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Study Notes for Secondary School

A Study guide to MSCE English examinations

© Lughano Mwangwegho, 2005

Revised Edition 2011

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by

way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out or
otherwise circulated without the publisher’s or author’s prior
Lughano Mwangwegho consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in
which it is published and without a similar condition including
this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements

Contents Page I wish to extend my gratitude to the following people for their
unprecedented support: first, my parents for sending me to
Acknowledgements school; Raphael Mweninguwe, Cyprian Chimbiya, Miss
Beatrice Ngoleka – Lilongwe Cadecom, Mrs. Faria – Zomba
Foreword
central hospital, English language examiners and Maneb
Chapter One officials for their advisory comments.

Writing a paragraph Special gratitude to my wife, Mary, for not getting too much
worried when I sometimes regarded the writing of this book
Linking words more important than her, and to my lovely children, Nganiwa
and Atusaye, who time and again missed the fatherly love and
Writing a composition
care.
A narrative composition

Situational compositions

A speech

A report

A letter

Chapter Two
Comprehension

Summary writing

Note-making iv
References
Foreword Chapter One
Many students, particularly in secondary schools, get poor
grades during examination. This comes as a result of either
lack of right materials or poor preparation by the students
themselves; however, English Study Notes – the book in your
hands – provides the required material for your preparations. It
contains every thing you need for your English papers II and
III.

It is easy to study. Its easy explanations make it an ideal asset

to candidates whose goal is to get better grades in English
examinations.

August 2005, Lilongwe

v
 WRITING A PARAGRAPH POINTS TO NOTE

A paragraph can be defined as a group of connected sentences,  A paragraph may be of any length – a single, short
which develop a single aspect of a topic or idea.A paragraph sentence or a passage of long duration. But a good
usually contains: paragraph has 6 – 12 lines.
 When writing a composition, it is better to write more
i) A Topic sentence: A topic sentence tells us what the theme
paragraphs rather than too few.
or topic of the paragraph is. It gives readers an overview of
 As a rule, single sentences should not be written as
what they are about to read.
paragraphs. However in dialogue, each speech, even if
Example: it is a single word, is usually a paragraph by itself: that
Victoria Falls is one of Zimbabwe’s most attractive tourist is a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker.
sports.  In narratives, the paragraphs are likely to be short and
without a topic sentence.
ii) Supporting sentences: Supporting sentences develop the
main ideas in the topic sentence. They tell us more about the
topic introduced by the topic sentence by expanding the main
idea.
use instead of
Example: staff of people Personnel
It is found where the Zambezi river plunges into a chasm start actuate
kept retained
approximately 70 – 105 metres deep, sending a spectacular
summary précis
spray clouds 500 metres into the sky… before prior to
along with in conjunction
iii) A concluding sentence: A concluding sentence completes
mentioned with
a sentence. above
Example:
Because of its numerous attractions, tens of thousands of
visitors visit it every year.

7 8
Study the sample paragraphs below. LINKING WORDS AND PHRASES

Paragraph 1 (extracted from Step Ahead New Secondary Linking words and phrases help to link sentences and paragraphs
English Book 4) in composition.

Victoria Falls is one of Zimbabwe’s most attractive tourist Below are some of the linking words and phrases commonly
spots. It is found where the Zambezi river plunges into a chasm used in composition writing. To show:
approximately 70 – 105 metres deep, sending a spectacular
spray clouds 500 metres into the sky… Because of its
1.Addition 4. Reformulation
numerous attractions, tens of thousands of visitors visit it every in addition to rather
year. further in other words
again
Paragraph 2 (Extracted from Secondary English Students’ also
Book 2) besides
2. Result 5. Enumeration
Africa is very rich in raw materials. Some of these materials as a result moreover
are minerals, such as copper and iron ore, bauxite, oil, consequently to begin with
manganese and pure carbon from which diamonds are therefore next
obtained. Other raw materials include coffee, cotton, thus then
groundnuts, tobacco and rubber. To be used by man all these last(ly)
materials must be processed in various ways. 3. Comparison 6. Contrast and concession
in comparison with however
likewise nevertheless
yet
whereas
on the contrary
4. Exemplification 7. Summary
for example to sum up
for instance in short
in brief
10
9
WRITING A COMPOSITION

A composition can be defined as a series of sentences in

use verbs instead of verb + noun
paragraphs discussing one main idea. A composition has four
fit carry out a fitting
main parts. notify give notification
confirm make a confirmation
1) Title: A title is the main idea of a composition. The title can
enter make an entry
be a word, a phrase or a proverb. reserve make reservation
conclude reach a conclusion
2) Introduction: The introduction highlights the main purpose
of a composition. A good introduction hooks the reader and
makes clear what the topic is about. POINTS TO NOTE
 When writing a composition use common, straight
3) Body: It is the main part of the composition that expands the
forward words so that your reads should not have
theme of the story hence the many paragraphs in it.
difficulties to follow.
NOTE: Although a paragraph begins with a topic sentence,  Do not tempt to use many and weighty (very serious)
sometimes a topic may come at any place within the paragraph. words as these words tend to hide the theme or meaning
But make sure that the supporting sentence clarifies the topic of your composition.
sentence.
Long phrase Short phrase
4) Conclusion: A conclusion is the last part of the
as a result of because of
composition. The conclusion summarises the main points by means of by
addressed in the composition.You will not always need a each and every every
formal conclusion, especially when you are writing a narrative in as much as since
and a descriptive composition. in order that so that

11
12
Example: TYPES OF COMPOSITIONS
The fee must be arranged before the work begins. When the
price has been agreed the accounts manager must be informed 1) A NARRATIVE COMPOSITION
of the cost: If the accounts manager agrees to the charge, they A narrative composition involves a writer in telling an
should sign to confirm the expenses. imaginary story. The story may be long or short depending on
the writer’s theme. When writing a narrative the writer must
 Use simple verbs and not verb + noun
keep in mind the following things:
 When writing a composition use common, straight
forward words so that your readers should not have i) Setting: The setting is the time, the place and the social
difficulties to follow. environment of the characters in a story. When writing a story,
it is important to indicate the time (when the events of the story
are taking place i.e. in summer, at night, while on holiday etc)
and the place (where the events of the story are taking place).

ii) Characters: A character is an imaginary person in a story.

However, some writers use animals or other things as
characters in their stories. Characters are categorized in two:

