Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System

Information Sheet: 1.1a

1. Topic: Understanding the Nature of Religion

2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
1.1. Give an example of a belief system or a worldview by
1.2. Differentiate religion from:
a. Spirituality
b. Theology
c. Philosophy of Religion
Differentiate between religion as humans’ way to God, theology as a study of God’s way to humans and philosophy as a reflection of humans’ lived experience of God.

3. Reference: http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/22337834 / Intro.to the World Religion and Belief System by Jerome A. Ong, and Mary Dorothy dl.
Jose/Author/ Editor/ Page: 1-9

4.Content:
Understanding the Nature of Religion
Every individual sees and interprets the world quite differently from one another. This overall perspective is also termed worldview which is a
collection of beliefs about life and the universe being held by people (The Free Dictionary 2014). For a certain individual, social environment and
upbringing are critical in the development of a religious life. All these factors have an effect on how people organize their beliefs and ideas while
eventually creating a comprehensive narrative through which they look at the world and interrelate with it. Belief in god or gods is found in almost
all religions. There is a good reason to presuppose that religion had existed during prehistoric times and this has continued to the modern day.
Human life may have produced hundreds of religions and belief systems. There could be more unknown than known religions in the world since
recorded history covers only several thousand years of human existence.
 Religion is the pursuit of transformation guided by a sacred belief system.
 Religion is an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, and rules used to worship a god or a group of gods (Merriam-Webster Dictionary 2014)
 Spirituality reflects one’s integrative view of life while affecting the human soul.

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 Below summarizes the various definitions forwarded by several social scientists on the nature of religion.

Name of Social
Background View on Religion
Scientist
Edward Burnett Taylor English anthropologist; founding figure of the
the belief in spiritual beings
(1832-1917) science of social anthropology
a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man
James George Frazer Scottish social anthropologist; one of the founding
which are believed to control and direct the course of nature
(1854-1941) figures of modern anthropology
and of human life
Bronislaw Kasper a body of self-contained acts being themselves the
Malinowski an eminent 20th-century Polish anthropologist fulfillment of their purpose; an affair of all, in which
(1884-1942) everyone takes an active and equivalent part
David Ëmile Durkheim
French sociologist; father of sociology a unified system of beliefs and practices relative
(1858-1917)

Common Characteristics among Religions

belief in a
deity’s
relationship
with the world

places and
belief in a people
believed to
deity
be holy
RELIGION and sacred

ways to rules
worship followed as a
a deity result of
beliefs
2
Summary

 Religion may refer to any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices aimed at communicating or propitiating with supernatural beings. Humans may
recognize a superhuman being controlling power (such as a god or spirit) that seeks worship and obedience from them.
 Various theories have been formulated that try to explain the origin of religions. Religion may have originated in response to human’s need to
explain their dreams and experiences as well as the need to understand the different forces of nature, especially so that humans may have faced
pain and ignorance in their daily struggle for existence in early times.
 While religions are frequently viewed as sets of ideals practiced and followed by organized groups, spirituality involves one’s integrative view
of life that is more personal while affecting the human soul.

5. Self-Assessment: 1. Why is it important to differentiate religion from spirituality, theology, and philosophy of religion?”
2. Do you agree that the universe is designed and created by a single divine being or God? Explain your answer.
3. How can an individual lead a spiritual life? Cite some examples.

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 Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System
Information Sheet: 1.2b

1.Topic: Understanding the Nature of Religion

2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
1.3. Infer that:
a. A belief system or worldview is a particular way of ordering the realities of one’s world.
b. Religion is the pursuit of transformation guided by a sacred belief system.
c. Spirituality is one’s integrative view of life. It involves a quest for the meaning and ultimate value of life as opposed to an instrumentalist or
materialistic attitude to life.
The elements of religion are:
(a)reflects an effort to elevate their whole self to a higher dimension of existence,
(b) a framework of transcendent beliefs,
(c) text or scriptures,
(d) rituals, and (e) sacred spaces (e.g., church, temple, mosque, synagogue).
(e) Understanding the worldview of each of the world’s major religions is critical in appreciating their rituals and practices.

These worldviews are:

All is one (Monistic)
1. Many Gods (Polytheistic)
2. One God (Monotheistic)
3. No God (Atheistic)

The elements of spirituality are:

(a) holistic (fully integrated view to life),
(b) quest for meaning (including the purpose of life),
(c) quest for the sacred (beliefs about God), and
(d) suggests a self-reflective existence.
1.4. Prepare character sketches of a person who is spiritual but not religious and a person who is religious but not spiritual
3. Reference: http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/22337834 / Intro.to the World Religion and Belief System by Jerome A. Ong,
and Mary Dorothy dl. Jose/Author/ Editor/ Page: 1-9

4
4. Content:

The Elements of Religion are:

(a) reflects an effort to elevate their whole self to a higher dimension of existence,
(b) a framework of transcendent beliefs,
(c) text or scriptures,
(d) rituals, and (e) sacred spaces (e.g., church, temple, mosque, synagogue).
(e) Understanding the worldview of each of the world’s major religions is critical in appreciating their rituals and practices.

