Module 1 – Introduction to Network Security & Cryptography
- Computer Security
• Definition: Protects a standalone computer’s hardware and software from theft,
damage, and unauthorized access.
• Key Practice: Keep the system updated and patched to prevent vulnerabilities.
• Example: Installing antivirus and OS security updates.
- Network Security
• Definition: Protects data during transmission across a network so it cannot be
intercepted or altered.
• Threats:
o Malware: Viruses, worms, trojans, spyware, adware
o Hackers
o Zero-day attacks
o DoS (Denial of Service)
• Protection Methods:
o Firewalls
o Antivirus software
o Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS)
o Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS)
o Virtual Private Networks (VPN)
3. Information Security vs Cybersecurity
Term Definition Focus Example
Information Protects both physical and digital data from Data in any form – Locking a file cabinet with
Security unauthorized access, modification, paper records, sensitive employee records,
destruction, or disclosure. Includes policies, digital files, verbal encrypting a database,
processes, and technologies to safeguard communication. shredding confidential
information in any format. papers.
Cybersecurity A subset of Information Security focused on Digital/online Using firewalls to block
protecting digital assets – including systems – devices, hackers, updating antivirus
computers, networks, servers, and internet- networks, online software, securing cloud
based systems – from cyber threats like services, and cloud storage.
hacking, malware, phishing, etc. data.
4. Security Goals – CIA Triad
1. Confidentiality – Only authorized users can access data.
o Achieved with encryption (AES, DES, RSA).
2. Integrity – Data remains unchanged unless modified by authorized persons.
o Achieved with hash functions (SHA, MD5).
3. Availability – Systems and data are accessible when needed.
o Protected against DoS attacks using firewalls/routers.
5. Security Terms
• Vulnerability – Weak point in design or process (e.g., outdated software).
• Threat – Possible danger that can exploit a vulnerability.
• Risk – Potential damage or loss if a threat uses a vulnerability.
• Attack – Actual attempt to break security.
• Control – Countermeasures to prevent or reduce attacks.
6. OSI Security Architecture (ITU-T X.800)
• Provides a structured approach for defining and implementing security.
• Includes:
o Security Services – Functions like authentication, confidentiality, integrity.
o Security Mechanisms – Tools to achieve services (encryption, access control).
o Security Attacks – Classified as:
▪ Passive: Eavesdropping, traffic analysis (reading without altering data).
▪ Active: Modifying data, impersonation, replay, DoS.
Security Services
• Authentication – Verifying identity.
• Access Control – Restricting who can use resources.
• Data Confidentiality – Keeping data secret.
• Data Integrity – Ensuring data accuracy.
• Non-repudiation – Preventing denial of actions.
• Availability – Ensuring uptime.
Examples of Security Mechanisms
• Encipherment (Encryption)
• Digital Signatures
• Access Control Systems
• Traffic Padding (adding fake data to hide real traffic patterns)
• Routing Control (secure data path selection)
• Notarization (trusted third-party verification)
Polyalphabetic Ciphers
Concept
• In polyalphabetic substitution, a single plaintext character can be encrypted to different
ciphertext characters depending on its position and key.
• This creates a one-to-many mapping between plaintext and ciphertext characters,
making it harder to break compared to monoalphabetic ciphers.
Types & Examples
A. Autokey Cipher
• Uses an initial key and then appends part of the plaintext itself to form the complete
key.
• Example:
o Initial key: k1 = 12
o Message: "Attack is today"
o Encryption is done character-by-character by shifting letters using the key values.
B. Playfair Cipher
• Uses a 5×5 matrix of letters (secret key table).
• Encrypts digraphs (pairs of letters) instead of single letters.
• Rules:
1. If letters are in the same row → replace each with letter to the right.
2. If letters are in the same column → replace each with letter below.
3. If letters form a rectangle → replace each with the letter in the same row but at
the other corner of the rectangle.
• Example: Encrypt "hello" using the Playfair key matrix.
C. Vigenère Cipher
• Uses a repeating keyword to determine shift values for each letter.
• Example:
o Message: "She is listening"
o Keyword: "PASCAL" → Numeric key: (15, 0, 18, 2, 0, 11)
o Repeat the key until it matches the message length.