14

a) Flat characters: These are also known as simple or static

characters because they usually have one special trait (feature
of mind or character), which makes them stay the same from
beginning to end. One example of flat characters is minor
characters. These characters do little or nothing in stories.
(e.g. Jama in The Law of the Grazing Fields)
13
b) Round characters: They are also known as dynamic around, but smelt no remedy to her misery to whose depth she had
characters. Round characters are central characters, which are sunk and failed to resurface.
portrayed in greater depth or more detail where they experience
(From a short story, THE HOUSE MAID Lughano
a change. (eg Amina in The Law of the Grazing Fields)
Mwangwegho, 2003)
iii) Plot: A plot is a pattern of events that contains conflicts in a
story. A conflict can take place in the mind of characters or 2. Dialogue opening
between individuals and their external world (forces of nature).
Conversation at the beginning of a story promises fiction that
The forces in conflict are contained by the most important
will be about characters.
characters (round characters):
‘Nango,’ he called the diminutive of her name. ‘Look, the moon has
a) Protagonist – main character in a story. embraced us in her water of love.’
b) Antagonist – opponent of protagonist, usually a person or
non human force. ‘No, Dankeni,’ in a low voice she protested. ‘Don’t touch my bead
strings again
INTRODUCTION
Like any other composition the opening of a story should strike ‘Don’t you know what tomorrow has in store for us?’
a keynote. The reader should know quickly whether the story is ‘Just leave me alone…’
going to be grave, funny etc; thus hooking them to read on.
(From a short story, THE ROAD, Lughano Mwangwegho,
Types of Opening in Stories 1999)
A story may begin in any way a writer wants. Sample some of
the many openings below.
15
1. Character opening
3. Atmosphere opening
Iteka’s blouse was soaked to the skin with tears, which her bloated
eyes were still unleashing, like spring. Her sighs, corresponding with There is a village in the high mountains of Ethiopia. I can’t tell you
rhythmical heaves of her shoulders, exposed the pain that had its name. But often, I dream of my village high in the Simien
gripped her heart and refused to adhere to any antidote. She sniffed Mountains and when I wake up, my face is with tears. In my dream, I
stand with shamma wrapped tightly around me, for the wind is chill.  There are two structures of short story writing and these
I wait for some one. are:
BODY
A good story builds up to climax (the most exciting part in a
a) Regular chronological structure
story). This is where the conflict, created as the story
 Events or actions move forward, developing and
developed, ends or shows how it is going to end. A solution to
building through conflicts until climax is reached.
the conflict is then created to show whether the protagonist
achieved the intended goal or not.
b) Irregular chronological structure
 The writer may stop the forward action at some point to
CONCLUSION
recount an event that happened before the present event
The ending in a story is also known as a denouement (a part
by the use of flashbacks. At the same time he focuses
where conflicts are resolved as the story descends towards the
the future through dreams.
conclusion). However, a story can end in different ways. Other
stories may end by leaving the reader in suspense.  The spoken words must always be appropriate to the
speaker. If the character in your story is a poor ugly
POINTS TO NOTE woman, you mustn’t make her say: “I am too beautiful
 There are five musts that the beginning of a story to marry banana seller”.
should have to make readers read on:  The dialogue must always be appropriate to the
situation in the story
a) It should arouse expectation with a promise of more  Sometimes students are carried away and they use
to come. dialogue all the time even if it is not appropriate. Make
b) It must catch the attention of the reader. sure dialogue has a purpose.
c) It should set a note for the story.
17 18
d) The main characters must be introduced before  There are more words of introducing spoken words than
bringing in secondary ones. “said”. Consider the following: asked, replied, retorted,
e) Do not open with a single character just thinking or answered, returned, shouted, blurted, gasped etc; but do
reminiscing or feeling sorry for him/herself. not overdo as the effect of the word of “saying” could
be grotesque (ugly).
 “You will go nowhere!”
Below is a story by a Nigerian writer, Cyprian Ekwensi. Read
it carefully and with a friend discuss its setting, characters “You lie! She cried. “This night I will be with Yalla. He is the
and plot. husband I have chosen.”

The Law of the Grazing Fields “What of Jama, the husband our father chose for you?” What
of the cattle Jama has been paying?”
This is the law of the wandering cattlemen of the savanna: that
a man may elope with a woman of his choice, maiden or “That is your affair,” she said. “Did you – Oh, let me go you
matron, wife or spinster. But woe betides him if he is caught on devil. Are you mad?”
the run. Yet all is well if he can but get his beloved home
without being caught. She felt the stroke of his rough hand across her mouth. His
hand tightened about her waist and she was struggling as he
On the evening of our story a brother and sister were carried her out of his own hut. With his bare foot he kicked
quarreling. Modio, the brother, had just pushed Amina, the open the door; dust rose in a cloud. He thrust her in. She fell
sister, violently. forward on her face in the dust and lay there, her body heaving
with sobs.
“Kai” Amina shouted, springing deftly backward. “Take your
hands off me.” Her lips were parted, but not in a smile, her full Amina was young and in her fullness of bloom. Her long hair,
breast heaved so that the necklaces of silver and fruit seemed to unplaited, fell over her back and lay buried in the dust. Tears
come to life. Amina just managed to return her balance by mingled with the red cream she had painted on her cheeks.
crutching at the wall of grass hut. “Don’t you dare touch me
again!”
19
“By Allah,” Modio raged. “I will teach you some sense.” 20
“You retch,” she heard her brother say from the other side of
She glared at him. He was crouching before her, his hands the door. He was fastening the door and presently she heard
curved like claws of a hawk about to strike, his muscles tense. him stamp away, cursing her.
She let her tears flow freely as if tears alone could heal the was to have come to the hut at the hour when hyenas began to
ache in her heart, the desire for the man she had chosen. But howl over the grazing fields. He was to screech in the manner
there must be hope, she thought. No one, nothing could shut peculiar to the gray hawk that steals chickens and would then
her away from Yalla forever. She must go to him, she must. know he was waiting for her under the dorowa tree.

Hatred burned within her breasts. Was it her fault that she did She had waited for Yalla’s screech. In the early hours of the
not like Jama? Her father had accepted cattle first and told her evening before the hyenas slunk out of the rocks, she had
about him later. He turned out to be a weak-kneed, effeminate thought about her man – tall, wide-shouldered, with a copper
man. A man who could not weave mats, or take the cattle out ring in his plaited hair, a man who could break a stubborn bull
to graze. A coward who had wept and begged as they flogged or calm the wildest pony in her father’s stables…
him at sharro. He had taken his flogging, it was true, but he
had not taken it as a man, and it would be humiliating to marry A husband indeed. She had been his ‘wife’ ever since she could
him. remember. Five hundred head of cattle was a good price, but
she was no article for sale.
Her father might give her away to Jama, but he would not be
present when the other maidens will taunt her with having …There was dead silence over the veld. Amina had peeped out
married a coward: “And how is your husband? The one who cautiously. There was the veld before her. It was all hers and
stays in bed till sunrise, who must not be soaked with the rain? Yalla’s if only they would dare. The stunted trees, bowing in
Ha-ha! A husband, indeed!” the cold wind, the rushing streams, the rocks, the thorn forest.
They were all calling to her and Yalla to go forth and conquer
The mistake had been Yalla’s, for he had not honoured the them; Yalla had screeched again, impatiently, and this time he
arrangement in full. It had been a simple arrangement. She and did sound like the gray hawk. She did not hesitate.
Yalla were to escape from the camp before Jama brought the
She ran. She took nothing with her, not even one of the wooden
21 ladles that her mother had given her for stirring the milk. That

bulls that were the final installment of the bride price. Yalla
22
was when her brother intercepted her. She did not know that he …Quite suddenly she became conscious of silence. The
had been hiding all the while in the nearby tree. He had a pack chattering ceased and the course of jokes. A fearful pause lay
of wild cattle-dogs with him, and these he unleashed at on over the veld. She began to cough. The air in the little room
Yalla. He had seized Amina and had laughed at her threats and hung heavy and thick. And her brother’s voice cut hoarsely.
clawing and curses. For Yalla and Amina the law of the
grazing fields was broken. “Fire!” he shouted. “Fire! Yes…whoo…water…fire!”

Now she was a prisoner in the hut, but Amina found it Amina started. Heavy fumes began to fill her little prison. She
impossible to imagine that Yalla never would be hers. There was coughing and grasping fearfully. Desperation gave her the
must still be a chance. If only he could somehow manage to strength of ten. She flung herself at the door. The flames were
free her from this prison and take her to his hut before Jama now pouring in through every crack in the hut. The boys
paid the full price of five hundred cattle, she could still be outside shouted and yelled, keeping the cows from panicking.
Yalla’s by the right of his might. No one could deny this law of Their shout bit dimly against her ears. She was chocking. Did
the grazing fields. they not even remember her? Could they be so cruel? Were
their cows more valuable to them than her life?
All cattlemen knew it and respected it. But how was Yalla to
know where she was, when Jama would be coming. Everything A rough hand thrust open her door, and a man’s gruff urged
was over, Amina decided with a fresh burst of tears. her, “Follow me. It’s Yalla.”

