COURSE CONTENT

 An overview of Data Structure

 Queues, Stacks, LIFO, FIFO, Dequeues
 Linked-list, Doubly linked Lists
 Arrays and Trees
 Algorithms to implement the Data Structure

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Data Structure

A data structure is a particular way of organising data in a computer so that it can be

used effectively. The idea is to reduce the space and time complexities of different
tasks.

Data structure plays crucial role in design and maintenance of an application program.
When we study data structure and algorithm, we are talking and concern about space
(RAM) and processing (CPU) efficiency. Both processing power and memory are finite.
So we need to keep things improved so that it takes the least amount of space and
processing time. Our RAM is basically cells of memory. Data structure is a key
component of computer science and is largely used in the areas of Artificial Intelligence,
operating systems, etc to provides the right way to organize information in the digital
space. Observe the problems in-depth and you can help this world giving the solution
which no one has ever given before. Data structure and algorithms help in understanding
the nature of the problem at a deeper level and thereby a better understanding which
allow us to write efficient computer programs.

The choice of a good data structure makes it possible to perform a variety of critical
operations effectively. An efficient data structure also uses minimum memory space and
execution time to process the structure. A data structure is not only used for organising
the data. It is also used for processing, retrieving, and storing data. There are different

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basic and advanced types of data structures that are used in almost every program or
software system that has been developed. So we must have good knowledge of data
structures.

Characteristics of a Data Structure

 Correctness – Data structure implementation should implement its interface

correctly.
 Time Complexity – Running time or the execution time of operations of data
structure must be as small as possible.
 Space Complexity – Memory usage of a data structure operation should be as little
as possible.

Some fundamental operations of Data Structure

Design of efficient data structure must take operations to be performed on the data
structures into account. The most commonly used operations on data structure are broadly
categorized into following types.
 Searching: Searching means to find a particular element in the given data-structure
which involves finding the location of a record with a given value. It is considered as
successful when the required element is found. For example, to find the names of all
the students who secured 100 marks in mathematics
 Insertion: It is the operation which we apply on all the data-structures. Insertion
means to add an element in the given data structure. The operation of insertion is
successful when the required element is added to the required data-structure. It is
unsuccessful in some cases when the size of the data structure is full and when there is
no space in the data-structure to add any additional element. The insertion has the
same name as an insertion in the data-structure as an array, linked-list, tree. In stack,
this operation is called Push. In the queue, this operation is called Enqueue. For
example, to add the details of a new student who has recently joined the course.
 Deletion: It is the operation which is apply on all the data-structures. Deletion means
to delete an element in the given data structure. The operation of deletion is successful
when the required element is deleted from the data structure. The deletion has the
same name as a deletion in the data-structure as an array, linked-list, tree, etc. In stack,
this operation is called Pop. In Queue this operation is called Dequeue. For example,
to delete the name of a student who has left the course.
 Sorting: is the process of arranging the records in some logical order such as
increasing or decreasing, with numeric data or alphabetically with character data. Data
items can be arranged in some order like ascending order or descending order
depending on the type of application. For example, arranging the names of students in
a class in an alphabetical order, or calculating the top three winners by arranging the
participants’ scores in descending order and then extracting the top three.

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 Merging: this is basically the process of combining of record in two different sorted
files into a single sorted file. Lists of two sorted data items can be combined to form a
single list of sorted data items.
 Traversing: It means to access each data item exactly once so that it can be
processed. For example, to print the names of all the students in a class.

Need of Data Structure:

Data structures provide an easy way of organising, retrieving, managing, and storing
data.
Here is a list of the needs for data.
 It gives different level of organization data
 It tells how data can be stored and accessed in its element level
 Provide operation on group of data, such as adding an item, looking up highest
priority item.
 Provide a means to manage huge amount of data efficiently
 Provide fast searching and sorting of data
 Save storage memory space.
 Easy access to the large database
Importance of Data Structure
 Data structure helps in efficient storage of data in the storage device.
 Data structure usage provides convenience while retrieving the data from storage
device.
 Data structure provides effective and efficient processing of small as well as large
amount of data.
 Usage of proper data structure, can help programmer save lots of time or
processing time while operations such as storage, retrieval or processing of data.
 Manipulation of large amount of data can be carried out easily with the use of
good data structure approach.

