PERCEPTION

Perception refers to our sensory experience of the world. It is the process of

using our senses to become aware of objects, relationships.1 It is through this
experience that we gain information about the environment around us.
Perception relies on the cognitive functions we use to process information, such
as utilizing memory to recognize the face of a friend or detect a familiar scent.
Through the perception process, we are able to both identify and respond to
environmental stimuli.
Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, sound, smell, and taste. It also
includes what is known as proprioception, which is a set of senses that enable us
to detect changes in body position and movement.
Many stimuli surround us at any given moment. Perception acts as a filter that
allows us to exist within and interpret the world without becoming
overwhelmed by this abundance of stimuli.
Types of Perception
The types of perception are often separated by the different senses. This
includes visual perception, scent perception, touch perception, sound
perception, and taste perception. We perceive our environment using each of
these, often simultaneously.
There are also different types of perception in psychology, including:
• Person perception refers to the ability to identify and use social cues
about people and relationships.
• Social perception is how we perceive certain societies and can be
affected by things such as stereotypes2 and generalisation.
• Another type of perception is selective perception. This involves paying
attention to some parts of our environment while ignoring others.
The different types of perception allow us to experience our environment and
interact with it in ways that are both appropriate and meaningful.
How Perception Works
Through perception, we become more aware of (and can respond to) our
environment. We use perception in communication to identify how our loved
ones may feel. We use perception in behavior to decide what we think about
individuals and groups.
We are perceiving things continuously, even though we don't typically spend a
great deal of time thinking about them. For example, the light that falls on our
eye's retinas transforms into a visual image unconsciously and automatically.
Subtle changes in pressure against our skin, allowing us to feel objects, also
occur without a single thought.
Perception Process
To better understand how we become aware of and respond to stimuli in the
world around us, it can be helpful to look at the perception process. This varies
somewhat for every sense.
In regard to our sense of sight, the perception process looks like this:
1. Environmental stimulus: The world is full of stimuli that can attract
attention. Environmental stimulus is everything in the environment that
has the potential to be perceived.
2. Attended stimulus: The attended stimulus is the specific object in the
environment on which our attention is focused.
3. Image on the retina: This part of the perception process involves light
passing through the cornea and pupil, onto the lens of the eye. The cornea
helps focus the light as it enters and the iris controls the size of the pupils
to determine how much light to let in. The cornea and lens act together to
project an inverted image onto the retina.
4. Transduction: The image on the retina is then transformed into electrical
signals through a process known as transduction. This allows the visual
messages to be transmitted to the brain to be interpreted.
 5. Neural processing: After transduction, the electrical signals undergo
neural processing. The path followed by a particular signal depends on
what type of signal it is (i.e. an auditory signal or a visual signal).
6. Perception: In this step of the perception process, you perceive the
stimulus object in the environment. It is at this point that you
become consciously aware of the stimulus.
7. Recognition: Perception doesn't just involve becoming consciously
aware of the stimuli. It is also necessary for the brain to categorize and
interpret what you are sensing. The ability to interpret and give meaning
to the object is the next step, known as recognition.
8. Action: The action phase of the perception process involves some type of
motor activity that occurs in response to the perceived stimulus. This
might involve a major action, like running toward a person in distress. It
can also involve doing something as subtle as blinking your eyes in
response to a puff of dust blowing through the air.
Think of all the things you perceive on a daily basis. At any given moment, you
might see familiar objects, feel a person's touch against your skin, smell the
aroma of a home-cooked meal, or hear the sound of music playing in your
neighbor's apartment. All of these help make up your conscious experience and
allow you to interact with the people and objects around you.
Recap of the Perception Process
1. Environmental stimulus
2. Attended stimulus
3. Image on the retina
4. Transduction
5. Neural processing
6. Perception
7. Recognition
8. Action
Factors Influencing Perception
What makes perception somewhat complex is that we don't all perceive things
the same way. One person may perceive a dog jumping on them as a threat,
while another person may perceive this action as the pup just being excited to
see them.
Our perceptions of people and things are shaped by our prior experiences, our
interests, and how carefully we process information.3 This can cause one person
to perceive the exact same person or situation differently than someone else.
Perception can also be affected by our personality. For instance, research has
found that four of the Big 5 personality traits—openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, and neuroticism—can impact our perception of organizational
justice.4
Conversely, our perceptions can also affect our personality.5 If you perceive that
your boss is treating you unfairly, for example, you may show traits related to
anger or frustration. If you perceive your spouse to be loving and caring, you
may show similar traits in return.
Are Perception and Attitude the Same?
While they are similar, perception and attitude are two different things.
Perception is how we interpret the world around us, while our attitude (our
emotions, beliefs, and behaviors) can impact these perceptions. Tips to
Improve Perception
If you want to improve your perception skills, there are some things that you
can do. Actions you can take that may help you perceive more in the world
around you—or at least focus on the things that are important—include:
• Pay attention. Actively notice the world around you, using all your
senses. What do you see, hear, taste, smell, or touch? Using your sense of
proprioception, notice the movements of your arms and legs, or your
changes in body position.
 • Make meaning of what you perceive. The recognition stage of the
perception process is essential since it allows you to make sense of the
world around you. Place objects in meaningful categories, so you can
understand and react appropriately.
• Take action. The final step of the perception process involves taking
some sort of action in response to your environmental stimulus. This
could involve a variety of actions, such as stopping to smell the flower
you see on the side of the road, incorporating more of your senses.
Potential Pitfalls of Perception
The perception process does not always go smoothly, and there are a number of
things that may interfere with our ability to interpret and respond to our
environment. One is having a disorder that impacts perception.
Perceptual disorders are cognitive conditions marked by an impaired ability to
perceive objects or concepts. Some disorders that may affect perception include:
• Spatial neglect syndromes, which involve not attending to stimuli on one
side of the body
• Prosopagnosia, also called face blindness, is a disorder that makes it
difficult to recognize faces
• Aphantasia, a condition characterized by an inability to visualize things in
your mind
• Schizophrenia, which is marked by abnormal perceptions of reality7
Some of these conditions may be influenced by genetics, while others result
from stroke or brain injury.
Perception can also be negatively affected by certain factors. For instance, one
study found that when people viewed images of others, they perceived
individuals with nasal deformities as having less satisfactory personality
traits.8 So, factors such as this can potentially affect personality perception.