“Oh, Yalla, my Yalla! Come and save me, Yalla. I am yours Her heart gladdened, but no words came to her chocking lips.
and you are my man!” The man’s arms circle her waist and swept her off her feet. The
thatch caught her hair, and the man’s hand detached the burrs
She pushed and screamed and threatened until her brother tenderly. She must be dreaming. She felt the air rush into her
warned her to be quiet. But how could she be quiet when her throat. She saw the yellow sheets of flame shoot skyward in
body itched from the dust and the thorns? Oh, death! It were dazzling columns. And, as she raised her hand to shield her
better to die than to live as Jama’s wife. eyes from the glare, Amina saw her brothers dashing here,
there and yonder, collecting sleeping mats, money purses, milk

23 24
bowls. It was a dream no longer. That voice – it was real. hills. This was where clever horsemanship would tell. This was
where this thief would lose her or gain her forever. She held
“There she is...Brothers, there is our sister. Catch her!” her breath. Her body prickled with a thousand pains but she
knew the prize that lay ahead and it gave her courage.
“Let them try. My hut is five miles from here. It will be a good
race.” The horse laboured. Even Yalla, man that he was, ground his
teeth in pain and weariness, urging his steed ahead with a
She felt herself carried across the encampment and saddled on slashing whip.
to a horse.
“Yee-whoo!” he shouted, the sweat running down his face and
“Away, now!” Yalla shouted. “Away…” falling into Amina’s eyes. “Yee-whoo!”

Every forward leap of the horse jarred her bones. Her hair She was the first to see the light in the distance.
streamed in the wind. Behind them came her brothers.
Relentless, cunning riders, angered beyond repair. Amina could “My hut,” Yalla said. “My lonely hut!”
clearly hear the clatter of the pursuing horses. By Allah! What
could she do? “Our hut, you mean?”

Twang! He laughed again.

That was an arrow. Best to give up now. Twang! And Yalla moaned. “They have shot me! My
back…Allah save me, I’m dying…”
“Oh, Yalla, let us get down and go back home. It’s useless
running in this manner.’ Before the words were out of his mouth, Yalla was sliding
down the saddle, for an arrow’s poison acts fast. Yet more
Their horse had begun to pant under a combined weight. They arrows twanged past even as the distance between them and
were now in a part of scrub with few trees and many rocks and their pursuers narrowed.

25 26
“If I die, you go ahead. They can’t touch you once you are in “Thief?” He sneered. “You are the thieves. Have you not stolen
my hut. It is the – the…” the bridal horse?”

Terror. Panic. Amina looked over her shoulder and saw her “Our father will know no rest till you have compensated him
elder brother’s figure looming out of the darkness. Yalla had his cattle.”
barely enough strength to crawl. Amina dragged him on. She
was a girl of the veld, fresh, strong and brave. His strength “Leave that to me,” Yalla said. To Amina he murmured, “Oh,
waned fast. Ahead of them, the cows in the gloom bolted out of my back. The antidote…”
their paths. Rams bleated anxiously. A cock crackled, waking
all the rest, which now set a deafening crow The brothers wheel their horses and cantered slowly back to
They were actually in Yalla’s settlement, but not in the hut. their camp. One of them said, “That lad, Yalla, he is a man.
Setting fire to our camp, stealing our sister, and then calling us
“You thief!” thieves for taking our own horse which we saddled for another
bride-groom! The law of the grazing fields. He’s won.”
A few yards behind the paddocks, just beyond the poultry yard,
Amina bent down. With all her might, she seized Yalla and
pushed him into the hut, falling after him.

He breathed a sigh of relief.

“My wife!” he moaned. “Mine at last…But first this arrow.

You can still save me…the antidote…”

Amina’s brothers drew up before Yalla’s hut.

“You thief!” They raved. Give us our sister.”

27 28
 Body
It is in the body where you give a brief background of the
2) SITUATIONAL COMPOSITIONS speech – summary of details to come later – before expanding
them. If the speech is meant to respond to another speech made
These are exercises in continuous prose based on material by someone, restrict your answer to the arguments made.
provided and written within the context of an imaginary but
realistic situation. (Wingfiield, Exercises in Situational Conclusion
Composition) The conclusion of a speech depends on the kind of speech you
write. An informative speech would end with a summary of the
In this type of composition you are given a situation, which main points. And while a persuasive speech would end with a
requires a written response from you. You are always provided call for action, an entertaining speech would end with a quote
with information to use in your answer. Common examples of or an anecdote (a short amusing story). But whatever type of
situational compositions are letters, reports and speeches. speech you write, end it by thanking the dignitaries you
accorded your honour at the beginning.
A) A SPEECH
A speech is a long or short talk addressed to a group of POINTS TO NOTE
listeners. A speech can be made anywhere, anytime (but with a  A speech does not contain addresses or signatures.
purpose) to give information on a particular subject, to  A speech is usually written in the present tense
persuade people or even to entertain them. although other tenses may also be used.
 A speech is often written in the direct speech.
A speech just like any other composition has an introduction, a
body and a conclusion.

Introduction
A speech always begins with formalities. You begin by
addressing the guest of honour, if there’s any, and then the
highest in rank – only those making part of your audience.
Then the objective of the speech follows.
29 30
Sample format of a speech Read the speech below made by the head prefect of a
certain secondary school.
Our guest of Honour, Mr. S.D. Phiri, who is also Member of
Parliament, the village Headman, Ladies and Gentlemen. On The Honourable Minister of Education, Mr. E. B Thobwa the
behalf of the development committee, I wish to express my Member of Parliament for Ntonda north east constituency, Mr.
gratitude to MASAF for accepting to sink two boreholes in this E. Chipanda, the Head teacher of Malinda Secondary school,
village. members of staff, all invited guests, fellow students, ladies and
gentlemen.

On behalf of the members of staff and my fellow students, I

(content)___________________________________________ would like to let you know some of the problems we are facing
___________________________________________________ at this school. Firstly, we would like to thank the government
___________________________________________________ for constructing this new secondary school. However, in the
___________________________________________________ classrooms we are lacking desks. Since the school opened last
year, we have been sitting on the floor and as students we fail
___________________________________________________ to write comfortably without desks. Our clothes are always
___________________________________________________ dirty because of dust and it is uncomfortable to sit on the floor
___________________________________________________ for several hours. We would like to be assisted in this area, sir.
______________________________________________
The government donated a lot of books and as students we
___________________________________________________ have also been buying text books using the Textbook
___________________________________________________ Revolving Fund (TRF). But all these books are locked in the
___________________________________________________ school store-room because the school does not have a library.
__________________________________________ Teachers encourage us to read widely but we are not exposed
to the books. We would be very thankful if the government
The Guest of Honour, the Village Headman, Ladies and built a library at this school.
Gentlemen, I thank you for listening.

31
32
Thirdly, this school does not have enough teachers’ houses. We Finally, once again, let me thank you Honourable Minister, for
have fourteen members of staff and there are only six teachers’ paying a visit to this school and also listening to our concerns.
houses available. Teachers are putting up in the village and We are very optimistic that you are going to act on the
during rainy season they find it difficult to walk long distances concerns we have enlightened you, sir.
in the rain. And most of the houses they occupy do not have
electricity. This affects our learning. Honourable Minister, our Member of Parliament, the Head
teacher, all members of staff, ladies and gentlemen, I thank you
Another area of concern is a vehicle. Currently, the school for listening.
accommodates over five hundred students and it becomes
difficult when a student falls sick at night. Our nearest hospital,
Kochilira, is ten kilometres away and we have been hiring a
vehicle for transport to take students for treatment. The
boarding master also finds problems to transport foodstuffs to
school. On one occasion, he hired an ox-cart to carry bags of
sugar from the trading centre.

