SAVITRIBAI PHULE PUNE UNIVERSITY

Mobile Computing
COMPUTER SCIENCE
Third Year (2019 Pattern)

Unit-1 (NOTES)
 Unit I: Introduction To Computer Networks

Introduction to Computer Networks

Definition: A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices, such as

computers, servers, mainframes, network devices, peripherals, or other electronic
equipment, that can communicate and share data and resources with each other. These
connections are established through a combination of hardware and software. The
primary purpose is to enable communication and resource sharing, leading to increased
efficiency, collaboration, and centralized management.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Interconnected Devices: Networks consist of multiple devices linked together. This

connection can be physical (via cables) or wireless (via radio waves).
●​ Data and Resource Sharing: The core function of a network is to facilitate the
sharing of information, files, software applications, and hardware resources like
printers and scanners.
●​ Communication: Networks allow devices to communicate with one another,
sending and receiving data packets. This communication is governed by a set of
rules called protocols.
●​ Hardware and Software: A network is a complete system that requires both
physical components (like cables, routers, switches) and logical components (like
operating systems, network software, and protocols) to function correctly.

Mathematical / Technical Aspect: Network performance is often measured using

metrics like:

●​ Bandwidth (B): The maximum data transfer rate of a network or internet

connection, measured in bits per second (bps).
●​ Latency (L): The time it takes for a data packet to travel from its source to its
destination, measured in milliseconds (ms).
●​ Throughput (T): The actual amount of data successfully transferred over a network
in a given period, often less than the bandwidth due to various factors.
●​ Formula for Throughput: T=TimeData Amount​
Real-World Examples:

1.​ Home Wi-Fi Network: A network connecting your laptop, smartphone, smart TV,
and other devices to the internet via a single router.
2.​ University Campus Network: A large-scale network connecting all computers in
libraries, labs, and administrative offices across a university campus, allowing
students and staff to access resources.
3.​ ATM Network: The global network that links all Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs)
to a central bank server, allowing users to withdraw money from their accounts
anywhere in the world.

Applications:

●​ Daily Life: Accessing the internet, social media, online banking, and streaming
services.
●​ Research: Collaborative data analysis, sharing large datasets, and accessing shared
supercomputing resources.
●​ Industry: Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, email communication,
inventory management, and remote work infrastructure.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ Networks are essential for modern communication and resource sharing.

●​ They are built on a combination of hardware (physical) and software (logical)
components.
●​ Performance is measured by bandwidth, latency, and throughput.

Types of Networks

Local Area Networks (LAN)

Definition: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects

computers within a limited geographical area, such as a residence, school, laboratory,
university campus, or office building. The defining characteristics of a LAN are its small
size and its high data transfer rates. These networks are typically private and managed by
a single organization.
Detailed Explanation:

●​ Limited Geographical Area: LANs are confined to a relatively small area, usually
within a single building or a few closely located buildings.
●​ High Data Transfer Rates: Because of their limited scope, LANs typically offer
high-speed connectivity, allowing for quick sharing of files and resources.
●​ Private Ownership: LANs are generally owned and managed by the organization or
individual that uses them, giving them full control over the network's security and
configuration.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Home Wi-Fi: Connecting all devices in a house, like laptops, phones, and printers,
to a single network for resource sharing and internet access.
2.​ Office Network: A network within a company building that connects all employee
computers, servers, and printers, enabling them to share documents and access
internal applications.
3.​ School Computer Lab: A network linking all computers in a school's computer lab,
allowing students to access shared software and teachers to manage student work
from a central point.

Applications:

●​ Resource Sharing: Sharing printers, scanners, and storage devices among multiple
users in an office.
●​ Data and File Transfer: Quickly transferring large files between computers within
the same building.
●​ Gaming: Creating a low-latency network for multi-player gaming sessions (LAN
party).

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ LANs are characterized by their small size and high speed.

●​ They are typically privately owned.
●​ Ethernet and Wi-Fi are the most common technologies used for LANs.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

Definition: A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a computer network that
interconnects users with computer resources in a geographical area or region larger
than that covered by a Local Area Network (LAN), but smaller than the area covered by a
Wide Area Network (WAN). It typically connects multiple LANs together, forming a larger
network spanning a city or a large campus.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Medium-Sized Area: A MAN covers a city, town, or multiple nearby buildings,

providing a bridge between individual LANs.
●​ High-Speed Connectivity: MANs offer high-speed connectivity, similar to LANs,
but over a larger area. They are often used by internet service providers to connect
their various customer locations.
●​ Shared Infrastructure: They often use a combination of technologies, including
fiber optic cables, to provide connectivity across a city.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Cable TV Network: The network that provides high-speed internet and cable
television services to an entire city.
2.​ University Campus Network: A large university with multiple campuses across a
city might use a MAN to connect them all.
3.​ City-wide Surveillance System: A network of cameras and monitoring centers
spread across a city, used by law enforcement agencies.

