Comprehensive Notes on Prolog
■ Introduction to Prolog
Prolog (Programming in Logic) is a declarative programming language rooted in formal
logic. It is particularly suitable for tasks that involve symbolic reasoning, natural language
understanding, knowledge representation, and expert systems. Unlike procedural
languages (C, Java, Python), Prolog focuses on what needs to be achieved rather than
prescribing how to achieve it. Its foundation lies in first-order predicate logic, making it an
important tool in the field of Artificial Intelligence.
■ History of Prolog
Prolog was developed in 1972 by Alain Colmerauer and Philippe Roussel in Marseille,
France. Its development was influenced by work on automated theorem proving and
natural language processing. During the 1980s, Prolog became popular in Europe and
Japan, especially during Japan’s Fifth Generation Computer Systems project. Although it
never replaced imperative languages, it established itself as a specialized tool for
reasoning systems and AI research.
■ Key Features of Prolog
• Declarative Paradigm: Describe problems through facts and rules, not instructions.
• Automatic Backtracking: The interpreter explores multiple solutions.
• Pattern Matching: Prolog unifies variables with terms efficiently.
• Non-deterministic Computation: Multiple possible solutions can exist.
• Built-in Recursion: Natural support for recursive definitions.
• Knowledge Representation: Easily represents complex relationships.
• Inference Engine: Answers queries by logical deduction.
■ Example Programs in Prolog
Example 1: Family Tree
% Family relationships parent(john, mary). parent(mary, alice). grandparent(X, Y) :-
parent(X, Z), parent(Z, Y). ?- grandparent(john, alice).
Example 2: Arithmetic
% Simple arithmetic reasoning add(X, Y, Z) :- Z is X + Y. ?- add(5, 7, Result).
Example 3: Knowledge Representation
% Defining facts and rules about animals animal(dog). animal(cat). mammal(X) :-
animal(X). ?- mammal(dog).
■ Advantages of Prolog
• Declarative – specify what, not how.
• Built-in backtracking for automatic search.
• Excellent for AI and knowledge representation.
• Handles relationships (trees, graphs, rules) easily.
• Rapid prototyping of reasoning systems.
■ Disadvantages of Prolog
• Not general-purpose – inefficient for everyday tasks.
• Slower than C++ or Python for heavy computation.
• Steep learning curve for imperative programmers.
• Limited library support.
• Debugging complexity due to backtracking.
■ Applications of Prolog
• Artificial Intelligence: Expert systems, intelligent agents.
• Natural Language Processing: Parsing, machine translation, chatbots.
• Knowledge-Based Systems: Representing and reasoning with facts/rules.
• Robotics: Reasoning about actions and planning tasks.
• Education: Teaching logic and computational thinking.
• Problem Solving: Puzzles, games, and theorem proving.
■■ Prolog vs C++ vs Python
Feature Prolog ■ C++ ■ Python ■
Programming Style Declarative (logic) Imperative (procedural + OOP) Multiparadigm
Best For AI, expert systems,
SystemNLP
programming, performance-heavy
AI/ML, data
apps
science, web apps
Speed Slow Very Fast Moderate
Ease of Learning Difficult Moderate–Hard Easy
Library Support Limited Extensive (low-level) Huge (AI, ML, web, etc.)
■ Summary
Prolog remains a specialized but powerful tool in fields where logical inference, symbolic
reasoning, and knowledge representation are crucial. While it is less common in
mainstream software development compared to Python or C++, it provides unique
advantages for reasoning systems. Programmers often use Prolog alongside other
languages to leverage its strengths in AI and problem-solving.