UNDERSTANDING BELIEFS AND WORLDVIEWS

Every individual sees and interprets the world quite differently from one another. This overall perspective is also termed worldview which is
a collection of beliefs about life and the universe being held by people (The Free Dictionary 2014). For a certain individual, social
environment and upbringing are critical in the development of a religious life. All these factors have an effect on how people organize their
beliefs and ideas while eventually creating a comprehensive narrative through which they look at the world and interrelate with it. Belief in
god or gods is found in almost all religions. There is a good reason to presuppose that religion had existed during prehistoric times and this
has continued to the modern day. Human life may have produced hundreds of religions and belief systems. There could be more unknown
than known religions in the world since recorded history covers only several thousand years of human existence.

5
 Table 1.1b Different kinds of belief systems or worldviews.
Kinds Description
there is no real distinction between god and the universe
Monism
the belief and worship of many gods
Polytheism
the doctrine or belief in one supreme god
Monotheism
disbelief in or denial of the existence of a personal god
Atheism
god cannot be known
Agnosticism

The elements of spirituality are:

(a) holistic (fully integrated view to life),
(b) quest for meaning (including the purpose of life),
(c) quest for the sacred (beliefs about God), and
(d) suggests a self-reflective existence.

Summary
• Religion is considered universal and it can be found in all known contemporary societies.
• The prophet and patriarch Abraham played a major role in the establishment of three monotheistic religions, namely, Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam.
• Religion is an essential part of Indian tradition as four main religions originated here, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
• Both Confucius and Laozi were followers of the Dao. The Confucian Dao principally concerns human affairs while the Daoist Dao means the
way the universe works.
• West Asia is home of three great religions, namely, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
• Heat and water are major features of India’s ecological setting. As a result, deities of sun, fire, and water are venerated in India.
• Chinese culture practically influenced all other nations at its outskirts, including Japan and Korea.
• Monotheism or the belief in one god is an ancient idea that predated the establishment of Abrahamic religions.
• The concept of dharma is integral in religions that emerged in India, most especially Hinduism and Buddhism.
• Chinese belief system arrived in Japan and influenced the local culture and the indigenous polytheistic religion Shinto.

5. Self-Assessment: 1. How do you differentiate religion from worldview, spirituality, theology, and philosophy of religion?
2. How does geography and culture influence religion and how does religion affect culture?
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 Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System
Information Sheet: 1.3

1.Topic: How World Religions Began

2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:

2.1 Cite regions or places where specific religions evolved

2.2 Analyze the culture of the region that gave rise to specific religions
2.3 Explain how geography influences religion and religion affects culture
2.4 Conduct a group activity that demonstrates the influence of a religion in a certain culture

3.Reference: Intro.to the World Religion and Belief System by Jerome A. Ong, and Mary Dorothy dl. Jose/Author/ Editor/ Page: 15-27

4.Content:

Origin of World Religions

Similar to living organisms, religions are born in history and they gradually develop into living traditions and affect the lives of their followers.
Belief systems originate in certain localities within the context of culture and even geography. From their rudimentary forms, religions continually
evolved into complicated systems replete with rites and practices that made recruitment of members necessary. Quite unfortunately, other
religions also decline as in the case of Zoroastrianism that once flourished in South Asia but is now only confned to Iran, India, and Central Asia.
They may also give impetus to establish new movements within religious groups, such as in the case of Buddhism that may be viewed as a reaction
to the overly ritualistic beliefs and the exclusivity of Hinduism. They may also contribute to the foundation of other religions, such as those themes
Christianity borrowed from Judaism, and themes Islam borrowed from both Christianity and Judaism (Brasswell 1994). This lesson will deal with

7
the origin of religions along with the geographical context and cultural milieu that have impacted the establishment of world religions and belief
systems.

ESSENTIAL UNDERSTANDING
 Religions have their origin stories and are universal in nature.
 Geography and culture have an effect on the establishment and development of religions.

Summarizes the different theories on the origin of religion and the major proponents of these theories.