Goals of Data Structure

Data structure basically implements two complementary goals.
Correctness: Data structure is designed such that it operates correctly for all kinds of
input, which is based on the domain of interest. In other words, correctness forms the
primary goal of data structure, which always depends on the specific problems that the
data structure is intended to solve.
Efficiency: Data structure also needs to be efficient. It should process the data at high
speed without utilizing much of the computer resources such as memory space. In a real
time state, the efficiency of a data structure is an important factor that determines the
success and failure of the process.
Features of Data Structure
Some of the important features of data structures are:

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Robustness: Generally, all computer programmers wish to produce software that
generates correct output for every possible input provided to it, as well as execute
efficiently on all hardware platforms. This kind of robust software must be able to
manage both valid and invalid inputs. (Think of robustness like building a reliable ferry. You
want the software or computer program to work correctly no matter what inputs (like numbers,
words, etc.) you give it. It should handle both good and bad inputs without breaking or crashing.)

Adaptability: Developing software projects such as word processors, Web browsers and
Internet search engine involves large software systems that work or execute correctly and
efficiently for many years. Moreover, software evolves due to ever changing market
conditions or due to emerging technologies. (Imagine you have a toolbox with different tools
like hammers, screwdrivers, and pliers. Adaptability means you can adjust how you use these tools
or add new tools to fit new tasks or projects. Like software, a toolbox that’s adaptable helps you stay
useful for a long time by adjusting to new needs or technologies.)

Reusability: Reusability and adaptability go hand-in-hand. It is a known fact that the

programmer requires many resources for developing any software, which makes it an
expensive enterprise. However, if the software is developed in a reusable and adaptable
way, then it can be implemented in most of the future applications. Thus, by
implementing quality data structures, it is possible to develop reusable software, which
tends to be cost effective and time saving. ( Reusability: Reusability is like having a favorite tool
in your toolbox that you can use for many different projects. If software is made in a reusable way
using good data structures, it saves time and money because you can use parts of it again in future
projects.)

Classification/Types of Data Structures:

A data structure provides a structured set of variables that are associated with each other
in different ways. It forms a basis of programming tool that represents the relationship
between data elements and helps programmers to process the data easily.
Data structure can be classified into two categories:
 Primitive data structure
 Non-primitive data structure
Primitive Data Structure
Primitive data structures consist of the numbers and the characters which are built in
programs. These can be manipulated or operated directly by the machine level
instructions. Basic data types such as integer, real, character, and Boolean come under
primitive data structures. These data types are also known as simple data types because
they consist of characters that cannot be divided.
Non-primitive Data Structure
Non-primitive data structures are those that are derived from primitive data structures.
These data structures cannot be operated or manipulated directly by the machine level
instructions. They focus on formation of a set of data elements that is either homogeneous
(same data type) or heterogeneous (different data type).

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These are further divided into linear and non-linear data structure based on the structure
and arrangement of data.
Linear Data Structure
A data structure that maintains a linear relationship among its elements is called a linear
data structure. Here, the data is arranged in a linear fashion. But in the memory, the
arrangement may not be sequential.
Ex: Arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues.

Non-linear Data Structure

Non-linear data structure is a kind of data structure in which data elements are not
arranged in a sequential order. There is a hierarchical relationship between individual data
items. Here, the insertion and deletion of data is not possible in a linear fashion.
Trees and graphs are examples of non-linear data structures.