Applications:

●​ High-Speed Internet Access: Internet Service Providers (ISPs) use MANs to deliver
broadband internet to their customers.
●​ Inter-office Communication: Connecting branch offices of a company located in
different parts of a city.
●​ Public Utility Services: Managing and monitoring city-wide utility grids like
electricity or water.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ MANs are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs.

●​ They connect multiple LANs within a city.
 ●​ They are often owned and operated by a single entity like a large corporation or a
municipality.

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

Definition: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that extends

over a large geographical area, such as a country or even the entire world. WANs are
used to connect multiple LANs and MANs, allowing computers and users in different
geographical locations to communicate and share data. The internet itself is the largest
and most well-known example of a WAN.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Large Geographical Area: WANs span vast distances, connecting different cities,
states, or even countries.
●​ Lower Speed Compared to LANs: Due to the long distances involved, WANs
generally have lower data transfer speeds and higher latency compared to LANs.
●​ Public and Private Ownership: WANs can be privately owned by large corporations
or government entities, or they can be public, like the internet, which is a global
WAN.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ The Internet: The most prominent example of a WAN, connecting billions of
devices globally.
2.​ Multinational Company Network: A company with offices in different countries
uses a WAN to connect its internal networks, allowing employees to access shared
resources and databases.
3.​ Airline Reservation System: A global network that connects all ticketing agents
and airports, allowing them to access and update flight information in real-time.

Applications:

●​ Global Communication: Facilitating global communication via email, instant

messaging, and video conferencing.
●​ Cloud Services: Accessing and storing data on cloud servers located in different
parts of the world.
 ●​ Business Operations: Connecting remote branches of a company for centralized
data management and communication.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ WANs are the largest type of network, spanning countries and continents.
●​ They connect LANs and MANs.
●​ The internet is the most famous example of a WAN.

Wireless Networks

Definition: A wireless network is a computer network that uses wireless data

connections between network nodes, in contrast to a traditional wired network that uses
cables. These networks use radio waves to transmit data, eliminating the need for
physical cables and providing greater mobility and flexibility for users.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ No Physical Cables: Wireless networks use radio frequency (RF) signals to connect
devices, meaning devices can connect to the network without being physically
plugged in.
●​ Increased Mobility: Users can move around freely within the network's range
while staying connected.
●​ Multiple Standards: Different standards like Wi-Fi (802.11), Bluetooth, and cellular
technologies (4G, 5G) are used to create wireless networks.

Mathematical / Technical Aspect:

●​ Frequency: The number of wave cycles per second, measured in Hertz (Hz).
Different wireless technologies operate on different frequency bands (e.g., 2.4 GHz,
5 GHz for Wi-Fi).
●​ Signal Strength (RSSI): Received Signal Strength Indication, a measure of the
power of the received radio signal. Measured in decibels relative to a milliwatt
(dBm).

Real-World Examples:
 1.​ Home Wi-Fi: Connecting your laptop, smartphone, and other devices to the
internet using a wireless router.
2.​ Bluetooth Connection: Pairing your wireless headphones with your smartphone.
3.​ Mobile Phone Network: Using your phone to access the internet via a cellular
network (e.g., 4G or 5G).

Applications:

●​ Daily Life: Accessing the internet on the go, connecting wireless peripherals, and
using smart home devices.
●​ Industry: Warehouse management systems using handheld scanners, remote
monitoring of machinery, and drone communication.
●​ Research: Deploying sensor networks in remote or difficult-to-reach areas to
collect data wirelessly.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ Wireless networks offer mobility and convenience by using radio waves.

●​ They can be less secure and more susceptible to interference than wired networks.
●​ Wi-Fi is the most common technology for wireless LANs.

Network Software

Definition: Network software is a set of programs and applications designed to manage,

control, and operate a computer network. This software is essential for enabling
communication between devices, managing data flow, ensuring security, and providing
various network services like file sharing, printing, and remote access.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Enables Communication: Network software, including network operating systems,

provides the fundamental logic for devices to communicate with each other using a
common set of protocols.
●​ Management and Control: It allows network administrators to monitor network
performance, configure devices, manage user access, and troubleshoot issues.
●​ Provides Services: It includes applications that offer specific network services to
end-users, such as email clients, web browsers, and file transfer applications.
Real-World Examples:

1.​ Web Browsers: Software like Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, or Safari that allows
you to access and view content on the World Wide Web.
2.​ File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Clients: Applications like FileZilla or WinSCP that
enable the transfer of files between a computer and a server over a network.
3.​ Network Monitoring Tools: Software like Wireshark or Nagios that helps network
administrators analyze network traffic and monitor the health of the network.