History of Perception
Interest in perception dates back to the time of ancient Greek philosophers who
were interested in how people know the world and gain understanding.
As psychology emerged as a science separate from philosophy, researchers
became interested in understanding how different aspects of perception
worked—particularly, the perception of color.
In addition to understanding basic physiological processes, psychologists were
also interested in understanding how the mind interprets and organizes these
perceptions.
Gestalt psychologists proposed a holistic approach, suggesting that the sum
equals more than the sum of its parts. Cognitive psychologists have also worked
to understand how motivations and expectations can play a role in the process
of perception.
As time progresses, researchers continue to investigate perception on the neural
level. They also look at how injury, conditions, and substances might affect
perception.

What Are the Gestalt Principles?

An Overview of the Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

Developed by German psychologists, the Gestalt principles, also known as the

Gestalt laws of perceptual organization, describe how we interpret the complex
world around us. They explain why a series of flashing lights appear to be
moving and why we can read a sentence like this: notli ket his ort hat.

These are just a few real-life examples of the six Gestalt principles or laws,
which are:

1. Law of similarity
2. Law of prägnanz
3. Law of proximity
4. Law of continuity
5. Law of closure
6. Law of common region
Law of Similarity

The law of similarity states that similar things tend to appear grouped together.
Grouping can occur in both visual and auditory stimuli.

In the image at the top of this page, for example, you probably see two separate
groupings of colored circles as rows rather than just a collection of dots.

Law of Prägnanz

The law of prägnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of good figure or the
law of simplicity. This law holds that when you're presented with a set of
ambiguous or complex objects, your brain will make them appear as simple as
possible.3 For example, when presented with the Olympic logo, you see
overlapping circles rather than an assortment of curved, connected lines.

The word prägnanz is a German term meaning "good figure."

Law of Proximity

According to the law of proximity, things that are close together seem more
related than things that are spaced farther apart.

In the image at the top of the page, the circles on the left appear to be part of
one grouping while those on the right appear to be part of another. Because the
objects are close to each other, we group them together.

Law of Continuity

The law of continuity holds that points that are connected by straight or curving
lines are seen in a way that follows the smoothest path. In other words, elements
in a line or curve seem more related to one another than those positioned
randomly.
Law of Closure

According to the law of closure, we perceive elements as belonging to the same

group if they seem to complete some entity.1 Our brains often ignore
contradictory information and fill in gaps in information.

In the image at the top of the page, you probably see the shape of a diamond
because your brain fills in the missing gaps in order to create a meaningful
image.

Law of Common Region

The Gestalt law of common region says that when elements are located in the
same closed region, we perceive them as belonging to the same group.

Look at the last image at the top of the page. The circles are right next to each
other so that the dot at the end of one circle is actually closer to the dot at the
end of the neighboring circle. But despite how close those two dots are, we see
the dots inside the circles as belonging together.