When the school bursar wants to bank boarding fees, he boards

a min bus, and this is risky. A school vehicle, if available
would solve some of these problems.

One of the most important structures the government forgot

when constructing this school is a school hall. Whenever we
have received guests like you, sir, we entertain them in this
classroom which is not spacious as you can see.

We also need a school hall to be using when holding school

assemblies on Mondays and Fridays. Currently, we stand
outside and it’s very uncomfortable whenever it is raining.
Consider us in this area too.

33 34
 B) A REPORT Signature: A signature is always indicated at the end of any
A report is a description of events, experiences prepared to report. A report does not end with Yours faithfully.
provide information. A report is an important method of
keeping records in various organizations. POINTS TO NOTE
 If people provided you with information pertaining to
Although a report is written like any other composition, it has a your report, it is important to acknowledge them.
different presentation, thus, it has the following parts:  Use formal English when writing a report. Avoid
colloquialism, slang words, proverbs etc.
Author: When a report is made, the name of the author (writer)  A report is often written in the past tense.
must be indicated.  Do not conclude with a complementary close like in a
business letter.
Addressee: The addressee of your report can be any person
interested in the report. Therefore, indicate clearly to whom
your report is made.

Date: The date shows the time when a report was made.

Title: The title must be clear and brief.

Introduction: The introduction includes points you are going

to discuss in the body.

Conclusion: A report always ends in either of the following

ways below:
a) suggestions
b) comments
c) remarks
d) recommendations
35 36
Sample format of a report Read the sample report below

From: The Headmaster, Nyambo Secondary School, Post From: The Foreman, Building Construction Company
Office Box 117, Lilongwe. Limited, Post Office Box 5467, Blantyre.

To: The Manager, Building Construction Company

To: The Officer-In-Charge, Nyambo Police Station,
Limited, Post Office Box 5467, Blantyre.
Post Office Box 280, Lilongwe.
Date: 3 March, 2011
Date: 4 May 2005.
Subject: ACCIDENT TO MR. S. BANDA (LABOURER)
Subject: ROBBERY AT NYAMBO SECONDARY
I wish to report that one of our labourers, Mr. S. Banda, broke
SCHOOL
his leg at building site today. The circumstances are set out
below.
I wish to report a robbery that took place at our school in the
early hours of today… (content) While the men were working on this hut, the manager of the
Modern Furniture Company asked me to send a man to inspect
___________________________________________________ a roof of a nearby store in the same compound. Our ladder was
___________________________________________________ not long enough for the task, so the manager supplied one. I
looked at the ladder and it seemed to be sound and in good
___________________________________________________
order. I then told a labourer, Mr. S. Banda, to climb up the
___________________________________________________
ladder and look at the roof. When Banda reached the top of the
________________________________________________
ladder, a rung broke and he fell down from a height about
twelve feet.
Thanks to the guards who were on duty and the students for
catching one of the robbers who is currently in police custody. Mr. Banda fell on his left side and seemed to have injured his
left leg. The manager of the modern Furniture Company lent us
JPhi his car which we used to ferry him to the General Hospital. I
JOHN PHIRI have since learnt from the hospital that he has broken his leg
Headmaster
37 38
and will be in hospital for some weeks. I have already informed C) A LETTER
his family that he is in hospital.
Basically there are two types of letters, a formal or business
I have examined the ladder and found that the rung which letter and an informal or friendly letter. But here we shall
broke (the second from the top) had been partly eaten away by discuss the formal letter only.
a boring beetle. This damage is not visible from the outside.
A formal or business letter is a letter that is addressed to people
BKhwla with whom you have no personal relationship. There are two
Ben Khwangwala ways of setting this type of letter; these are the modern style
FOREMAN and the traditional style. The differences occur in the way the
addresses and the paragraphs are set.

PARTS OF A FORMAL LETTER

Sender’s address: The sender’s address is written on the top

right hand side of the page but does not bear the sender’s name.
The words are not capitalized except the letters at the
beginning of the words.

Examples:
a) Afa Steel Industries b) Afa Steel Industries,
Post office Box 36162 Post office Box 36162,
Blantyre Blantyre.
(modern style) (traditional style)

Date: The date is written just below the sender’s address. The
month is written in words and not in figures .

Examples: a) May 3, 2005 b) 3 May 2005

39 40
Recipient’s address: The recipient’s address is written below Complementary close: The ending of a letter is as important
the sender’s address and date but on the opposite side of the as the other parts. A business letter can either end with Yours
page. Unlike the sender’s address this address includes the faithfully (if the recipient is not known to you) or Yours
recipient’s title or name and must not be indented. sincerely (if the recipient is known to you). A comma and not
a full stop is placed after the complementary close.
Examples:
a) The Managing Director b) Mr. J.Z.O. Phiri, Signature: This is the name of the person writing the letter.
Luso Enterprises Limited Luso Enterprises Limited, The signature is written under the complementary close, and
Post office Box 2023 Post office Box 2023, then a full name is written under it.
Lilongwe Lilongwe.
POINTS TO NOTE
Salutations: Salutations are words that open letters. The words  Punctuating the address is not compulsory. But always
are written in small letters except the letters at the beginning. make sure that when you do not punctuate the sender’s
address, the recipient’s address should not be
Examples: punctuated as well.
a) Dear sir  Be consistent with the sender’s address and the
[a person whose name you do not know] paragraphs in the body. When the sender’s address is in
tradition style, the paragraphs will be indented.
b) Dear sir/Madam  When the title is written in capital letters it should not
[a person whose name and sex you do not know] be underlined.
 Write your letter in simple and straight forward English
Title: A title is a heading of a letter that furnishes the recipient because the purpose is not to show mastery of the
with the contents of the letter. The title can be written in capital language but to get a message across.
or small letters. When it is written in small letters, it must be  Do not greet the recipient of your letter even if they are
underlined. personally known to you.
 Do not write the addresses in capital letters.
 Write every thing in full. Only long abbreviations are
allowed e.g. Nyambadwe C.D.S.S. (Community Day
Secondary School)
 You lose no marks in using a particular style. The only Compare the two sample layouts.
important thing is consistency; but never combine the
styles. Afa Steel Industries
 It will be erroneous if the body is not punctuated. The Post Office Box 36 162
body must be punctuated accordingly regardless of Blantyre
whether the addresses are punctuated or not.
3 May, 2005

The Managing Director

Luso Enterprises Limited
Post Office Box 2023
Lilongwe

Dear Sir,

A PROPOSAL FOR THE PROVISION OF METAL

___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
________________________________________________

___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

Yours faithfully,

M.Nglu
Mary Ngulu
 Nama Village Committee
Chidzenje Town Assembly
Afa Steel Industries, Post Office Box 5
Post Office Box 3162, Kabula
Blantyre.
3 May, 2005. 11 November, 2007

Mr. J.Z.O. Phiri, Honaurable Kaminga

Luso Enterprises Limited, Post office Box 11
Post Office Box 2023, Kabula
Lilongwe.
Dear Sir,
Dear Sir,
NEED FOR A HEALTH CENTRE
A proposal for the provision of metal
We, the committee members of Nama Area Development
___________________________________________________ Committee, would like to ask you to consider making
___________________________________________________ provisions to build a health centre in Namiyango.
___________________________________________________
_________________________________________________ Nama Village has a population of 500 000 people. The nearest
health centre for these people is Naminga which is 25
___________________________________________________ kilometres away. It is not easy for people to get to Naminga,
___________________________________________________ considering that minibuses are scarce in this area. The only
______________________________________________ means of transport is a bicycle and not many of the citizens
have bicycles.
Yours faithfully, The consequences of this lack of a health centre are many.
Firstly, some sick people who could have been saved die on the
M.Nglu way or at home. Deforestation is also encouraged as people just
Mary Ngulu resort to using traditional medicine as a remedy to their
ailments. In homes, there are a lot of sick people who cannot they do not stay long. They fear that if they fall sick they will
participate in development activities. not get treatment quickly.