Array
Array, in general, refers to an orderly arrangement of data elements. Array is a type of
data structure that stores data elements in adjacent locations. Array is considered as linear
data structure that stores elements of same data types. Hence, it is also called as a linear
homogenous data structure.
When we declare an array, we can assign initial values to each of its elements by
enclosing the values in braces { }.
int Num [5] = { 26, 7, 67, 50, 66 };
This declaration will create an array as shown below:
0 1 2 3 4
Num 26 7 67 50 66
Array

The number of values inside braces { } should be equal to the number of elements that we
declare for the array inside the square brackets [ ]. In the example of array Paul, we have
declared 5 elements and in the list of initial values within braces { } we have specified 5

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values, one for each element. After this declaration, array Paul will have five integers, as
we have provided 5 initialization values.
Arrays can be classified as one-dimensional array, two-dimensional array or
multidimensional array.
One-dimensional Array: It has only one row of elements. It is stored in ascending storage
location.
Two-dimensional Array: It consists of multiple rows and columns of data elements. It is
also called as a matrix.
Multidimensional Array: Multidimensional arrays can be defined as array of arrays.
Multidimensional arrays are not bounded to two indices or two dimensions. They can
include as many indices as required.
Limitations:
 Arrays are of fixed size.
 Data elements are stored in contiguous memory locations which may not be
always available.
 Insertion and deletion of elements can be problematic because of shifting of
elements from their positions.
However, these limitations can be solved by using linked lists.
Applications:
 Storing list of data elements belonging to same data type
 Auxiliary storage for other data structures
 Storage of binary tree elements of fixed count
 Storage of matrices

Linked List
A linked list is a data structure in which each data element contains a pointer or link to
the next element in the list. Through linked list, insertion and deletion of the data element
is possible at all places of a linear list. Also in linked list, it is not necessary to have the
data elements stored in consecutive locations. It allocates space for each data item in its
own block of memory.
Thus, a linked list is considered as a chain of data elements or records called nodes. Each
node in the list contains information field and a pointer field. The information field
contains the actual data and the pointer field contains address of the subsequent nodes in
the list.

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 A Linked List
Figure above represents a linked list with 4 nodes. Each node has two parts. The left part
in the node represents the information part which contains an entire record of data items
and the right part represents the pointer to the next node. The pointer of the last node
contains a null pointer.

Advantage: Easier to insert or delete data elements

Disadvantage: Slow search operation and requires more memory space
Applications:
 Implementing stacks, queues, binary trees and graphs of predefined size.
 Implement dynamic memory management functions of operating system.
 Polynomial implementation for mathematical operations
 Circular linked list is used to implement OS or application functions that require
round robin execution of tasks.
 Circular linked list is used in a slide show where a user wants to go back to the
first slide after last slide is displayed.
 Doubly linked list is used in the implementation of forward and backward buttons
in a browser to move backwards and forward in the opened pages of a website.
 Circular queue is used to maintain the playing sequence of multiple players in a
game.

Stacks
A stack is a linear data structure in which insertion and deletion of elements are done at
only one end, which is known as the top of the stack. Stack is called a last-in, first-out
(LIFO) structure because the last element which is added to the stack is the first element
which is deleted from the stack.
Stack is characterized by only two fundamental operations, the push and the pop. These
are the terminologies associated to stack:
1. Push: this is the term used to insert an element into stack. The push operation adds
to the top of the list, hiding any items already on the stack, or initializing the stack
if it is empty.
2. Pop: is the term used to delete element from stack. The pop operation removes an
item from the top of the list, and returning this value to the caller. A pop either
reveals previously concealed items or results in an empty list.

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 A Stack
In the computer’s memory, stacks can be implemented using arrays or linked lists. Figure
above is a schematic diagram of a stack. Here, element FF is the top of the stack and
element AA is the bottom of the stack. Elements are added to the stack from the top.
Since it follows LIFO pattern, EE cannot be deleted before FF is deleted, and similarly
DD cannot be deleted before EE is deleted and so on.
Applications:
 Temporary storage structure for recursive operations
 Auxiliary storage structure for nested operations, function calls,
deferred/postponed functions

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  Manage function calls
 Evaluation of arithmetic expressions in various programming languages
 Conversion of infix expressions into postfix expressions
 Checking syntax of expressions in a programming environment
 Matching of parenthesis
 String reversal
 In all the problems solutions based on backtracking.
 Used in depth first search in graph and tree traversal.
 Operating System functions
 UNDO and REDO functions in an editor.