Creating a clearly defined boundary can overpower other Gestalt laws such as
the law of proximity.
Depth Perception: What Is It and How Does It Work?

Understanding How the Eyes See in 3D

Depth perception is the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions (3D)
and to judge the distance of objects. Your brain achieves it by processing
different pictures from each eye and combining them to form a single 3D image.

Depth perception makes it possible for your eyes to determine distances

between objects and to tell if something is near to you or far away.
Visual Cues and Depth Perception

Depth perception relies on visual cues. These cues are the physical signals and
the brain's interpretation of them, which are responsible for your vision as the
brain and your body work together.

In order to have depth perception, you must have binocular vision, also known
as stereopsis. You also rely on monocular cues from each eye separately, as
well as oculomotor cues that arise from the way your eyes move together to
keep focus.

Monocular Cues

Monocular cues allow for some sense of depth perception even when you don't
have two eyes working properly together. They're still needed even when they
are, offering cues including:

• Motion parallax: This cue contributes to your sense of self-motion. It

occurs when you move your head back and forth. Objects at different
distances move at slightly different speeds. Closer objects move in the
opposite direction of your head motion and faraway objects move with
your head.1
• Interposition: When objects overlap each other, it gives us monocular
cues about which one is closer.
• Aerial perspective: Color and contrast cues offer clues as to how far
away an object might be. As light travels, it scatters and causes blurred
outlines, which your brain interprets as being farther away.
Binocular Cues

The most important aspect of binocular vision is having two eyes. People with
vision from only one eye have to rely on other visual cues to gauge depth, and
their depth perception is generally less accurate.

Not having accurate depth perception can have a major impact on your life,
from early childhood learning to what jobs you're able to do. That's because
your binocular cues are at work to create the depth perception needed for
countless tasks.

Some of the cues provided through your binocular vision include:3

• Changing disparity: These cues are a function of stereopsis, which

allows your eyes to build depth perception on the basis of the distance
between them. This sensitivity to the disparity, and how the brain
processes the slight difference, contributes to an accurate 3D image.
• Velocity differences: Your binocular vision is responsible for processing
differences in speed, or velocity, that contribute to depth perception as
you and the world you interact with are in motion.

perceptual constancy, also called object constancy, or constancy

phenomenon, the tendency of animals and humans to see familiar objects as
having standard shape, size, colour, or location regardless of changes in the
angle of perspective, distance, or lighting. The impression tends to conform to
the object as it is or is assumed to be, rather than to the actual stimulus.
Perceptual constancy is responsible for the ability to identify objects under
various conditions, which seem to be “taken into account” during a process of
mental reconstitution of the known image. For example, snow appears white in
the low illumination of moonlight, as well as in sunlight 800,000 times as
bright. Perceptual constancy is reduced by limited experience with the object
and by decreasing the number of environmental cues that aid in identification of
the object.

There is a tendency to maintain constancy (of size, color, and shape) in the
perception of stimuli even though the stimuli have changed. For example, you
recognize that small brownish dog in the distance as your neighbor's large
golden retriever, so you aren't surprised by the great increase in size (size
constancy) or the appearance of the yellow color (color constancy) when he
comes bounding up. And in spite of the changes in the appearance of the dog
moving toward you from a distance, you still perceive the shape as that of a
dog (shape constancy) no matter the angle from which it is viewed.

Subjective constancy or perceptual constancy is the perception of an object or

quality as constant under changing conditions.

There are several types of perceptual constancies:-

• Object constancy
• Shape constancy
• Size contancy
• Colour constancy
• Brightness constancy
• Distance constancy
• Location constancy
• Roughness constancy
• Velocity constancy
Object constancy is where objects maintain their perceived identities, despite
being partly hidden, viewed from unusual angles or altered in appearance even
in changing conditions of illumination, distance, speed of travel etc.

Shape constancy, also known as form constancy is a form of perceptual

constancy where a familiar object keeps its perceived shape despite major
changes in retinal stimulation due to changes in its orientation.

An example would be a plate that would be recognised as such despite the fact
that as you rotated it it would turn from having the shape of a circle, through
various sizes of ellipse to a straight edge when viewed side on. As the view
changes the stimulation on the retina changes, yet the object retains its integrity
in perception.

Size constancy is an aspect of perceptual constancy in which an object will

appear to be the same size to an observer despite of changes in light , rotation,
distance, perspective etc. This skill is so important that is appears in an infant
only a couple of weeks old.