The second major reason is the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Our Aids We would like to get our educated young men and women
patients do not have opportunities to get counseling, antiviral come home and help in development. We feel the building of a
medications and Home Based Care. We have observed that our health centre will assist develop this area.
friends who have health clinics nearer home have better
knowledge in this field and they are able to protect their lives. Yours faithfully,
There is stigmatisation amongst those who are feared to be Mbambande
HIV positive. The feeding of such people is below standard. N.B. Mbambande
People fight because of ignorance. They accuse each other of
witchcraft when the issue is HIV/AIDS.

We, as a committee, have noticed that because of this lack of a

health facility our children are not doing very well in school.
When they fall sick, they give up school because they stay too
long at home recuperating. By the time they go back to school,
they have lost a lot and they feel left behind. In the end they
give up.

We have noted that people find it difficult to come and do

business here. Most of them come and all they say is that they
cannot work where a hospital is too far away. As such our area
remains undeveloped. Chapter Two
The problem is that our few young men and women who have
struggled and managed to get some education, go to towns and
do not want to come back home. They worry about the
hospitals. When they want to do some developments they buy a
piece of land where a health clinic is nearer. If they visit home
 made in the passage about a particular aspect of the matter
COMPREHENSION being discussed.

Comprehension means the ability to read and understand what TYPES OF COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
someone writes, says and what you see. But most English
language learners fail to read and understand passages because Since comprehension questions are in different types, the way
they do not take interest in reading (news papers, magazines, of answering them is also different. Here are some of the types
books etc). of comprehension questions.

TYPES OF PASSAGE All the questions, except questions 7 and 8, are taken from
Step Ahead New English Student’s book 4 and are based on
There are two varieties of comprehension passages: a passage entitled GROWING PAINS reading passage I page
128 and THE FIRE reading passage II, page 132.
1) The Imaginative Passage
This is a piece of writing or an extract from a book or short 1. Questions that involve some knowledge of grammatical
story. To answer questions on this type of passage you will be terms.
required: In these types of questions you may need to know what verb,
adjective, phrase or clause is. These questions are uncommon
a) To show your understanding of what the writer is talking but they occur sometimes.
about.
Examples:
b) To say something about the effectiveness of the way the i) The verb ‘gloated’ in line 33 suggests that the narrator’s
writer uses words, images and sentences to create particular brother:
effects. a) enjoyed seeing the narrator in trouble.
b) felt hurt that his advice had been ignored.
2) The Practical Passage c) sympathized with the narrator’s behavior.
This type of passage deals mainly with facts. It may be a d) was enraged by the narrator’s behavior.
report, an account of someone expressing his opinions on a
particular matter. You may be asked to summarise the points
ii) What is meant by the phrase ‘to bring the young lambs to Examples:
the fold’? The whole congregation prayed for me alone, in a mighty wail
of moans and voices. And I kept waiting serenely for Jesus,
2. Questions about the author of the passage. waiting, waiting – but he didn’t come. I waited to see him, but
These questions deal with an author’s aim, his attitude to his nothing happened to me.
topic or to his tone.
Question:
Examples: What does the word ‘serenely’ tell us about how the narrator
i) What do you think is the purpose of the author in writing this waited for the coming of Jesus?
passage, ‘GROWING PAINS’?
5. Questions that force you to search for particular words
ii) Which word(s) summarise(s) the tone of the passage? in the passage.
a) heart-breaking c) pious
b) humorous d) blasphemous Examples:
An idea of a new game grew and took root in my mind. (line 40)
iii) What is the author’s attitude towards salvation:
a) at the beginning of the passage Question:
b) at the end of the passage Quote another sentence in the passage that continues the
imagery suggested in the italicized words.
3. Questions that test your understanding of a situation and
its likely consequences. 6. Questions asking what a pronoun or other words refer to.