• Can be seen as a combination of multiple additive ciphers.
• Special case: Additive cipher occurs when m = 1.
D. Vigenère Cipher Cryptanalysis
• Kasiski Test:
1. Look for repeated letter sequences in ciphertext.
2. Measure the distance between repetitions.
3. Find the GCD of these distances → probable key length.
• Once the key length is known, each position can be attacked like a Caesar cipher.
E. Hill Cipher
• Uses matrix multiplication for encryption.
• Key is an m × m matrix (must be invertible in mod 26).
• Example:
o Plaintext "code is ready" arranged in blocks.
o Ciphertext produced using matrix multiplication mod 26.
• Cryptanalysis: If enough plaintext–ciphertext pairs are known, the key matrix can be
recovered.
F. One-Time Pad
• Invented by Vernam.
• Uses a random key as long as the plaintext, used only once.
• Offers perfect secrecy (proved by Shannon).
• Each plaintext letter is shifted by the corresponding random key letter.
G. Rotor Ciphers & Enigma
• Rotor Cipher: Uses rotating disks to change substitution after each letter.
• Enigma Machine: Used in WWII, had multiple rotors, plugboard, and reflector for
complex polyalphabetic substitution.
Key Points
• Advantage: Stronger than monoalphabetic ciphers due to variability in substitutions.
• Weakness: Still breakable with statistical methods if the key is short or reused.
• Security Tip: Use long, random keys and avoid repetition.
Traditional Symmetric-Key Cryptography
1. Introduction
• Definition: A cryptographic system where the same secret key is used for both
encryption (converting plaintext to ciphertext) and decryption (converting ciphertext
back to plaintext).
• How it works:
1. Sender (Alice): Uses an encryption algorithm + shared secret key K → produces
ciphertext.
2. Receiver (Bob): Uses a decryption algorithm + the same key K → retrieves the
original plaintext.
• Key Requirement: Both parties must securely share the key before communication
starts.
• Key Example: If K = 3 in a Caesar cipher, “HELLO” becomes “KHOOR” for encryption and
reverses for decryption.
2. Kerckhoff’s Principle
• Rule: “The security of a cipher must depend only on the secrecy of the key, not the
secrecy of the algorithm.”
• Meaning:
o Assume the attacker knows how your encryption works.
o Even with that knowledge, without the key, the message should be safe.
3. Cryptanalysis (Attacks on Ciphers)
Cryptanalysis = Science and art of breaking ciphers.
Attack Type What Attacker Has Example
Ciphertext-Only Attack Only ciphertext Hacker intercepts encrypted emails but has no plaintext.
Attack Type What Attacker Has Example
Known-Plaintext Attack Some plaintext and its ciphertext Matching “HELLO” with “KHOOR” to find the key.
Attack Type What Attacker Has Example
Chosen-Plaintext Attack Can choose plaintext and get Sending a known message to see its encrypted form.
ciphertext
Attack Type What Attacker Has Example
Chosen-Ciphertext Attack Can choose ciphertext and get Submitting encrypted data to a system and observing
plaintext the output.
4. Categories of Traditional Ciphers
1. Substitution Ciphers – Replace each symbol with another.
o Monoalphabetic: Fixed one-to-one mapping (e.g., Caesar cipher).
o Polyalphabetic: Uses multiple substitution alphabets (e.g., Vigenère cipher).
2. Transposition Ciphers – Rearrange characters without changing them.
5. Monoalphabetic Cipher
• Definition: Each letter in plaintext always corresponds to the same letter in ciphertext.
• Weakness: Easily broken by letter frequency analysis or brute force.
5.1 Additive Cipher (Shift / Caesar Cipher)
The simplest monoalphabetic cipher is the additive cipher. This cipher is sometimes called a
shift cipher and sometimes a Caesar cipher, but the term additive cipher better reveals its
mathematical nature.
(Shift / Caesar Cipher)
• Idea: Shift each letter by a fixed number of positions in the alphabet.
• Formulas:
o Encryption: C = (P + K) mod 26
o Decryption: P = (C - K) mod 26
o P = Plaintext letter index, C = Ciphertext letter index, K = Key (shift amount).