Color constancy is an example of subjective constancy and a feature of the

human color perception system which ensures that the perceived color of
objects remains relatively constant under varying illumination conditions. An
apple for instance looks green to us at midday, when the main illumination is
white sunlight, and also at sunset, when the main illumination is red. This helps
us identify objects. Some nonhuman species, such as monkeys and goldfish
have also been shown to have color constancy. It is likely that all animals
with color vision have color constancy.

Brightness constancy or lightness constancy or whiteness constancy is the

apparent stability of an objects brightness despite changes in illumination.

In perceptual constancy, distance constancy refers to the relationship between

apparent distance and physical distance.

An example of this would be the moon - when it is near the horizon it is

perceived as larger (size constancy) and/or closer to earth than when it is above
our heads.

In perceptual constancy, location constancy refers to the relationship between

the viewer and the object. A stationary object is perceived as remaining
stationary despite the retina sensing the object changing as the viewer moves
(due to parallax). Location constancy is largely influenced by the context in
which the object is found. An example of this would be looking at a parked car
as you walk towards a building; the car is perceived as remaining stationary as
you move forward.
Perception of movement
n this chapter we will analyze the movement perception relating the vision and
the cognitive processes that make us able to see and follow objects that are
moving as well as the visual tracking of objects that move.
What is the perception of movement?
The perception of movement is a much more primitive mechanism of vision
than depth perception or colors. The movement is key to locate a prey and
establish the precise movements to hunt or, conversely, go unnoticed by the
predator and flee at the precise moment. For most animals, the fact of remaining
motionless gives them a character of invisibility.
Clinical studies with patients suffering from brain injuries reveal that the
perception of movement is based on the Temporal Media (TM) zone. The injury
to this region is accompanied by agnosia for movement.
Definition of movement perception
We can define the perception of movement as the cognitive capacity that an
organism possesses that allows it to capture, immediately, the change of place
of an object or a body and, at the same time, apprehend some attributes related
to this change, such as speed and direction.
What the perception of movement implies
Motion detection involves:
1. The fine tracking of an object that moves in front of us.
2. The function of "common destiny", in which we perceive the different
elements that move accompanying our main objective, which creates a
series of very useful references for the detection of the global movement
and the three-dimensional perception of that objective, since it confers
more keys than simple static vision.
3. The possibility of identifying a specific object by analyzing its movement
(a large bird moves the wings more slowly than a small bird, which
would mean less risk as a predator).

How the movement is perceived

In general terms there are two main mechanisms through which the movement
is perceived:
• The first implies the detection of changes in the relative position of the
parties that make up the visual image.
• The second implies the use of the eyes to follow a moving target.
We can affirm that the analysis of movement in the primary visual areas, early
processing, constitutes a fundamental property of the visual system and does not
depend on the previous calculation of distance, thus enabling the execution of
certain tasks at the appropriate times to guarantee our survival.
In a schematic way we can mention among these tasks:
• Coding of the third dimension,
• Estimation of the collision,
• Differentiation between figure and background,
• Balance control,
 • Control of eye movements
• Perception of continuous movement.
Perception of apparent movement
The reality is that it is not necessary for movement to occur for us to have the
visual sensation that something is moving, Max Wertheimer (1912) was one of
the first to study apparent movement, starting the School of Gestalt.
He observed that when two lights are turned on, separated by a small space and
with short start intervals, the observer has the sensation of movement, which is
what we know as Strobe movement. There must be an interval between 10 and
14 msec so that movement is optimally appreciated. If the interval was smaller,
it has the sensation of two simultaneous flashes and, if it was higher, the
sensation was that of two successive flashes.
Sequence of successive images that create apparent movement
Following this principle, the sensation of movement that we have when we go
to the cinema or watch TV is explained, in which there is a change of frames of
24 times per second, with a pixelated refresh of 30 times per second,
respectively, (in the computer is x 60).
Current experiments on apparent motion establish the following relationship as
intersimulation times:
• Feeling of simultaneity: less than 20 msec
• Partial movement: between 20 and 40 msec
• Optimum movement or beta: between 40 and 60 msec
• Movement fi: between 60 and 200 msec
• Successive movement: more than 200 msec
Characteristics of the apparent movement
In the apparent movement we know that the greater the distance between the
stimuli, the longer the interval between the stimuli must be (Farrell 1983).
The most important thing in apparent movement is the asynchrony between the
stimuli, the time that elapses between the start of one stimulus and the next
(stimulus start asynchrony, SOA), as well as the interstimular interval (end of
one and beginning of the other) . For the study of apparent movement, it is
necessary to differentiate between short-range and long-range movement.
Short-range movement
The typical example of the short-range movement is the cinema, with a fixed
interval of sequence of stimuli, 24 per second and with a minimum
displacement of the objects in each frame between 5 and 15 arc minutes.
Long-range movement
The long-range movement is the one obtained with sequential ignition lights
that tolerate distances greater than those of short-range movement. Also the
time between the stimuli may be longer, more than 200 msec.
Perception of induced movement
We call movement induced to the illusion that appears when an object that is
actually fixed is moved, by moving the frame of reference in which it is, as the
example of the moon and the clouds, when these move quickly by the effect of
the wind , if we are looking at the moon, crossing the clouds it seems that the
moon also moves, in the opposite direction of the clouds.
Autokinetic movement
Another apparent movement is the autokinetic movement. We observe this
when we have a fixed light source in a dark room.
In this circumstance, after a while of observing the light, we have the feeling
that it is moving, a fact that is due to the imperceptible movement of the eyes.