Examples: Examples:
List four reasons why the narrator was ‘angry, fretful and From that moment things became tangled for me.
impatient’ (line 7)
Question:
4. Questions about effects of words in the passage. What does me refer to in line 56?
7. Questions dealing with punctuation marks, the use of Answer:
italics and other technical points. (We may infer that) sometimes a term lasts for less or more
These questions are uncommon but they occur sometimes. Do than three months.
not try to find the answers because you do not know which
passage they refer to. POINTS TO NOTE
 A quick skim through the passage is insufficient to
Examples: enable one to answer the questions. Read the passage
i) In line 20, why is OLD in capital letters? through quickly to get a general idea of the theme. Then
ii) In line 5, why is groped in italics? read it through again slowly and carefully at least twice
iii) In line 55, why is ‘survived’ in inverted commas? before going on to answer the questions.
i) How would the first sentence of the last paragraph be  Many students just glance and hardly digest the
changed in meaning if the comma after ‘bar’ was left questions. Make sure you read and understand the
out? questions being asked.
 Use your own words unless asked to quote because the
8. Questions that infer and imply. purpose of a comprehension exercise is to show that
you have understood the passage.
Examples:  Keep to the facts given in the passage unless otherwise
In Malawi a school term normally has three months. asked because the purpose of a comprehension exercise
is not to show how much you know about the topic
Question: being discussed in the passage.
i) What does the writer imply by using ‘normally’?  Make sure that your answer is relevant. Keep referring
back to the question to ensure that the information you
Answer: give is the information that is asked for.
He implies that some terms may last longer than three months.  Do not bother much if you don’t know the meaning of
some words in a passage, sometimes the meaning of a
ii) What may we infer by the writer’s use of ‘normally’ in this sentence may not change if a difficult word is not
sentence? understood.
 Make it a must to know meanings of common idioms
because some passages may contain idioms.
I was saved from sin when I was going on thirteen. But not
really saved. It happened like this. There was a big revival at A great many old people came and knelt around us and prayed,
my Auntie Reed’s church. Every night for weeks there had old women with jet-black faces and braided hair, old men with
been much preaching, singing, praying, and shouting, and some work-gnarled hands. And the church sang a song about the
very hardened sinners had been brought to Christ, and the lower lights are burning, some poor sinners to be saved. And
membership of the church had grown by leaps and bounds. the building rocked with prayer and song.
Then just before the revival ended, they held a special meeting
for children, ‘to bring the young lambs to the fold’. My aunt Still I came waiting to see Jesus.
spoke of it for days ahead. That night I was escorted to the
front row and placed on the mourners’ bench with all the other Finally all the people had gone to the altar and were saved, but
young sinners, who had not yet been brought to Jesus. one boy and me. He was a rounder’s son named Westley.
Westley and I were surrounded by sisters and deacons praying.
My aunt told me that when you were saved you saw a light, It was very hot in the church, getting late now. Finally, Westley
and something happened to you inside! And Jesus came into said to me in a whisper: ‘God damn! I’m tired of sitting here.
your life! And God was with you from then on! She said you Let’s get up and be saved.’ So he got up and was saved.
could see and hear and feel Jesus in your soul. I believed her. I
had heard a great many old people say the same thing and it Then I was left all alone on the mourners’ bench. My aunt
seemed to me they ought to know. So I sat there calmly in the came and knelt at my knees and cried, while prayers and song
hot, crowded church, waiting for Jesus to come to me. swirled all around me in the little church. The whole
congregation prayed for me alone, in almighty wail of moans
The preacher preached a wonderful rhythmical sermon, all and voices. And I kept waiting serenely for Jesus, waiting,
moans and shouts and lonely cries and dire pictures of hell, and waiting – but he didn’t come. I wanted to see him, but nothing
then he sang a song about the ninety and nine safe in the fold, happened to me. Nothing! I wanted something to happen to me,
but one little lamb was left out in the cold. Then he said: but nothing happened.
‘Won’t you come? Won’t you come to Jesus? Young lambs,
won’t you come?’And he held out his arms to all us young I heard the songs and the minister saying: ‘Why don’t you
sinners there on the mourners bench. And the little girls cried. come to Jesus? Jesus is waiting for you. He wants you. Why
And some of them jumped up and went to Jesus right away. don’t you come? Sister Reed, what is this child’s name?’
But most of us just sat there.
‘Langston,’ my aunt sobbed. couldn’t stop. I buried my head under the quilts, but my aunt
heard me. She woke up and told my uncle I was crying because
‘Langston, why don’t you come? Why don’t you come and be the Holy Ghost had come into my life, and because I had seen
saved? Oh, lamb of God! Why don’t you come?’ Jesus. But I was really crying because I couldn’t bear to tell her
that I had lied, that I had deceived everybody in the church,
Now it was really getting late. I began to be ashamed of that I hadn’t seen Jesus, and that now I didn’t believe there
myself, holding everything up so long. I began to wonder what was a Jesus any more, since he didn’t come to help me.
God thought about Westley, who certainly hadn’t seen Jesus
either, but who was now sitting proudly on the platform, Sample the questions below.
swinging his knicker-bockered legs and grinning down at me, 1. Why did the narrator take so long to ‘come to Jesus’?
surrounded by deacons and old women on their knees praying. 2. What does this delay suggest about his character?
God had not struck Westley dead for taking his name in vain or 3. Another word which is similar in meaning to ‘serenely’ is:
for lying in the temple. So I decided that may be to save further a) calmly b) impatiently
trouble, I would better lie, too, and say that Jesus had come, c) expectantly c) bemused
and get up and be saved.
4. Which of the following did Westley feel as he sat on the
So I got up. platform?
a) exultant b) vengeful
Suddenly the whole room broke into a sea of shouting, as they c) perturbed d) repentant
saw me rise. Waves of rejoicing swept the place. Women 5. ‘That night for the last time in my life, but one – for I was a
leaped in the air. My aunt threw her arms around me. The big boy twelve years old – I cried.’
minister took me by the hand and led me to the platform. a) What is suggested by the phrase, ‘but one’?
b) Why did the narrator cry?
When things quieted down, in a hushed silence, punctuated by SUMMARY WRITING
a few ecstatic ‘Amens’ all the new young lambs were blessed
in the name of God. Then joyous singing filled the room. A summary or précis is an exercise that requires one to state
the main ideas made in a piece of writing in fewer words than
That night, for the last time in my life but one – for I was a big the original passage. The purpose of this exercise is to test your
boy twelve years old – I cried. I cried, in bed alone, and
ability to understand a passage, to grasp the main ideas and  Write the required number of words e.g. 70 – 100. If
rewrite them in your own words. your summary is longer than required, shorten it by
taking out unnecessary words. You will lose marks if
This exercise is not given in examination, but a summary type you exceed.
question is likely to appear in a comprehension exercise in the  All rules of composition writing are applied i.e.
examination. The reason why examiners include a summary punctuation marks, grammar and errors of spelling.
question is to find out whether, from a written passage
candidates can unearth a central theme and trace its Read the two stories below and study how they have been
development summarised. Then try to summarise any story you read
whether in newspapers, magazines or books.
POINTS TO NOTE
 Link up the points by using linking words and write Passage 1. The following story is set in Cameroun.
them in complete sentences.
 Before you start summarizing, write the title of the Niam’s wife had left him. I do not know what minor incident
passage on top. finally provoked the crisis, what last straw broke this female
 Normally the title can be traced in the central idea of camel’s back. The important thing is that one morning, when
the story – which is usually found in the first paragraph. we got up, Niam perceived to his astonishment that his better
 When summarizing a story or a novel most writers use half had vanished, taking all her property with her. That by the
the present tense. But using the past tense seems more way is how they manage it: hence their nick-name of fly by
natural. nights.
 If the summary is in the present tense, the antecedent
action should be expressed by the perfect tense. A few days later our family heard that Niam’s wife had gone
 Write in your own words and do not lift sentences back to her father. So far her behavior had followed the usual
directly from the original passage. However, it always pattern. The unexpected thing was that she swore never to
happens that certain words cannot readily be replaced return to her husband’s house again. Some months passed. At
and the use of words from the passage is not penalized. first Niam put a fine face on the business, declaring jauntily
 Do not include ideas from other subjects or comment that he had seen this kind of thing before; his wife had indulged
on information given in the passage. in several previous escapades of the sort and had always come
back in the end.
 at all. The whole village soon found out that Niam had opened
“I am the earth she rests on,” he declared. “By herself she is negotiations with his in-laws, and had even sent them presents.
nothing but a dead leaf that has broken loose from the tree. For But this was nothing to the general astonishment felt when
all her fluttering, in the end she cannot prevent herself from Niam’s father- in- law made the following pronouncement.
falling to the ground.”
“My daughter,” he declared, “is quite old enough to know what
All the same, he was by no means sure that on this occasion the she wants – and, more to the point, what she doesn’t want.”
dead leaf would obey the laws of gravity. Already – even in
Niam – the hope of seeing the happy event take place like This flat rejection of a lawful demand, by a mere father-in-law,
clock work was fading steadily as day followed day. After six too, was regarded as completely scandalous. Every one in the
months of this, Niam grew impatient. First of all he paid a visit village began to wonder just what these people were holding
one evening to Bikokolo, a venerable old man and the village out for, what they really wanted.
Solomon.
Sample summary 1.
He confessed that he wanted to get his wife back; he
desperately needed her to run the house for him. In fact, he had RUN WAWY WIFE
an even more pressing reason: since his wife’s departure, he
had lost a whole season’s groundnut crop through lack of When Niam woke up one morning, he discovered that his wife
anyone to work in his fields. had taken all her belongings and gone back to her father’s
house. This did not bother him much as it was not the first time
Old Bikokolo sketched a line of conduct for him to follow and, she had left him and gone back to her father only to come back
at the end of the interview, strongly advised him to swallow his by herself. When six months passed without seeing her come
vanity and pride, at least for a while. After all, he pointed out; back, Niam paid a visit to Bikokolo, who advised him to open
the recovery of a fragrantly rebellious wife was a serious negotiations with his wife. He soon engaged intermediaries to
matter. Niam reflected, as he went away, that it was easier to discuss with his father-in-law. But despite all his efforts his
give such advice than to take it. After this, guided both by the father in law refused to allow her to return to Niam’s house.
old man’s suggestions and his own code of behavior, he got in
touch with his father-in-law through intermediaries, somehow Sample summary 2.
giving the impression that he had nothing to do with the move
 RUN WAWY WIFE After the death of the second child, Okonkwo had gone to a
medicine man to enquire what was wrong. This man told him
When Niam wakes up one morning, he discovers that his wife that the child was an Ogbanje, one of those wicked children,
has taken all her belongings and gone back to her father’s who when they died, entered their mother’s womb to be born
house. This does not bother him much as it is not the first time again.
she has left him and gone back to her father only to come back
by herself. When six months pass without seeing her come By the time Onwumbiko died, Ekwefi had become a very bitter
back, Niam pays a visit to Bikokolo, who advises him to open woman. Her husband’s first wife had already had three sons, all
negotiations with his wife. He soon engages intermediaries to strong and in good health. When he had borne a third son in
discuss with his father-in-law. But despite all his efforts his succession, Okonkwo had slaughtered a goat for her, as was the
father in law refuses to allow her to return to Niam’s house. custom. Ekwefi had nothing but good wishes for her. But she
had grown so bitter about her own chi that she could not rejoice
Passage 2. Extracted from Things Fall Apart, a novel by with others over their good fortune.
Chinua Achebe.
Ekwefi was the only one in the company who went about a
Ekwefi had suffered a great deal in her life. She had borne ten cloud in her brow. Her husband’s wife took this for envy and
children and nine of them had died in infancy, usually before ill will, as husbands’ wives usually did. How could she know
the age of three. As she buried one child after the other, her that Ekwefi’s bitterness did not blame others for their good
sorrow gave way to despair and then to resignation. The birth fortune but her own evil ‘chi’ who denied her any?
of her children, which should be a woman’s crowning glory,
became an empty ritual. Her deepening despair found At last Eznima was born. And through ailing, she seemed
expressions in the names she gave her children. One of them determined to live. At first Ekwefi accepted her, as she had
was a pathetic cry, Onwumbiko – ‘Death I implore you’. But accepted others – with hopeless resignation. But when she
death took no notice; Onwumbiko died in his fifteenth month. lived on to her fourth, fifth and sixth years, love returned to her
The next child was a girl, Ozoemena – ‘May it not happen once more.
again’. She died in her eleventh month and two others after
her. Ekwefi then became defiant and called her child, Onwuna Sample summary 1.
– ‘death may please himself’. And he did.
THE OGBANJE
Ekwefi’s ten children had all died in infancy. This worried her Note making is marked according to note style, brevity and
so much because her husband’s senior wife had borne three layout.
children and all were alive. Then Okonkwo, her husband,
consulted a medicine man who told him that the child was an i) Brevity
Ogbanje, one of the wicked children who, after death, entered Brevity is a noun formed from the word brief. Brevity,
their mother’s womb to be born again. After some time, Ekwefi therefore, means being brief (writing phrases) in writing the
gave birth to a baby girl, Eznima, who, unlike the previous information from the passage without distorting the meaning,
children lived longer than expected. content and clarity.