Queues
A queue is a first-in, first-out (FIFO) data structure in which the element that is inserted
first is the first one to be taken out. The elements in a queue are added at one end called
the rear and removed from the other end called the front. Like stacks, queues can be
implemented by using either arrays or linked lists.
Example of students waiting on a queue to enter a bus, the first person on the queue is the
first person to enter the bus. An example of a queue in computer occurs in a time-sharing
system, in which program with the same priority form a queue while waiting to be
executed.
A good example of the queue is any queue of consumers for a resource where the
consumer that came first is served first. The difference between stacks and queues is in
removing. In a stack we remove the item the most recently added; in a queue, we
remove the item the least recently added.

Figure below shows a queue with 4 elements, where 55 is the front element and 65 is the
rear element. Elements can be added from the rear and deleted from the front.

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 A Queue
Applications:
 It is used in breadth search operation in graphs.
 Job scheduler operations of OS like a print buffer queue, keyboard buffer queue to
store the keys pressed by users
 Job scheduling, CPU scheduling, Disk Scheduling
 Priority queues are used in file downloading operations in a browser
 Data transfer between peripheral devices and CPU.
 Interrupts generated by the user applications for CPU
 Calls handled by the customers in BPO

DEQUEUE - A dequeue is a linear list in which elements can be added to or removed

from either the front (head) or back (tail). It is also called double-ended queue, head-tail
linked list or often abbreviated to deque. Deque differs from the queue FIFO, where
elements can only be added to one end or removed from the other, but not in the middle.

Operation
The basic operations on a deque are enqueue and dequeue on either end.
Enqueue to add (an item of data awaiting processing) to a queue of such items.
Dequeue or Deque means to remove from a queue.

There are two types of deque

1. An input – restricted deque and
2. An output – restricted deque
An input – restricted deque is one where deletion can be made from both ends of the list,
but insertion can be made at one end only.
An output – restricted deque is one where insertion can be made at both ends of the list,
but deletion can be made from one end only.

Trees
A tree is a non-linear data structure in which data is organized in branches. The data
elements in tree are arranged in a sorted order. It imposes a hierarchical structure on the
data elements.
The figure below represents a tree which consists of 8 nodes. The root of the tree is the
node 60 at the top. Node 29 and 44 are the successors of the node 60. The nodes 6, 4, 12
and 67 are the terminal nodes as they do not have any successors.

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 A Tree
A tree is a non-linear data structure widely used to represent data containing a
hierarchical relationship with a set of linked nodes. It is named a tree structure because
the classic representation resembles a tree; even though the chart is generally upside
down compared to an actual tree, with the root at the top and the leaves at the bottom.
A tree can be defined locally as a collection of nodes (starting at a root node) where each
node is a data structure consisting of a value, together with a list of nodes (the children)
with the constraint that no node is duplicated.
Tree terminologies
As in a general graph, the point at which lines come together are called nodes. Much of
the remaining terminologies of a tree were borrowed from two sources; the natural tree
and the family tree. From the natural trees, the topmost of the tree is called the root and
the bottom most node are called leaves, the lines connecting the nodes are called
branches. From family tree, a node is said to be a parent of those immediate below it
which are said to be children. Children of the same parent are said to be siblings (twins),
its descendants are its children, childrens children. A node of a tree together with all its
descendant is itself a tree which is said to be sub tree of original tree.