Applications:

●​ Enterprise: Network Operating Systems (NOS) like Cisco IOS or Windows Server
are used to manage large corporate networks.
●​ Daily Use: Every application that uses the internet, from streaming services to
online games, relies on network software.
●​ Security: Firewalls and antivirus software are examples of network software used
to protect networks from threats.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ Network software is the "brains" of a network, dictating how data is transmitted

and managed.
●​ It is crucial for both functionality and security.
●​ Protocols are a key component of network software, acting as a set of rules for
communication.

Protocol

Definition: In computer networking, a protocol is a formal set of rules, procedures, and

data formats for how computers and other network devices communicate and exchange
data. Protocols define the syntax, semantics, and synchronization of communication and
error-handling, ensuring that all devices in a network can understand and interpret the
data they receive.

Detailed Explanation:
 ●​ Rules for Communication: Protocols are the standardized rules that govern data
transmission. They specify how data is formatted, addressed, and routed.
●​ Interoperability: They ensure that different types of devices and software from
various manufacturers can communicate with each other seamlessly.
●​ Layered Structure: Protocols are often organized into a layered architecture (like
the OSI model or TCP/IP model), with each layer handling a specific aspect of
communication.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): The protocol used for communication
between web servers and web browsers. When you type a website address, your
browser uses HTTP to request the web page.
2.​ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): A core protocol of the internet that ensures
reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of a stream of data.
3.​ IP (Internet Protocol): The protocol that handles the addressing and routing of
data packets across networks. It's responsible for making sure the data gets to the
right destination.

Applications:

●​ Internet: TCP/IP is the foundation of the internet.

●​ Email: SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used for sending emails, while POP3
or IMAP are used for receiving them.
●​ File Transfer: FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a standard protocol for transferring
files between computers.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ Protocols are essential for making communication between different devices

possible.
●​ They define the rules of the network "language."
●​ The internet is built on a suite of protocols, most notably TCP/IP.

Design Issues for the Network Layers

Definition: Network layers are a conceptual model that breaks down the complex
process of network communication into a series of smaller, more manageable tasks. Each
layer is responsible for a specific function, and together they form a complete system.
Design issues for these layers refer to the challenges and considerations involved in
creating and managing these layers to ensure efficient, secure, and reliable
communication.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Conceptual Model: The layered approach simplifies the design and development of
networks by dividing the overall problem into smaller, logical parts.
●​ Inter-layer Communication: Each layer provides a service to the layer above it and
receives services from the layer below it.
●​ Design Issues: These issues include addressing, routing, flow control, error
control, and security at each specific layer.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Addressing: The physical layer deals with hardware addresses (like MAC
addresses), while the network layer deals with logical addresses (like IP addresses).
A design issue is how to map a logical address to a physical one.
2.​ Error Control: At the data link layer, a design issue is how to detect and correct
errors in data frames, while at the transport layer, it's about ensuring end-to-end
data integrity.
3.​ Flow Control: The transport layer needs to manage the rate of data transmission to
prevent a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver. This is a crucial design
issue to avoid network congestion.

Applications:

●​ Network Architecture Design: When building a new network, engineers must

consider the design issues at each layer to ensure optimal performance.
●​ Troubleshooting: Network administrators use the layered model to isolate and
resolve problems by identifying which layer a specific issue is occurring in.
●​ Protocol Development: When creating new protocols, developers must address the
design issues of the specific layer their protocol will operate on.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

 ●​ The layered model simplifies network design and management.
●​ Each layer has specific functions and challenges to address.
●​ Common design issues include addressing, routing, flow control, and error control.

Network Models

The OSI Reference Model

Definition: The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework

that standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven
distinct layers. This model provides a common language for networking professionals
and helps in understanding how data is transmitted from one device to another. It is a
theoretical model that is widely used for teaching and troubleshooting.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Seven Layers: The OSI model is divided into seven layers: Physical, Data Link,
Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.
●​ Conceptual Framework: It is a reference model, meaning it's a guide for
understanding network processes, not a physical implementation.
●​ Top-Down and Bottom-Up View: The model can be viewed as a top-down
approach (from user application to physical transmission) or a bottom-up approach
(from physical transmission to user application).

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Physical Layer: A network cable (e.g., an Ethernet cable) that physically connects a
computer to a router.
2.​ Network Layer: The IP address of your computer, which is used to route data
packets across the internet.
3.​ Application Layer: A web browser like Chrome or a file transfer application like
FTP, which interacts directly with the user.

Applications:

●​ Education: Taught in universities and training programs to explain how networks

work.
 ●​ Troubleshooting: Network engineers use the OSI model to diagnose network
problems by isolating the issue to a specific layer.
●​ Standardization: Used as a reference point for developing new networking
protocols and technologies to ensure interoperability.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ The OSI model is a seven-layer conceptual framework.

●​ It is used for teaching and troubleshooting.
●​ It is a theoretical model, whereas the TCP/IP model is a more practical,
implemented model.

