 1 GHz, estimate its Q (Q
≈ 1/FBW).
FBW = 0.02 ⇒ Q ≈ 1/0.02 = 50. (Approximate relation).

Polarization Basics
Problem 20. Identify the polarization when the tip of the electric field vector traces: (a) straight
line, (b) circle, (c) ellipse.
(a) Linear polarization, (b) Circular polarization, (c) Elliptical polarization.

Axial Ratio
Problem 21. An elliptically polarized wave has major axis 3 V/m and minor axis 1 V/m. Compute
axial ratio in dB.
AR (linear) = 3/1 = 3.

AR (dB) = 20·log10(AR) = 20·log10(3) ≈ 9.54 dB.

Polarization Mismatch
Problem 22. A linearly polarized receiving antenna is misaligned by 30° relative to the incident
linear polarization. Find polarization loss factor (PLF) and the loss in dB.
PLF = cos^2(θ) = cos^2(30°) = (√3/2)^2 = 3/4 = 0.75.

Loss = −10·log10(PLF) = −10·log10(0.75) ≈ 1.25 dB.

Link Budget
Problem 23. For a 2.4 GHz link with P_tx=20 dBm, G_tx=8 dBi, G_rx=6 dBi, FSPL=100 dB, and
other losses 3 dB, find P_rx.
P_rx = P_tx + G_tx + G_rx − (FSPL + other losses).

P_rx = 20 + 8 + 6 − (100 + 3) = 34 − 103 = −69 dBm.

Free-Space Path Loss (FSPL)

Problem 24. Compute FSPL (in dB) at f=900 MHz over d=10 km using FSPL ≈ 32.44 +
20log10(d_km) + 20log10(f_MHz).
FSPL = 32.44 + 20log10(10) + 20log10(900) = 32.44 + 20 + 59.08 = 111.52 dB.

Received Power & Effective Area

Problem 25. A plane wave with power flux density S=0.5 mW/m² impinges on a receiving
antenna with A_e=0.01 m² and polarization perfectly matched. Find received power.
P_rx = S·A_e = 0.5×10^−3 × 0.01 = 5×10^−6 W = −23 dBm (since 10·log10(5e−6/1e−3) ≈
−23).

Radiation Efficiency
Problem 26. An antenna has directivity 8 dBi and realized gain 5 dBi (includes mismatch and
losses). Estimate the total efficiency η_total (linear).
Convert to linear: D=10^(8/10)=6.31, G=10^(5/10)=3.16.

η_total = G/D = 3.16/6.31 ≈ 0.50 (50%).

Feeder/Cable Loss
Problem 27. If the cable loss is 4 dB and the antenna gain is 12 dBi, what is the net system gain
from the transmitter port to boresight?
Net gain = G_ant − L_cable = 12 − 4 = 8 dB.

S-Parameters
Problem 28. Given return loss S11 = −18 dB, compute |Γ| and VSWR.
|Γ| = 10^(S11/20) = 10^(−18/20) ≈ 0.1259.

VSWR = (1+|Γ|)/(1−|Γ|) = 1.1259/0.8741 ≈ 1.29.

Monopole Dimensions
Problem 29. Find the physical height of a λ/4 monopole at 1.6 MHz (ignore end effects).
λ = c/f = 3×10^8 / 1.6×10^6 = 187.5 m.

Height = λ/4 = 46.875 m ≈ 46.9 m.

Microstrip Patch (Order-of-Magnitude)

Problem 30. A rectangular microstrip patch typically has length ~0.49λ_eff. Estimate the patch
length at 2 GHz in free space (use λ_eff≈λ).
λ = 3×10^8 / 2×10^9 = 0.15 m.

L ≈ 0.49λ ≈ 0.0735 m = 7.35 cm (rough estimate; actual uses ε_eff).

Gain–Beamwidth Estimate
Problem 31. Antenna gain is 18 dBi. Using D≈G_linear and D≈ 41253/(HPBW_H·HPBW_E),
assume equal HPBW in H and E. Estimate HPBW (degrees).
G_linear = 10^(18/10) ≈ 63.1. Assume D≈63.1.

Let θ=HPBW_H=HPBW_E. Then 63.1 ≈ 41253/θ² ⇒ θ² ≈ 41253/63.1 ≈ 654.

θ ≈ √654 ≈ 25.6°.
Polarization: XPD
Problem 32. If the co-polar received level is −60 dBm and the cross-polar level is −75 dBm,
compute XPD.
XPD = P_co − P_xpol = −60 − (−75) = 15 dB.

Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Distance

Problem 33. Antenna maximum dimension D=0.5 m at 3 GHz. Compute the Fraunhofer distance
R_ff ≈ 2D²/λ.
λ = 3×10^8 / 3×10^9 = 0.1 m.

R_ff ≈ 2×(0.5)²/0.1 = 2×0.25/0.1 = 5 m. R_ff ≈ 5 m.

Polarization Sense
Problem 34. A circularly polarized wave is received with an RHCP antenna, but the signal is
LHCP. What is the theoretical polarization mismatch loss (ideal case)?
Orthogonal circular senses are isolated ideally by 20 dB or more; in theory, cross-polar
coupling is 0 (−∞ dB). In practice, assume very high loss (≈ ≥20 dB).

Matching Network (Conceptual)

Problem 35. You must match a 25 Ω antenna to a 50 Ω line at a single frequency. What is the
required impedance transformation ratio, and name one simple network that can achieve it.
Transform ratio = 50/25 = 2:1.

A simple L-section (series-reactance + shunt-reactance) can realize this at the frequency of

interest.

VSWR from Forward/Reflected Power

Problem 36. A directional coupler measures forward power 10 W and reflected power 0.4 W.
Find |Γ|, VSWR, and return loss.
|Γ| = √(P_ref/P_fwd) = √(0.4/10) = √0.04 = 0.2.

VSWR = (1+0.2)/(1−0.2) = 1.2/0.8 = 1.5.

Return loss = −20·log10(0.2) = 13.98 dB.

Effective Height (Conceptual)

Problem 37. A short monopole has effective height h_eff = 1.2 m. If incident E-field is 2 V/m,
estimate open-circuit voltage at the terminals.
V_oc ≈ E·h_eff = 2 × 1.2 = 2.4 V. (Approximate relation for small antennas).

Link Margin
Problem 38. Receiver sensitivity is −90 dBm. With a received level of −76 dBm, compute link
margin and state if the link is viable.
 Link margin = P_rx − Sensitivity = −76 − (−90) = 14 dB.

Positive margin ⇒ link is viable under stated conditions.

Antenna Efficiency
Problem 39. An antenna is fed with 5 W. The mismatch reflects 0.5 W back, and ohmic losses
are 0.7 W. Compute radiation efficiency (η_rad) and realized gain factor (η_total) relative to input
power.
Power delivered to antenna = 5 − 0.5 = 4.5 W.

Radiated power = 4.5 − 0.7 = 3.8 W.

η_rad = P_rad/(P_delivered) = 3.8/4.5 ≈ 0.844 (84.4%).

η_total relative to source = P_rad/P_input = 3.8/5 = 0.76 (76%).

Notes:
• Problems are aligned with Unit-II topics: gain (dBi/dBd), EIRP, patterns, intensity, solid angle, directivity,
effective area, impedance & matching, VSWR/return loss, bandwidth, polarization & axial ratio, and link
budget.
• Numerical values and formulae are standard in antenna engineering and consistent with the concepts
presented in your PDF slides.