Sample summary 2. When taking notes you simply pick important points and write
them in brief in form of short but clear notes by using:
THE OGBANJE
a) Symbols c) Short forms and abbreviations
Ekwefi’s ten children have all died in infancy. This worries her = - equals e.g. – for example
so much because her husband’s senior wife has borne three > - greater than i.e. – that is
children and all are alive. Then Okonkwo, her husband, < - less than NB – note well
% - percent Dept – department
consults a medicine man who tells him that the child is an
& - and gvt – government
Ogbanje, one of the wicked children who, after death, enter sch – school
their mother’s womb to be born again. After some time, Ekwefi b) Figures for words approx – approximately
gives birth to a baby girl, Eznima, who, unlike the previous 1 – one MW - Malawi
children lives longer than expected 3rd – third
9 - nine
NOTE-MAKING ii) LAYOUT
The information must be laid systematically. The title should
This is an arrangement of relevant points from a passage into a be clearly distinguished from the main points, which should
set of notes. While a summary is written in prose, note-making also be distinguished from the supporting points.
is done in short, note style and in a definite layout with main
points and supporting points indicated separately. PARTS OF A FAIR SET OF NOTES
 or Roman numerals make sure you maintain it up to the
Title/Heading: The title is the topic of the passage. When the last point.
title of the passage is not provided, you can easily locate it in  You will not be penalised for either skipping or not
the central idea of the passage (which is normally found in the skipping a line after exhausting the main point. But be
first paragraph). Sometimes you need to read the whole consistent and neat.
passage in order to locate it.  The first and last paragraphs are introduction and
conclusion respectively. Unless otherwise avoid writing
The title should be brief and must be written at the centre of the from them because they are just highlights of the
page in capital letters. When it is written in small letters, it information.
should be underlined.  Avoid repetition (writing information that has already
been taken down).
Main points/sub-headings: These are major ideas highlighted  Use symbols and abbreviations that are realistic,
in the passage. Main points must be indicated with ABCD, I II common and which do not bring ambiguity in the
III IV or 1234 but in a vertical arrangement. When main points supporting points.
are written in small letters, they should be underlined neatly.  There are ways through which you can identify main
points from a passage. One of them is through signals
Supporting points: These are expansions of main ideas. They (signal; devices).
may be examples, descriptions, elaborations etc. Supporting
points, just like main points, are numbered. When you use
alphabetical letters for main points, use Roman numerals for
supporting points and vice versa.

In a case where sub-supporting points are exemplifying a Below are some of the many signal devices:
supporting point you may use dashes or Arabic numerals.
However, not all passages have sub-supporting points. that is for example the last thing
firstly thus then
POINTS TO NOTE secondly as a result the point is
 The numbering system must be consistent through out, the other thing is finally look here
i.e. when you use Arabic numerals, alphabetical letters mind you also therefore
The passage below is an adaptation from Malawi News, Arrangement of paragraphs is another factor to consider. Every
October 6-2 2001. Read it and compare the two sample paragraph must contain one main idea. There must be a topic
layouts. sentence in each paragraph, preferably at the beginning.

Composition writing requires a lot of practice. When writing a Before you start writing, after determining the order of the
composition for examinations, you need to consider a number paragraphs, you must decide how to phrase your introduction
of factors, some of which are as follows: and conclusion. These usually take paragraph each. After all
this planning process you can start writing your composition.
Firstly, you need to read all the questions carefully and
understand them before choosing which question to answer. The planning mostly determines the content and its
When choosing a question you must consider whether you organisation in the composition. However, when writing you
have enough points to discuss under the given topic. This is have to pay particular attention to the mechanics of writing;
important because certain topics may look attractive and yet that is spelling, grammar and punctuation.
you may have few points to raise. This leads to many
candidates’ failure to meet the required word limit. Your handwriting is also important. You must write clearly.
After writing you must read the composition and correct all
The word limit is another important factor that prevents mistakes that you find during your reading. Common errors in
candidates from scoring high marks in composition English composition can be eliminated through proof reading.
examinations. It is, therefore important that, as you practise for
composition examinations, you write compositions which meet
the required limit.

Another factor that gives rise to short composition is lack of

proper planning. After choosing the question that you want to Sample layout 1
answer, list down points you will discuss. Related to listing of
points is arrangement or organisation of ideas in the Composition writing
composition.
A Choice of right question
i) reading & understanding all questions
 ii) getting points to discuss b) getting points to discuss
-to meet required word limit -to meet required word limit

B Word limit 2 WORD LIMIT

i) required word limit a) required word limit
- to score high marks - to score high marks

C Planning 3 PLANNING
i) listing points to discuss a) listing points to discuss
ii) arrangement & org of ideas b) arrangement & org of ideas

D Arrangement of paragraphs 4 ARRANGEMENTS OF PARAGRAPHS

i) main idea in 1 paragraph a) main idea in 1 paragraph
ii) supp sent in each paragraph b) supp sent in each paragraph
iii) phrasing of intro & conclusion c) phrasing of intro & conclusion
iv) att to mechanics of writing d) att to mechanics of writing

E Handwriting 5 HANDWRITING
i) writing clearly a) writing clearly
ii) read & correct mistakes b) read & correct mistakes
iii) proof read c) proof read

Sample layout 2 PASSAGES FOR FUTHER PRACTICE

COMPOSITION WRITING Read the following passages carefully and afterwards make
summaries of them in NOTE-FORM. In your summaries:
1 CHOICE OF RIGHT QUESTION
a) reading & understanding all questions Provide suitable titles for the passages
Give the main points areas where too many animals graze, the thin vegetation is
Supply supporting points for each main point easily destroyed and the Sahel can become a complete desert.
Let us move on to the third aspect, the relief and land forms of
Remember marks are awarded for note-style, brevity and fair the desert. Although they are steep, rocky mountains in the
copy layout. Hoggar highlands, which rise above 200 metres, most of the
Sahara is only about 300 metres above sea level. Some parts of
1. 2004 INSET Mock Examinations. it are covered with rock or stones and others with loose sand.