TCP/IP Model

Definition: The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model is a

four-layer protocol suite that is the foundation of the internet. It is a more practical and
widely implemented model compared to the theoretical OSI model. It defines how data
should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Four Layers: The TCP/IP model consists of four layers: Application, Transport,
Internet, and Network Access.
●​ Practical Implementation: Unlike the OSI model, TCP/IP is the actual set of
protocols that power the internet and most networks today.
●​ Protocol Suite: It's not just a single protocol but a family of protocols (a suite) that
work together to provide complete network functionality.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Application Layer: A protocol like HTTP used for web browsing.
2.​ Transport Layer: The TCP protocol, which ensures your web page data is delivered
reliably.
3.​ Internet Layer: The IP protocol, which routes the data packets from the web
server to your computer.

Applications:
 ●​ Internet: The entire internet is built on the TCP/IP model.
●​ Private Networks: It is used in virtually all private networks, from small home
networks to large enterprise networks.
●​ Mobile Communication: Mobile networks (3G, 4G, 5G) also use the TCP/IP suite
for data communication.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ The TCP/IP model is the de facto standard for networking.

●​ It has four layers and is a more practical model than the OSI model.
●​ It is a suite of protocols, with TCP and IP being the most famous.

Network Topologies

Definition: Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of connected

nodes (devices) in a network. It describes how devices are connected to each other and
how data flows through the network. The choice of a specific topology affects the
network's performance, reliability, and cost.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Physical Topology: Refers to the physical layout of the network devices and the
connecting cables. It is the actual physical arrangement.
●​ Logical Topology: Refers to how data flows through the network, regardless of the
physical arrangement.
●​ Common Topologies: The most common topologies are Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh, and
Hybrid.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Bus Topology: An older network design where all devices are connected to a single
central cable. This is rarely used today.
2.​ Star Topology: A modern network where all devices are connected to a central hub
or switch. Most home and office networks use this topology.
3.​ Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to every other device. This is very
reliable but expensive and complex to implement. It's often used in mission-critical
networks.
Applications:

●​ Network Design: Choosing the right topology is a critical step in designing a new
network, as it impacts cost, performance, and scalability.
●​ Troubleshooting: Understanding the network topology helps in diagnosing
network problems and identifying single points of failure.
●​ Wireless Networks: Wireless mesh networks are becoming popular for their ability
to provide widespread and redundant coverage.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ Topology is the layout or arrangement of network devices.

●​ The Star topology is the most common in modern networks.
●​ The choice of topology impacts a network's cost, performance, and reliability.

Types of Transmission Medium

Definition: A transmission medium is the physical path or channel through which data is
transmitted in a network. It is the physical material or technology that carries the signals
from one device to another. Transmission media can be guided (wired) or unguided
(wireless).

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Guided Media: These are physical pathways that guide the data signals along a
specific path. Examples include copper cables and fiber-optic cables.
●​ Unguided Media: These are wireless media where data signals are transmitted
through the air or space without a physical path. Examples include radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared signals.
●​ Bandwidth and Speed: The choice of transmission medium significantly impacts
the network's bandwidth, speed, and resistance to interference.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Twisted-Pair Cable (Guided): The most common type of Ethernet cable used in
home and office networks.
 2.​ Fiber-Optic Cable (Guided): Used for high-speed, long-distance data transmission,
like in the internet's backbone infrastructure.
3.​ Radio Waves (Unguided): Used for Wi-Fi and Bluetooth communication, where
signals travel through the air.

Applications:

●​ Wired Networks: Using Ethernet cables for a reliable, fast connection.

●​ Internet Backbone: Fiber-optic cables are the preferred medium for high-capacity,
long-distance data transmission.
●​ Wireless Communication: Radio waves are used for all forms of wireless
networking, from Wi-Fi to cellular networks.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ The transmission medium is the physical path for data.

●​ It is classified as either guided (wired) or unguided (wireless).
●​ The choice of medium is a key factor in network performance.

Network Architectures

Client-Server

Definition: The client-server architecture is a distributed computing model in which a

server hosts, delivers, and manages most of the resources and services, while clients
request and receive those resources from the server. This model is based on the idea of
centralized control and resource management.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Centralized Control: A single, powerful server manages all shared resources and
services. This makes administration and security easier to manage.
●​ Request-Response Model: The communication follows a request-response pattern.
A client sends a request to the server, and the server processes the request and
sends a response back.
 ●​ Scalability: This model is highly scalable, as more clients can be added to the
network without significantly impacting the server's performance, as long as the
server has enough capacity.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Web Browsing: Your computer (the client) sends a request to a web server to
retrieve a web page. The server processes the request and sends the page back to
your browser.
2.​ Online Banking: Your banking app (the client) sends a request to the bank's server
to check your account balance. The server retrieves the data from its database and
sends it back to your app.
3.​ Email System: An email client on your computer connects to an email server to
send and receive messages.

Applications:

●​ Enterprise Networks: Most large companies use a client-server model to provide

shared services like file storage, email, and databases.
●​ Web Services: The entire World Wide Web operates on a client-server
architecture.
●​ Gaming: Many online games use a central server to manage game states and player
data.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ Client-server is a centralized model with a powerful server and many clients.