Terminology Description Example From Diagram

Sub tree Descendants of a node represent subtree. Nodes N, O, P, Q represent one

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 subtree.
Parent node A is a parent to B,C,D,E,F,G.
Parent node is an immediate predecessor B is parent of D,H,I,J & E is a
of a node. parent to K,L, H is a parent to
N,O
Leaf Node which does not have any child is C,D,F,G,I,J,N,O,P,Q are leaf
called as leaf nodes
Siblings B,C,D,E,F,G are siblings
Nodes with the same parent are called H,I,J are siblings
Siblings. N,O are siblings
K,L are siblings
Height The height of root node A is
Height is also known as depth of the
ONE. Node B, C, D, E, F, G are
tree. The height of root node A is one.
at level TWO. Nodes
Height of a tree is equal to one more
H,I,J,K,L,M are at level THREE.
than the largest level number of tree. The
Nodes N,O,P,Q are at level
height of the above tree is 4.
FOUR.
Root Root is a special node in a tree. The
entire tree originates from it. It does not Node A
have a parent.
Child node All immediate successors of a node are
D & E are children of B
its children.
Edge Edge is a connection between one node
to another. It is a line between two nodes Line between A & B is edge
or a node and a leaf.
Level The level of root node A is zero.
Node B, C, D, E, F, G are at
Level of any node is defined as the
level 1. Nodes H,I,J,K,L,M are
distance of that node from the root.
at level 2. Nodes N,O,P,Q are at
level 3.
Degree The degree of node A is 6, the
The number of children of a node is degree of node B is 3. The
called its degree. degrees of node E & H are 2.
The degree of node K & L are 1.
Path / Path is a number of successive edges A – B – H – N is path from
Traversing from source node to destination node. node A to E

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Advantage: Provides quick search, insert, and delete operations

Disadvantage: Complicated deletion algorithm

Applications:
 Implementing the hierarchical structures in computer systems like directory and
file system.
 Implementing the navigation structure of a website.
 Code generation like Huffman’s code.
 Decision making in gaming applications.
 Implementation of priority queues for priority-based OS scheduling functions
 Parsing of expressions and statements in programming language compilers
 For storing data keys for DBMS for indexing
 Spanning trees for routing decisions in computer and communications networks
 Hash trees
 path-finding algorithm to implement in AI, robotics and video games applications

Graphs
A graph is also a non-linear data structure. In a tree data structure, all data elements are
stored in definite hierarchical structure. In other words, each node has only one parent
node. While in graphs, each data element is called a vertex and is connected to many
other vertexes through connections called edges.
Thus, a graph is considered as a mathematical structure, which is composed of a set of
vertexes and a set of edges. Figure below shows a graph with six nodes A, B, C, D, E, F
and seven edges [A, B], [A, C], [A, D], [B, C], [C, F], [D, F] and [D, E].

Graph

Graph is a data structure that consists of a collection of nodes (vertices) connected by

edges. Graphs are used to represent relationships between objects and are widely used
in computer science, mathematics, and other fields. Graphs can be used to model a

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 wide variety of real-world systems, such as social networks, transportation networks,
and computer networks.

Graph Data Structure

Advantage: Best models real-world situations

Disadvantage: Some algorithms are slow and very complex
Applications:
 Representing networks and routes in communication, transportation and travel
applications
 Routes in GPS
 Interconnections in social networks and other network-based applications
 Mapping applications
 Ecommerce applications to present user preferences
 Utility networks to identify the problems posed to municipal or local corporations
 Resource utilization and availability in an organization
 Document link map of a website to display connectivity between pages through
hyperlinks
 Robotic motion and neural networks

ALGORITHM
Algorithm is a step-by-step procedure, which defines a set of instructions to be executed
in a certain order to get the desired output. Algorithms are generally created independent
of underlying languages, i.e. an algorithm can be implemented in more than one
programming language.
An algorithm is a series of steps or methodology to solve a problem. Or a step-by-step
process to get the solution for a well-defined problem.
Properties of an algorithm:
 It is written in simple English.
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  Each step of an algorithm is unique and should be self-explanatory i.e. it should be
unambiguous and precise.
 An algorithm must have at least one input.
 An algorithm must have at least one output.
 An algorithm has finite number of steps i.e. should have an end point and finite
number of steps.