Today’s talk concerns the Sahara Desert, which is in fact the Having considered these somewhat in hospitable aspects, it is
largest desert in the word. In the course of this talk I shall be interesting to find that the Sahara does have a population,
considering the following aspects of this great area, namely although a very small and scattered one.
location, climate and vegetation, relief, population and
economy. There are, in fact, two main categories of people. On the one
hand, there are the sedentary. These people are farmers whose
So, to start with location or position, the Sahara stretches right livelihood depends on date palms and grain crops, which grow
across the northern part of Africa and covers an area of about a around oases. Cases are small areas where water comes to the
quarter of Africa’s total area, more than the entire USA. It is surface. The other type of people who live in the desert are
bounded by an area known geographically as the Sahel, or nomads, people constantly travelling around, and so dependent
Sahelian zone. for their existence on camels and other animals which can live
in very dry conditions.
Next, let us consider climate and vegetation – the factors that
really make the areas a desert. Most of the Sahara receive Finally, I should mention the economy of the desert region.
almost no rain and therefore has no vegetation. The Sahara has Trade routes have been important in the Sahara for many
some of the world’s highest temperatures – up to 55 degrees generations and the nomads are famous as traders across the
Celsius in the day in some parts. Nights on the other hand, are desert. Deposits of salt were discovered, for example, oil and
cool because the clear and the base ground allow a rapid loss of natural gas in Libya and Algeria, as well as deposits of iron in
heat. It is interesting to note that the Sahel, the area around the Mauritania, uranium in Niger and phosphate in Tunisia. These
desert, has a continuous cover of dry, prickly grass and low, deposits have made great areas of bare uninhabited desert very
thorny trees because it has some regular rain. However, in important politically as well as economically.
 The planning process involves the stages of analysis, choice
2. Adapted from Crossing Cultural Frontiers by JJ Chikago and implementation. The analysis stage is the most difficult
because it requires creativity. It is the process that demands full
Planning in business is very important. However, there are appreciation of the political, economical, social and
arguments against it. Many people in the country believe that technological environments. The choice stage can only be
planning is a waste of time. Certainly good plans take time to achieved when the environmental situations have been fully
be prepared. There is a strong conviction that planning delays appreciated. This stage involves between balancing resource
progress. This attitude is wrong. The purpose of planning is to requirement and resource availability. When the resource
ensure efficient utilization of limited resources. Through availability and resource requirement have been balanced the
planning, it is possible to anticipate shortages of important plan can be implemented without obstacles. Obviously, the
resources. Planning also helps to highlight the shortage of planning process as explained here exposes potential problem
critical skills in business. Managing business without a plan is areas likely to affect the operations of the business.
therefore similar to driving a car without looking through the
front view wind-screen. When business does not plan its operations, the result is poor
resource productivity. It is in this respect that every company
Effective planning demands the identification of an over- has to treat planning as one of the important processes in its
riding objective. The overriding objective should have the activities. There are times when the merit of centralized
specification of the means by which the objective will be planning is questioned. The point to bear in mind is the
achieved. The plan needs to have a time frame for the planning as a process should reflect the character of the entire
achievement of the desired objective with measurable results. business and not only one department. Every employee in the
department starting from the messenger should be in the
There are many different plans of businesses. Every activity of planning process. The involvement of all the employees in the
business needs to be planned. Depending on the nature of planning process should not be the end of itself.
business, there are short term plans, medium term plans and It should be the beginning of the participation of the employees
long term plans. Short term plans may deal with sectional in the monitoring of the plan.
plans. Medium plans may concern themselves with
departmental activities while long plans could cover the 3. Adapted from Further Summary and composition by
activities of the whole business. James Hemming.
Man had certain big advantages over animals. He had a large flickering rush lamps, later with brighter lights until he can
brain, enabling him to think and feel more powerful than any now make for himself so dazzling a radiance with a blazing arc
other animal; he had an upright body with nimble hands free to that, like the sun, it is too strong for his naked eyes.
explore the things he found around him, to turn them into tools
to help me to protect himself and get food; and he had in his Man found his muscles were too weak for the work he wanted
brain a special group of nerve cells, not present in animals, that to do. He explored many forms of power – wind, water, steam,
enabled him to invent language and use it to communicate with electricity – until now, at long last, he has his hands on the
his fellow men. This ability to speak was of supreme value, ultimate source of physical energy the nuclear power which
because it allowed to share ideas, and to plan together, so that ties together the minute units from which all matter is made.
tasks impossible for a single person could be successfully
undertaken by intelligent team work. Speech also enabled ideas 4. Adapted from Writing and Language by Robert Ingersell.
to be passed on from one generation to another so that the
amount of human knowledge slowly increased. English writing is based on the alphabet. It also uses a number
of conventions to clarify meaning or structure when spoken
These special advantages – large brain, the power to free language is changed to written form. The use of these
hands, speech and intelligent co-operation – put man far ahead conventions is referred to as punctuation marks. They replace
of all other living creatures in the struggle for existence. pause or accents that are used in speech. Sometimes these
Animals have to accept that men can alter things to suit punctuation marks are used to make distinctions beyond the
themselves. They can pit their wits against their difficulties and ones that are possible in speech. Italics, for example, can be
master them. Man, in fact, is equipped to triumph over the used to convey special emphasis of speech. They can also be
obstacles that confront him. used to mark a title, which the spoken language cannot readily
do. Capitals can mark the beginning of a sentence, as a pause
Those far off times, when he first made his appearance, a man and emphasis do in speech.
has achieved a great deal. Dissatisfied by his own speed of
moving over the land, he has used animals, steam, electricity Punctuation is not as fixed as spelling, and styles in
and oil to get himself faster and faster from place to place. He punctuation have changed considerably in English over the past
found rivers and seas across his path and he overcame these few centuries. William Caxton who introduced printing English
obstacles with rafts, canoes boats and ships of endless variety. in the fifteenth century used a slant line (/) as his major
He found darkness too, first with dim torches, candles punctuation mark along with occasional periods. By
Shakespeare’s time, punctuation had become almost as it is References
today, but the theory behind it was different. Punctuation
marks were mainly used as stage directions, indicating how a  English Composition Writing Skills, MCDE
passage would be read aloud. Punctuation marks still  General Certificate of Education
correspond with the pauses of speech, but they are used  Introduction to English Literature, Module 3, S.
sparingly. Kamwendo, Domasi College of Education
 Literature, An Introduction to Fiction, poetry and
Many special conventional uses for punctuation marks have Drama, 3rd Edition, X.L. Kennedy
developed. Punctuation marks serve one of these purposes: to  MSCE English Paper II past papers, Malawi National
mark the end of the sentence pattern, to set off modifiers and Examinations Board
parenthetical expressions, or to separate the items in a series.  MSCE Summary Notes, Teachers Union of Malawi
There are different ways of indicating punctuation both in  New English Secondary students’ book 4, Shimmer
speech and writing. In speech, for example, we indicate the end Chinodya , 1993
of a sentence pattern by a pause and usually a drop or
 New English Course, Rhodri Jones
sometimes a rise in pitch. In writing, the following ways are
 Practical English Book 3, P.A. Ogundipe and Tredigo
used: The end of a sentence is marked by a period, question
 Private School English Teachers Workshop, PRISAM
mark or an exclamation mark. The division between
2004
independent clauses may be marked in one of two ways: by a
 The Elements of Style, William Struck, Jr
semicolon or a comma if the clauses are joined by ‘and’, ‘or’,
‘for’, ‘nor’, ‘but’, or ‘so’.