●​ It's the most common architecture for most internet services.
●​ The server is a single point of failure if not configured with redundancy.

Peer-to-Peer (P2P)

Definition: The peer-to-peer (P2P) architecture is a distributed application architecture

where tasks are partitioned among peers. Each peer in the network can act as both a
client and a server, and there is no centralized control or dedicated server. All devices are
considered equal in their ability to share resources and communicate.
Detailed Explanation:

●​ Decentralized Control: Unlike the client-server model, there is no central server.

Resources and services are distributed among all the connected devices (peers).
●​ Simultaneous Client and Server Role: Each device can request services from other
peers while also providing services to them.
●​ Resilience: The network is highly resilient because if one peer goes offline, the
network can still function as the data is distributed among multiple peers.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ File Sharing Networks (e.g., BitTorrent): When you download a file using
BitTorrent, you are downloading small chunks of the file from multiple other users
(peers) who have the file, and you are also uploading chunks to others.
2.​ Voice over IP (VoIP): Services like Skype or some video conferencing platforms can
use a P2P architecture to connect users directly.
3.​ Cryptocurrency (e.g., Bitcoin): The Bitcoin network is a P2P network where all
transactions are verified and stored by all peers, and there is no central bank.

Applications:

●​ File Sharing: Ideal for sharing large files among a large group of users.
●​ Decentralized Services: Used in cryptocurrencies and other decentralized
applications (dApps).
●​ Collaboration: Facilitating direct communication and data exchange between users
without a central intermediary.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ P2P is a decentralized architecture where every device is a peer.

●​ It is highly resilient and efficient for file sharing.
●​ Security and management can be more challenging due to the lack of central
control.

Hybrid
Definition: A hybrid network architecture combines the characteristics of both
client-server and peer-to-peer models. It often uses a central server for certain
functions, such as authentication or resource discovery, while still allowing peers to
communicate and share resources directly with each other. This approach aims to
leverage the benefits of both architectures while minimizing their respective drawbacks.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Combines Both Models: The hybrid model utilizes a central server for critical
functions, like indexing or security, while the actual data transfer and
communication occur directly between peers.
●​ Centralized Control and Decentralized Data: It provides the centralized control of
a client-server model for security and management but offers the efficiency and
resilience of a P2P model for data exchange.
●​ Optimal Performance: This architecture can provide a good balance between
performance, scalability, and security for specific applications.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Online Gaming: A central server authenticates players, matches them into games,
and stores player rankings (client-server), but the actual gameplay data is
exchanged directly between the players' computers (P2P).
2.​ Skype: An older version of Skype used a central server for login and user search
but would then establish a direct peer-to-peer connection for voice and video
calls.
3.​ Modern BitTorrent: Some BitTorrent clients now use a central tracker server to
find peers, but the actual file transfer happens peer-to-peer.

Applications:

●​ Real-time Communication: Used in applications that need both centralized

management and decentralized, low-latency communication.
●​ Distributed Computing: In scientific research, a central server might distribute
tasks to various client machines, which then perform the computations and return
the results.
●​ IoT Networks: A central hub might manage all smart devices, but the devices
themselves can communicate directly with each other for specific tasks.
Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ A hybrid architecture combines the best of both client-server and P2P models.
●​ It is used in applications that require both centralized management and direct peer
communication.
●​ It offers a balance of scalability, performance, and security.

Network Devices

Bridge

Definition: A bridge is a network device that connects two different LANs or two
segments of the same LAN, allowing them to communicate and function as a single
network. It operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and uses MAC
addresses to forward data frames between network segments.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Layer 2 Operation: A bridge works at the data link layer, using MAC addresses to
make forwarding decisions.
●​ Network Segmentation: It segments a network into smaller collision domains,
which reduces network congestion and improves performance.
●​ Filtering: A bridge "learns" the MAC addresses of devices on each segment and only
forwards frames that are destined for a device on the other side of the bridge,
thereby reducing unnecessary traffic.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Connecting Two LANs: A bridge can be used to connect two separate Ethernet
networks in different parts of a building, making them act as one larger network.
2.​ Expanding a Network: A bridge can be used to extend the reach of a network and
connect more devices without degrading performance.
3.​ Wireless Access Point: Many wireless access points act as a bridge, connecting the
wireless network segment to the wired network segment.

Applications:
 ●​ Legacy Networks: Bridges are often used in older networks to connect different
segments.
●​ Network Segmentation: Used by network administrators to create smaller, more
manageable network segments.
●​ Wireless Networking: Found in wireless access points to bridge the wireless and
wired parts of a network.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ A bridge is a Layer 2 device that connects two network segments.

●​ It filters traffic based on MAC addresses.
●​ Its primary function is to reduce network congestion by segmenting the network.