From the data structure point of view, following are some important categories of
algorithms −
Search − Algorithm to search an item in a data structure.
Sort − Algorithm to sort items in a certain order.
Insert − Algorithm to insert item in a data structure.
Update − Algorithm to update an existing item in a data structure.
Delete − Algorithm to delete an existing item from a data structure.

Characteristics of an Algorithm
Not all procedures can be called an algorithm. An algorithm should have the following
characteristics −
I. Clear and Unambiguous: Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous. Each of
its steps should be clear in all aspects and must lead to only one meaning.
II. Well-Defined Inputs: If an algorithm says to take inputs, it should be well-
defined inputs.
III. Well-Defined Outputs: The algorithm must clearly define what output will be
yielded and it should be well-defined as well.
IV. Finite-ness: The algorithm must be finite, i.e. it should not end up in an infinite
loops or similar.
V. Feasible: The algorithm must be simple, generic and practical, such that it can be
executed upon will the available resources. It must not contain some future
technology, or anything.
VI. Language Independent: The Algorithm designed must be language independent,
i.e. it must be just plain instructions that can be implemented in any language, and
yet the output will be same, as expected.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Algorithm

Advantages of Algorithms:
 It is easy to understand.
 Algorithm is a step-wise representation of a solution to a given problem.
 In Algorithm the problem is broken down into smaller pieces or steps hence, it is
easier for the programmer to convert it into an actual program.
Disadvantages of Algorithms:
 Writing an algorithm takes a long time so it is time-consuming.
 Branching and Looping statements are difficult to show in Algorithms.

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Different approach to design an algorithm
1. Top-Down Approach: A top-down approach starts with identifying major components
of system or program decomposing them into their lower level components & iterating
until desired level of module complexity is achieved . In this we start with topmost
module & incrementally add modules that is calls.
2. Bottom-Up Approach: A bottom-up approach starts with designing most basic or
primitive component & proceeds to higher level components. Starting from very bottom,
operations that provide layer of abstraction are implemented.

How to Write an Algorithm?

There are no well-defined standards for writing algorithms. Rather, it is problem and
resource dependent. Algorithms are never written to support a particular programming
code.
As we know that all programming languages share basic code constructs like loops (do,
for, while), flow-control (if-else), etc. These common constructs can be used to write an
algorithm.
We write algorithms in a step-by-step manner, but it is not always the case. Algorithm
writing is a process and is executed after the problem domain is well-defined. That is, we
should know the problem domain, for which we are designing a solution.
Example
Let's try to learn algorithm-writing by using an example.
Problem − Design an algorithm to add two numbers and display the result.
Step 1 − START
Step 2 − declare three integers a, b & c
Step 3 − define values of a & b
Step 4 − add values of a & b
Step 5 − store output of step 4 to c
Step 6 − print c
Step 7 − STOP
Algorithms tell the programmers how to code the program. Alternatively, the algorithm
can be written as −
Step 1 − START ADD
Step 2 − get values of a & b
Step 3 − c ← a + b
Step 4 − display c
Step 5 − STOP
In design and analysis of algorithms, usually the second method is used to describe an
algorithm. It makes it easy for the analyst to analyze the algorithm ignoring all unwanted
definitions. He can observe what operations are being used and how the process is
flowing.
Writing step numbers, is optional.

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We design an algorithm to get a solution of a given problem. A problem can be solved in
more than one ways.
Hence, many solution algorithms can be derived for a given problem. The next step is to
analyse those proposed solution algorithms and implement the best suitable solution.
 Each step of an algorithm is unique and should be self-explanatory i.e. it should be
unambiguous and precise.
 An algorithm must have at least one input.
 An algorithm must have at least one output.
 An algorithm has finite number of steps i.e. should have an end point and finite
number of steps.

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