• Example:
o Key K = 3:
▪ Plaintext: HELLO → Ciphertext: KHOOR
o Key K = 15:
▪ Plaintext: HELLO → Ciphertext: WTAAD
Breaking Monoalphabetic Ciphers
• Brute Force Attack:
o Try all possible keys (only 25 for Caesar cipher).
o Example: Ciphertext "UVACLYFZLJBYL" → Try keys 1…25 until a meaningful
plaintext appears.
• Statistical Attack:
o English letter frequency: E (12.7%), T (9.1%), A (8.2%), etc.
o Compare ciphertext frequency with known patterns.
EXAMPLE :-
Strengths & Weaknesses :-
Strengths:
• Simple and fast.
• Requires less computational power.
Weaknesses:
• Key distribution problem — needs a secure channel for sharing keys.
• Easily breakable if short keys are used.
• Not secure against modern computational attacks.
Key Takeaways
• Symmetric-key systems are still widely used today (e.g., AES, DES), but modern versions
are much stronger than historical ones.
• Traditional ciphers like Caesar and simple substitution are useful for learning but not
secure for real-world use.
• Good practice: Combine substitution + transposition and use large, random keys.
Traditional Transposition Ciphers
Concept
• Definition:
Instead of replacing symbols (like substitution ciphers), transposition ciphers change the
order/position of symbols in the plaintext.
• Key idea: The letters remain the same, but their positions are shuffled to hide the
original message.
Types of Transposition Ciphers
A. Keyless Transposition
• No secret key is used — only a fixed rearrangement pattern.
• Example 1 – Rail Fence Cipher:
o Write message in a zigzag pattern with a set number of rows, then read row by
row.
o Message: "Meet me at the park"
→ Zigzag in 2 rows → Ciphertext: "MEMATEAKETETHPR".
• Example 2 – Columnar without key:
o Write text row-by-row in fixed number of columns, read column-by-column.
o "Meet me at the park" in 4 columns → "MMTAEEHREAEKTTP".
B. Keyed Transposition
• Uses a permutation key to decide how to rearrange letters.
• Steps:
1. Break plaintext into blocks of equal size.
2. Rearrange characters in each block using the key order.
• Example:
o Message: "Enemy attacks tonight"
o Key: [3 1 4 2 ...]
o Rearrange columns according to key for encryption, reverse key for decryption.
C. Combining Approaches
• Apply keyless and keyed methods together for stronger encryption.
• Sometimes two keys are used:
o Encryption key (downward reading).
o Decryption key (upward reading).
• Can also use matrix representation to multiply plaintext positions by a permutation
matrix.
D. Double Transposition Cipher
• Perform transposition twice using either:
o The same key twice.
o Two different keys.
• Stronger than a single transposition.
❖ Stream and Block Ciphers
A. Stream Cipher
• Encrypts one symbol (letter/bit) at a time using a stream of keys.
• Key stream can be fixed or variable:
o Monoalphabetic stream: Same mapping regardless of position (e.g., additive
cipher).
o Polyalphabetic stream: Mapping changes based on position (e.g., Vigenère
cipher).
• Examples:
o Additive cipher → monoalphabetic stream.
o Vigenère cipher → polyalphabetic stream.
B. Block Cipher
• Encrypts a group (block) of symbols together using a single key.
• Each character in the block affects every character in the ciphertext.
• Examples:
o Playfair cipher → block size = 2.
o Hill cipher → block size ≥ 2, uses matrix multiplication.
• Note: Every block cipher is polyalphabetic because output letters depend on all letters in
the block.
C. Combination of Stream & Block
• In practice, messages are divided into blocks → each block encrypted with a stream of
keys.
• Viewed individually = block cipher.
• Viewed as a whole = stream cipher (block as a single unit).
Key Takeaways
• Transposition = rearrange positions, letters remain the same.
• Substitution = change letters/symbols.
• Strong ciphers often combine substitution + transposition.
• Stream ciphers are better for continuous data streams (voice, video).
• Block ciphers are better for data stored or sent in fixed-size chunks.