Switch

Definition: A switch is a more advanced network device that connects multiple devices in
a local area network (LAN) and forwards data frames only to the intended destination
device. It operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, much like a bridge,
but it has multiple ports and is more efficient, creating a separate collision domain for
each port.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Multiple Ports: A switch has multiple ports (e.g., 4, 8, 16, 24, or more), allowing it to
connect many devices.
●​ Intelligent Filtering: It maintains a MAC address table to "learn" which device is
connected to which port. This allows it to forward traffic only to the correct port,
preventing data from being broadcast to all devices.
●​ Full Duplex Communication: A switch allows simultaneous two-way
communication (sending and receiving data at the same time) on each of its ports.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Office Network: A switch is used to connect all the computers, printers, and
servers in a single office room.
2.​ Data Centers: High-speed switches are used in data centers to connect thousands
of servers and storage devices.
 3.​ Home Network: A small switch can be used to add more wired ports to a home
router.

Applications:

●​ Modern LANs: Switches are the fundamental building blocks of almost all modern
LANs.
●​ Network Expansion: They are used to expand the number of devices that can be
connected to a network.
●​ Security: By forwarding traffic only to the intended recipient, switches can reduce
the risk of eavesdropping.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ A switch is a multi-port bridge that works at Layer 2.

●​ It provides intelligent, dedicated connections to each device.
●​ Switches are the cornerstone of modern local area networks.

Router

Definition: A router is a network device that forwards data packets between different
computer networks. It operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model and uses
IP addresses to determine the best path for data to travel from its source to its
destination. The primary function of a router is to connect disparate networks, such as a
home network to the internet.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Layer 3 Operation: A router uses IP addresses to make routing decisions. It

maintains a routing table that contains information about the available paths to
different networks.
●​ Connects Different Networks: A router is essential for connecting different
networks, such as your home network to the WAN (internet).
●​ Routing Decisions: It intelligently decides the most efficient path for a data packet
to reach its destination, often considering factors like network congestion and path
distance.
Real-World Examples:

1.​ Home Wi-Fi Router: The device that connects your home network (LAN) to your
Internet Service Provider's network (WAN).
2.​ Corporate Router: Used to connect a company's internal network to the internet
or to connect different branch offices.
3.​ Internet Backbone Routers: Large, powerful routers that form the backbone of the
internet, handling massive amounts of data traffic between countries and
continents.

Applications:

●​ Internet Access: Routers are essential for providing internet access to homes and
businesses.
●​ Inter-network Communication: They are used to connect different networks,
allowing for global communication.
●​ Security: Routers can be configured with firewalls and other security features to
protect a network.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ A router is a Layer 3 device that connects different networks.

●​ It uses IP addresses to make routing decisions.
●​ It is the most critical device for providing internet access.

Gateway

Definition: A gateway is a network device that acts as a bridge between two networks
with different protocols, allowing them to communicate. It operates at the application
layer (Layer 7) of the OSI model and performs protocol translation. A gateway can be a
dedicated hardware device, software, or a combination of both.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Protocol Translation: The main function of a gateway is to translate protocols so

that two different networks can communicate.
 ●​ Operates at all Layers: Unlike bridges, switches, and routers that operate at a
specific layer, a gateway can work at all layers of the OSI model, from the physical
layer to the application layer.
●​ Entry and Exit Point: A gateway serves as the entry and exit point for data going
from one network to another, making it a critical choke point for security and
control.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Email Gateway: A gateway that translates messages from one email system (e.g., a
corporate email server) to another (e.g., the public internet).
2.​ Home Router: Your home router often acts as a gateway, connecting your LAN to
the internet (WAN). It translates your private IP addresses to a single public IP
address.
3.​ VoIP Gateway: A gateway that translates telephone calls from a traditional analog
phone system to a digital IP network.

Applications:

●​ Network Interoperability: Used to connect two different types of networks that

use incompatible protocols.
●​ Security: Gateways are often used to implement network security policies, such as
firewalls and access control lists.
●​ Legacy Systems: They are used to allow modern networks to communicate with
older, legacy systems.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ A gateway connects networks that use different protocols.

●​ It performs protocol translation.
●​ Your home router is an example of a gateway.

Access Point

Definition: An access point (AP) is a networking device that allows wireless-enabled

devices to connect to a wired network. It acts as a central hub for wireless devices,
creating a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). An access point is essentially a bridge
that connects the wireless segment of a network to the wired segment.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Wireless to Wired Bridge: An AP receives data from wireless devices via radio
waves and then sends it to a wired network (usually a switch or router) and vice
versa.
●​ Creates a WLAN: It creates a wireless network area (hotspot) where devices can
connect wirelessly.
●​ Security: Access points often include security features like WPA2/WPA3
encryption to protect the wireless network from unauthorized access.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Home Wi-Fi Router: Many home routers have a built-in access point that
broadcasts a wireless signal.
2.​ Public Wi-Fi Hotspots: The devices that provide free wireless internet access in
cafes, airports, and hotels are access points.
3.​ Enterprise Access Points: Used in offices and universities to provide seamless
wireless coverage over a large area.