EXTRA REFERENCE :

Motion Perception—How We Perceive Motion In Our World

Have you ever wondered how your visual system interprets complex motion
perception information? To understand this phenomenon, let’s consider three
different situations that produce three unique experiences on the retina.

tationary Viewer—Stationary Environment

First, consider a stationary viewer, looking at a stationary environment, in

which one object is moving—a person walking across your field of view. Our
perception is obvious in this situation: The world is stationary and the man is
moving.

Consider a second situation, however, in which the entire background seems to

move leftward across the retina.
There are at least two possibilities for a sensory input like this: It could be that
everything—the whole room—is moving to the left; but if you watched a movie
of this, that wouldn’t be your perception. You would perceive it as a stationary
world with a rightward moving point of view.

You produce this type of display yourself whenever you move your head to the
right. In most situations, our visual input and the movement of images projected
onto our retina are a combination of these two types of inputs: The motion of
things in the environment and the motions of our retina through the
environment.

Now consider a third situation, one in which a man is walking, but he remains
stationary in the middle of the retina.

As he remains in the middle of the retina, however, the entire background drifts
leftward across that retina. You produce visual inputs like this yourself
whenever you follow a moving target with your eyes.

Just because something moves across your retina doesn’t mean that it’s actually
moving in the world. Conversely, just because something is stationary on your
retina doesn’t mean that it’s actually stationary in the world.

Common Questions About Motion Perception

Q: What exactly is motion perception?

Motion perception is the ability of the nervous system to discern the distance
and speed of a moving object in relation to the eye that is seeing the object.

Q: How does the human eye handle motion perception?

Motion perception is handled in the retina as light-sensing cells convert light
into electric pulses while the rods and cones of the retina sense motion. The
brain then interprets this information.

Q: Which cells in the eye are best at detecting motion?

The primary cells in the eye that resolve motion perception are the rods and the
cones. The rods, which are largely in the periphery, detect light very well and
detect motion much better than the cones, which are better at visual resolution.

Q: Why do we sometimes perceive motion when there is no movement?

Motion aftereffect is a function of motion perception where neuronal

structures wind down after dealing with a triggering motion. They are still
functioning after we see the initial motion generator and it takes a period of time
for them to reset.
SENSORY INTEGRATION THEORY

What is Sensory Integration?

Sensory integration is about how our brain receives and processes sensory
information so that we can do the things we need to do in our everyday life.
There is a theory of sensory integration and a therapeutic approach based on the
theory.

Sensory Integration Theory

Our understanding of sensory integration was initially developed in the late 60s
and 70s by Jean Ayres, an occupational therapist and psychologist with an
understanding of neuroscience, working in the United States of America. Jean
Ayres was interested in explaining how difficulties with receiving and
processing sensory information from one’s body and environment could relate
to difficulties at school or using one’s body to engage in everyday life. Jean
Ayres defined sensory integration as:

“The neurological process that organises sensation from one’s own body and
from the environment and makes it possible to use the body effectively with the
environment” (1972)

Sensory Integration Theory

Dr A. Jeans Ayres in 1972 (p.1) first described Sensory Integration (SI) as ‘the
organisation of the senses for use’. Dr Ayres was an occupational
therapist working with children with learning disabilities in
California. Noticing that many of these children interpreted sensory messages
differently to their peers, she began to focus her attention on
the touch, vestibular, proprioceptive and vision senses. Her research
indicated that the children she was working with did not integrate, or combine,
the messages from these senses very well. This is how she started to develop
her sensory integration theory.

As a result of poor integration of the sensory messages, Dr Ayres theorised

children could have challenges with:

• Postural control
• Coordination of both sides of the body (bilateral integration)
• Sensory sensitivity
• Discrimination and/or
• Dyspraxia.