Applications:

●​ Wireless Connectivity: Providing wireless internet access to laptops, smartphones,

and other mobile devices.
●​ Network Expansion: Adding wireless capabilities to an existing wired network.
●​ Mobility: Allowing users to move around freely while staying connected to the
network.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ An access point connects wireless devices to a wired network.

●​ It is a Layer 2 device that acts as a wireless bridge.
●​ It is a key component of a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN).

Line Coding Schemes

Manchester Encoding

Definition: Manchester encoding is a line coding scheme in which the encoding of each
data bit is a two-state signal transition. Specifically, a logic 0 is represented by a
high-to-low transition in the middle of the bit period, while a logic 1 is represented by a
low-to-high transition. It is a self-clocking signal, which means the clock signal is
embedded within the data stream.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Self-Clocking: The transition in the middle of each bit period allows the receiver to
synchronize its clock with the incoming data, eliminating the need for a separate
clock line.
●​ No DC Component: The average voltage of the signal is zero (no DC component),
which is beneficial for AC-coupled transmission systems.
●​ Higher Bandwidth: Manchester encoding uses a wider bandwidth than some other
schemes because it requires a transition for every bit.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Early Ethernet (10BASE-T): Early versions of Ethernet used Manchester encoding.
2.​ Token Ring Networks: This scheme was also used in some Token Ring network
implementations.
3.​ Industrial Automation: Used in some industrial control systems and buses where
reliable synchronization is critical.

Applications:

●​ Local Area Networks: It was used for older Ethernet standards.

●​ Embedded Systems: Used in some embedded systems and industrial
communication protocols that require a self-clocking signal.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ Manchester encoding uses a transition in the middle of each bit for timing.
●​ It is a self-clocking scheme.
●​ It has a zero DC component, which is a major advantage.
Differential Manchester Encoding

Definition: Differential Manchester encoding is a variation of Manchester encoding

where the encoding of a bit is determined by the presence or absence of a transition at
the beginning of the bit period. A logic 0 is represented by a transition at the beginning
of the bit period, while a logic 1 is represented by no transition at the beginning of the bit
period. In both cases, there is always a transition in the middle of the bit period for
clocking.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Self-Clocking: Like Manchester, it is a self-clocking scheme with a transition in the

middle of every bit.
●​ Differential Encoding: The key difference is that the encoding is based on the
presence or absence of a transition, not the direction of the transition. This makes it
more resistant to noise and polarity inversions.
●​ Higher Complexity: It is slightly more complex to implement than Manchester
encoding but offers better performance in certain environments.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Token Ring Networks: Differential Manchester was the standard encoding for
Token Ring networks.
2.​ RFID and Smart Cards: It is used in some RFID communication protocols and
smart card technologies.
3.​ Data Communications: It can be used in other data communication systems where
immunity to noise is important.

Applications:

●​ Networking: Was used in Token Ring and other older LAN technologies.
●​ Industrial Control: Used in environments with high electrical noise.
●​ Contactless Communication: Found in various contactless communication
systems.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ Differential Manchester is a variation of Manchester encoding.

●​ It is more robust against noise and polarity issues.
 ●​ It is a self-clocking scheme.

Frequency Hopping (FHSS)

Definition: Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting

radio signals by rapidly switching a carrier wave among many different frequency
channels. The sequence of frequencies is known to both the transmitter and receiver,
which allows them to stay in sync. This technique makes the signal more resistant to
interference and difficult to intercept.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Frequency Hopping: The signal "hops" or changes its frequency at regular intervals
according to a pseudo-random sequence.
●​ Resistance to Interference: If a signal is jammed on one frequency, it will quickly
hop to another, ensuring the data can still be transmitted.
●​ Security: Because the hopping sequence is pseudo-random and known only to the
transmitter and receiver, it is very difficult for an unauthorized party to intercept
the communication.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Bluetooth: Bluetooth technology uses FHSS to transmit data between devices,
which is why it's so reliable in the 2.4 GHz band, which is often crowded.
2.​ Military Communication: FHSS was originally developed for military
communication to prevent eavesdropping and jamming.
3.​ Wi-Fi in Early Days: Early versions of Wi-Fi used FHSS, but most now use DSSS.

Applications:

●​ Wireless Communication: Used in Bluetooth, some Wi-Fi devices, and military

communication.
●​ Interference Mitigation: Excellent for environments with a lot of radio frequency
interference.
●​ Secure Communication: Provides a layer of security by making the signal difficult
to intercept.
Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ FHSS involves rapidly hopping between frequencies.