Sensory Integration and learning

Dr Ayres felt that these SI challenges were contributing to the children’s

difficulties with learning. This thinking can be seen in her sensory integration
theory and is shown in the picture below. On the left, the sensory integration
model shows the senses Dr Ayres felt were most likely to contribute to SI
dysfunction. As you follow the model to the right, it shows the skills that each
sense influences. Dr Ayres hypothesised that each skill formed the foundation
for the next skill. Finally, resulting in the end products of concentration,
attention, learning, etc.

Through her work, Dr Ayres created sensory integration therapy. She found
that if she treated the children using a SI approach they made improvements in
their learning. The is called a ‘bottom up’ approach because it works
on improving foundation abilities with the expectation that this will have a
knock on effect to function skills. So, for example, Dr Ayres felt that working
on postural control and discrimination would improve a child’s handwriting
without working specifically on handwriting. Many therapists still use this
treatment approach today (Ayres® SI).

Sensory Processing Disorder

Dr Lucy Miller first used the term Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) in 2006
to describe sensory issues in her book, Sensational Kids. Dr Miller had initially
studied under Dr Ayres. After this she has continued to research SI along with
her colleagues. The primary aim of this research was to have SPD identified as
a stand-alone diagnosis by the American Psychology Association in their
updated manual the DSM-5. Dr Miller defined three parts to SPD: sensory
modulation; sensory discrimination and sensory-based motor disorders.
Dr Miller’s model draws heavily on Ayres’ initial work and sensory
integration theory. In my opinion, Dr Miller’s format is easier for parents and
teachers to follow. Dr Miller also published her treatment approach in 2012 (A
SECRET, Bialer & Miller).

Is there a difference in how therapists from each tradition (SI or SPD) approach
treatment?
yes.

A pure Ayres® Sensory Integration therapy approach will be led by a trained

therapist in a specialised clinic space. It must be child-led. The therapist
continually creates opportunities at a ‘just right’ level to help improve the
child’s sensory integration. Therapists using Ayres® SI should use the fidelity
guidelines outlined by Parham and colleagues in 2011. These guidelines
describe the core components of the Ayres® SI treatment.
Miller’s model uses elements of this approach, however, it includes additional
therapies such as listening therapy. It also includes greater parent involvement
in therapy and extra strategies for home and school. Most other authors will
outline sensory strategies that can help to support the senses at home and
school. These strategies can be used to complement direct sensory integration
treatment.

SI or SPD?
The terms ‘sensory integration’ and ‘sensory processing’ refer to the same
theory and idea. As with many ideas, once the founder has passed on their
knowledge, different roads are taken by their students. This has been the case
for SI theory, resulting in the term ‘sensory processing’. My hope is that these
different roads will ultimately lead to stronger evidence, and the best outcomes
for children and adults that need help to organise their senses.

A History of Sensory Integration an Sensory Processing Disorder

1950-60s
Jean Ayres begins working on her theory of SI.

1972
Jean Ayres publishes Sensory Integration and Learning Disorders. In this book
she outlines her SI theory and discusses how children can be assessed for SI
dysfunction. The book also includes recommendations on how to treat and
support children who have sensory challenges.

1979
Sensory Integration and the Child is published. Jean Ayres wrote this book for
parents in order to break her SI theory into a more easily read
format. Publishers released an updated 25th anniversary edition of this book in
2004. The newer edition includes comments from occupational therapists
currently researching SI.

1980-90s
Some authors, especially in education, discredit the effectiveness of SI for
children. All readers must, however, note that a huge flaw with many of studies
at this time is that they do not quantify what classes as ‘sensory
integration.’ Many studies call sensory strategies such as weighted blankets and
ball chairs ‘SI treatment,’ even though they are not. This is like calling an Ace
of Spades the King of Diamonds, although the two may be cards, they are not
the same.

1999
Winnie Dunn publishes the ‘Sensory Profile.’ This is the first standardised
assessment to look at sensory modulation difficulties.

2000s

Above all there is a huge push for all research on SI theory and treatment to be
of high quality. In order to do this, researchers must describe exactly what their
treatment process involved.

2006-7
Lucy Miller and colleagues formally publish the term Sensory Processing
Disorder (SPD) in their books. Parnham and colleagues also publish a fidelity
measure, this clearly describes the components of SI treatment. They, therefore,
recommend this is used in all research on SI effectiveness.

2010s
The term Sensory Processing Disorder is used more widely in media and
publications, especially books on the topic for parents and teachers. However,
many books written for therapists typically continue to use the term SI. Schaff
and Davies (2010) discuss the evolution of SI in an editorial for the American
Journal of Occupational Therapists. Overall, they conclude there is no
consensus on term use and advocate continued research.

Authors continue to use the terms SI and SPD interchangeably. A huge amount
of research is currently being done to support the use of SI treatment, including
using SI for children with autism. This also includes randomised control trials,
the most rigorous type of evidence. For more information on publications, you
can follow the links at the end of this timeline.

Therapists continue to train in Ayres® SI through organisations including the SI

Education and CLASI. In addition, Lucy Miller offers training in her A
SECRET model, this now includes university certification.

There is more research being published and conducted on SI. Some of the
research (e.g. Schaaf, 2018) indicates that it is an effective treatment for
children, including those with autism. Other reviews (e.g. Novak, 2019) come
to the opposite conclusion. Unfortunately, a lot of research uses the term
sensory integration therapy, however, they do not stick to the fidelity treatment
measure. This means it is not always clear if Ayres® SI has been used
(e.g. Karim, 2015). In some cases, the treatment has been described as SI, when
it clearly is not. For example, this study which uses Brain Gym as their
‘sensory integration approach.’ It is important when you are reading research
and information that you check what model the authors are using.

There is a large research study (Randell, 2019) underway at the University of

Cardiff comparing sensory integration therapy with usual care for children with
autism. The results of this study should be available in 2021. This study has
the potential to provide more clarity on the effectiveness of Ayres® SI.
An updated version of Sensory Integration Theory and Practice was published
in 2019. This outlines the latest research and models of sensory integration.

2020 and beyond

The Ayres 2020 vision team are working on a new assessment tool, the EASI, to
help therapists assess for sensory integration dysfunction. They aim to publish
this in 2022. Currently the assessment tool is being standardised. This means
that it is being tested with typically developing children to identify age cut offs
and scores.

The results from the Cardiff study will be published. In addition, the impact of
SI is being researched by many individuals and teams. This research will be
used to inform and shape the future of sensory integration theory and practice.

There is also a lot of ongoing research studying the impact of sensory

processing in autism. It’s an exciting time to be working in the field.

ALSO REFER:

http://ceril.net/index.php/articles-in-english?id=439
Top-down processing involves perceiving things based on your prior
experiences and knowledge. In other words, you use what you already know to
make sense of the new information you encounter. It refers to how our brain
utilizes existing knowledge and expectations to interpret new sensory
information.

Instead of interpreting the world based solely on the information we gather from
our senses, the brain uses pre-existing concepts, ideas, and knowledge to
comprehend sensory input.

We are surrounded by an endless amount of sensory stimuli at any given time,

but our attentional and processing resources are limited. Top-down processing
is vital for perception since it lets us quickly interpret and understand our
environment. In doing so, we can make decisions and respond quickly when
needed.

What Is Top-Down Processing?

"Traditionally, “top-down perception” refers to situations in which context,

learning, or expectation alters a perceptual process," write researchers Nicholas
Gaspelin, PhD, and Steven J. Luck, PhD, in an article in the Journal of
Cognition.

In top-down processing, perceptions begin with the most general and move
toward the more specific. Our expectations and prior knowledge heavily
influence these perceptions.2

Put simply; your brain applies what it knows to fill in the blanks and anticipate
what's next.
For example, if half of a tree branch is covered, you usually have an idea of
what it looks like, even though half is not being shown. This is because you
know what trees look like from prior knowledge.

While this process relies on past learning, context, and expectations, it is an

automatic process.1

Processing information from the top down allows us to make sense of

information that has already been brought in by the senses, working downward
from initial impressions down to particular details.

Why We Use Top-Down Processing

In a world where we are surrounded by virtually limitless sensory experiences

and information, top-down processing can help us quickly make sense of the
environment. It allows us to use our perceptual and attentional resources more
efficiently to interpret incoming sensory data and make decisions.

Top-down processing also helps us fill in gaps in ambiguous or incomplete

situations.

Our senses are constantly taking in new information. At any given time, we're
experiencing a never-ending stream of sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and
physical sensations. If we had to focus equally on all of these sensations every
second of every day, we would be overwhelmed.

Top-down processing helps simplify our understanding of the world. It allows

us to quickly make sense of all the information our senses bring in to navigate
the world more effectively, recognize patterns, and make decisions.
As you begin to take in more information about your environment, your initial
impressions (based on previous experiences and patterns) influence how you
interpret the finer details.

This type of processing can be useful when we are looking for patterns in our
environment, but these predispositions can also hinder our ability to perceive
things in new and different ways.

Influences on This Process

Several things can influence top-down processing, including context

and motivation. Specific circumstances, how we feel about a certain topic, and
even our emotional state while having an experience might affect top-down
processing.