●​ It is resistant to jamming and interference.
●​ Bluetooth is a primary user of this technology.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Definition: Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a spread spectrum technique in

which the data stream is combined with a higher-rate sequence of ones and zeros called
a chipping code. The chipping code is pseudo-random, and each data bit is represented
by multiple bits of the chipping code. This process "spreads" the signal over a wider
frequency band than the original data.

Detailed Explanation:

●​ Spreading the Signal: The data is multiplied by a high-rate chipping code, which
results in a wider bandwidth signal.
●​ Noise Resistance: Because the signal is spread over a wider band, it is more
resistant to narrowband interference and jamming.
●​ Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): DSSS is the basis for Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA), where multiple users can share the same frequency band
simultaneously, each using a different chipping code.

Real-World Examples:

1.​ Wi-Fi (802.11b): Early and widely used Wi-Fi standards used DSSS.
2.​ Global Positioning System (GPS): GPS signals use DSSS to allow multiple satellites
to transmit signals on the same frequency without interfering with each other.
3.​ CDMA Cellular Networks: Cellular phone networks that use CDMA technology
(e.g., some Verizon and Sprint networks) are based on DSSS.

Applications:

●​ Wireless Communication: Widely used in Wi-Fi and mobile networks.

●​ Navigation: Found in satellite-based navigation systems like GPS.
 ●​ Multiple Access Systems: DSSS forms the basis for CDMA, which allows multiple
users to share a single channel.

Important Notes / Key Takeaways:

●​ DSSS spreads a signal over a wide frequency band using a chipping code.
●​ It is highly resistant to noise and interference.
●​ It is the basis for CDMA technology.

Summary Table
Main Topic Brief Definition 3 Real-World Examples
Name

Local Area A network that interconnects computers 1. Home Wi-Fi Network. 2. A network in a
Network (LAN) within a limited geographical area, such school's computer lab. 3. A corporate
as a home, school, or office building. It is network in a single building.
a high-speed network that is typically
privately owned and managed by a single
organization.

Metropolitan A network that connects multiple LANs 1. A cable TV network providing internet
Area Network within a larger geographical area like a to a city. 2. A network connecting multiple
(MAN) city or a large university campus. It campuses of a university. 3. A city-wide
provides high-speed connectivity over a surveillance network.
medium-sized area and is often used by
Internet Service Providers.

Wide Area A network that spans a large geographical 1. The Internet. 2. A multinational
Network (WAN) area, connecting multiple LANs and company's network connecting offices
MANs across countries or continents. It is worldwide. 3. An airline's global
used for long-distance communication reservation system.
and is typically slower than a LAN. The
internet is the largest example of a WAN.

Client-Server A network model where a central server 1. Web browsing (your browser is the
Architecture provides services and resources to client, the website is the server). 2. Online
multiple clients. It is based on a banking apps. 3. Corporate email
request-response pattern and is known for systems.
its centralized control, making it easy to
manage and secure.
Peer-to-Peer A network model where all devices 1. File sharing networks like BitTorrent. 2.
(P2P) (peers) are equal and can act as both Bitcoin and other cryptocurrency
Architecture clients and servers. There is no central networks. 3. Some VoIP services.
server, and resources are distributed
among all peers, which makes the
network highly resilient.

Hybrid A network model that combines the 1. Multiplayer online games with a central
Architecture features of both client-server and matchmaking server. 2. Older versions of
peer-to-peer models. It uses a central Skype. 3. Modern BitTorrent clients with a
server for critical functions like central tracker server.
authentication but allows direct
communication between peers for data
exchange.

Router A device that forwards data packets 1. A home Wi-Fi router. 2. A corporate
between different computer networks. It router connecting a business to the
operates at the network layer (Layer 3) internet. 3. A backbone router on the
and uses IP addresses to determine the internet.
best path for data to travel. It is essential
for connecting networks to the internet.

Switch A device that connects multiple devices in 1. The device that connects all computers
a local area network (LAN). It operates at in a university computer lab. 2. Switches
the data link layer (Layer 2) and in a data center to connect servers. 3. A
intelligently forwards data frames only to small switch used to add more wired ports
the intended recipient, creating a separate to a home network.
collision domain for each port.

Gateway A network device that acts as a bridge 1. Your home router, acting as a gateway
between two networks with different to the internet. 2. An email gateway
protocols, performing protocol translation. translating messages between different
It can operate at all layers of the OSI email systems. 3. A VoIP gateway.
model and serves as an entry and exit
point for data.

Access Point A device that allows wireless-enabled 1. A public Wi-Fi hotspot in a cafe. 2. A
(AP) devices to connect to a wired network. It wireless access point in a corporate
acts as a central hub for a Wireless Local office. 3. The built-in wireless part of a
Area Network (WLAN), providing a home Wi-Fi router.
wireless signal for mobile devices to
connect to.
 Thank-You
We sincerely appreciate your time and attention in reviewing this document. Your feedback and
support mean a lot to us, and we look forward to building something valuable together.

🔗 Visit us: https://cutt.ly/IrHFgvYI