Context

The context, or circumstances, in which an event or object is perceived can

affect what we expect to find in that particular situation. Context can provide
clues that tell us how we should interpret something we encounter.

For example, if you are reading an article about food and nutrition, you might
interpret a word you're unfamiliar with as something related to food.

Motivation

Motivation can also make you more likely to interpret something in a particular
way. For example, if you were shown a series of ambiguous images, you might
be more motivated to perceive them as food-related when hungry.

Expectations
What you expect to encounter in a situation can also affect how you ultimately
interpret it. If you believe that you will experience something in a specific
situation, it is going to influence how your brain processes what you encounter.

Knowledge

Your previously existing knowledge about a specific topic or situation will also
have an effect on your you perceive new information. For example, a novice
might process information differently than someone who holds expertise in the
subject.

Ambiguity

In ambiguous situations, your brain is more likely to rely on top-down

processing to fill in the gaps. For example, when interpreting a visual illusion,
your brain often fills in missing visual information to help make sense of an
ambiguous figure.

The Kanizsa triangle illusion is one example of how top-down processing can
fill gaps to allow the brain to perceive a cohesive shape.

The illusion consists of three incomplete circles and triangles resulting in a

white triangle in the center. The edges of the triangle do not exist in the image,
but the brain uses top-down processing to perceive a familiar shape.3

Examples of Top-Down Processing

In order to better understand how top-down processing works, it can be helpful

to explore a few examples of this phenomenon in action.

The Stroop Effect

One classic example of top-down processing in action is a phenomenon known
as the Stroop effect. In this task, people are shown a list of words printed in
different colors. They’re then asked to name the ink color, rather than the word
itself.

Interestingly, people are much slower and make more mistakes when the
meaning of the word and the ink color doesn’t match. So, for example, people
have a harder time when the word "red" is printed in green ink instead of red
ink.

Top-down processing explains why this task is so difficult. People

automatically recognize the word before they think about the specific features
of that word (like what color it's written in). This makes it easier to read the
word aloud rather than to say the color of the word.

Perceptual Set

A perceptual set refers to the tendency to perceive things in a certain way based
on past experiences, emotions, cultural influences, and expectations. This
tendency is an example of top-down processing.

Our existing mental frameworks play a role in guiding these perceptual sets. For
example, people have a schema, or cognitive framework, for faces that makes it
easier to recognize people who are familiar to us, even in a crowd.

Bottom-up processing is an explanation for perceptions that start with an

incoming stimulus and work upward until a representation of the object is
formed in our minds. This process suggests that our perceptual experience is
based entirely on the sensory stimuli that we piece together using only data that
is available from our senses.
In order to make sense of the world, we must take in energy from the
environment and convert it to neural signals, a process known as sensation. It is
in the next step of the process, known as perception, that our brains interpret
these sensory signals.

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 • Focuses on incoming sensory data

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Top-Down

• Info is interpreted using contextual clues

• Uses previous experiences and expectations

Bottom-up processing can be defined as sensory analysis that begins at the entry
level—with what our senses can detect. This form of processing begins with
sensory data and goes up to the brain's integration of this sensory information.
Information is carried in one direction, starting with the retina and proceeding to
the visual cortex.

This process suggests that processing begins with a perception of the stimuli
and is fueled by basic mechanisms developed through evolution. Unlike top-
down processing, bottom-up processing is purely data-driven and requires no
previous knowledge or learning. Bottom-up processing takes place as it
happens.
For example, if you see an image of an individual letter on your screen, your
eyes transmit the information to your brain, and your brain puts all of this
information together.

How Bottom-Up Processing Works

The theory of bottom-up processing was introduced by psychologist E. J.

Gibson, who took a direct approach to the understanding of perception. Rather
than being dependent upon learning and context, Gibson felt that perception was
a “what you see is what you get” process.1 He argued that sensation and
perception are the same things.

Because Gibson’s theory suggests that processing can be understood solely in

terms of environmental stimuli, it is referred to as the ecological theory of
perception.

Bottom-up processing works like this:

❖ We experience sensory information about the world around us, such as

light levels from our environment.
❖ These signals are brought to the retina. Transduction transforms these
signals into electrical impulses that can then be transmitted.
❖ Electrical impulses travel along visual pathways to the brain, where they
enter the visual cortex and are processed to form our visual experience.

This approach to understanding perception is an example of reductionism.

Rather than looking at perception more holistically, including how sensory
information, visual processes, and expectations contribute to how we see the
world, bottom-up processing breaks the process down into its most basic
elements.