Name
Proponent Explanation
of Theory
Edward Burnett Tylor Primitive people believed in souls or anima found in people (seen in dreams) and
Animistic
(1832-1917), English in all of nature. Since spirits could be helpful or harmful to human beings, early
Theories
anthropologist people had to pray to these spirits, offer sacrifices, and appease or avoid them.
In his investigation, he found out that the Melanesian people believed in mana, a
Robert Henry Codrington
mysterious force that inhabited all of nature. All early people began their religion in
(1830- 1922), Anglican
cognizance of such force; the destructiveness of the mana can be avoided by
priest and anthropologist
establishing taboos.
Human beings first developed their religions from their observations of the forces of
nature. Early people became aware of the regularity of the seasons, the tides and the
phases of the moon, and began personalizing them by giving them names,
Nature-Worship Theory
describing their activities with tales that transformed into mythology. Primitive
people identified the forces in nature, personified them, created
myths, and developed religions around them.
Theory of Wilhelm Schmidt In Australia and Africa, basic cultures held a common belief in a distant high god,
Original (1868-1954), Austrian that originally there had been one great god above all others, and that he may have
Monotheism anthropologist and been the creator of the world or the father of the many lesser deities. This high god
ethnologist went away and had little contact with the world that resulted in majority of
attention and worship to local deities. Primitive societies were originally
monotheistic, but because it was difficult to worship just one god, religion was
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 corrupted to polytheism.
People had gone three phases of development concerning the spirit world:
James George Frazer (1) primitive magic (wherein people attempted to control nature in the hope that
Magic Theory (1854-1941), Scottish nature will cooperate if rituals are done properly);
social anthropologist (2) religion (wherein people implored nature to cooperate since they have realized
that nature can not be coerced); and
(3) science (wherein a rational understanding of nature is operative).
Ludwig Andreas von There were no gods and that belief in gods was simply wish fulfilment. Troubled
Feuerbach (1804- people who could not cope with the difficulties in life projected their wishes and
1872), German developed gods and religions.
philosopher and
anthropologist
Ludwig Andreas von
Feuerbach (1804- There were no gods and that belief in gods was simply wish fulfilment. Troubled
Wish Fulfilment
1872), German people who could not cope with the difficulties in life projected their wishes and
Theory
philosopher and developed gods and religions.
anthropologist

Sigmund Freud Religion originated from the guilt that individuals supposedly feel in hating their
(1856-1939), Austrian fathers. All males possess a similar tendency to desire our mothers and hate our
neurologist and fathers. As a result of this subconscious hatred and ensuing guilt, a great father
founder father of image was projected in the sky called God. A healthy mature person can face
psychoanalysis problems without the need for gods or religions.

WORLD
RELIGIONS

Historical Geographi
cal Cultural
Foundati
Context Milieu
on

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 Historical background of world religion

Historical background

Scholars hold the view that religion is universal and can be found in all known contemporary societies (Ember & Ember 1997). Even the most
fundamental of belief systems can be seen to a greater or lesser degree in all religions (Hopfe 1983). Various theories have been formulated to
explain the origin of religion. Even prehistoric humans, such as the Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, have practiced a set of belief systems in one
way or another, including burying their dead, painting on the walls of caves, and carving images from stones. The existence of humankind for so
long a time has resulted in the formation of religion and belief system. It is certain that many religions may have been unrecorded in the past. Others
may have gradually died down. This lesson will deal primarily with religions that are still active until the present time. The succeeding table
illustrates some significant dates in the history of the establishment of several world religions.

Significant dates in the history of the establishment of several World Religions.

Date (circa) Significance

c. 2000 B.C.E. time of Abraham, the patriarch of Israel
c. 1200 B.C.E. time of Moses, the Hebrew leader of the Exodus
c. 1100 – 500 B.C.E. Hindus compiled their holy texts, the Vedas
c. 563 – 83 B.C.E. time of the Buddha, founder of Buddhism
c. 551 – 479 B.C.E. time of Confucius, founder of Confucianism
c. 200 B.C.E. the Hindu book, Bhagavad Gita, was written
c. 2 to 4 B.C.E – 32 C.E. time of Jesus Christ, the Messiah and founder of Christianity
c. 32 C.E. the Crucifxion and Resurrection of Jesus Christ
c. 40 – 90 C.E. the New Testament was written by the followers of Jesus Christ
c. 100 C.E. Beginnings of Shintoism (no known founder)
c. 500-580 B.C.E. Time of Lao Tze, founder of Daoism
c. 570 – 632 C.E. time of Muhammad, who recorded the Qur’an as the basis of Islam

5.Self-Assessment : . How did religion originate? Cite key theories to support your answer.

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 Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System
Information Sheet: 1.4

1. Topic: Positive and Negative Effect of Religions

2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
3.1 Identify the positive and negative effects of religions
3.2 Provide evidence that religion brought about an event in history
3.3 Justify that religion can have positive or negative effects on society
3.4 Gather print or web-based articles, photos, editorials, etc. showing the positive or negative effects of religion
3. Reference: Intro.to the World Religion and Belief System by Jerome A. Ong, and Mary Dorothy dl. Jose/Author/ Editor/ Page: 33-41

4. Content:
Positive and Negative Effects of Religion

Religion

POSITIVE EFFECTS NEGATIVE EFFECTS

Promotes Social Harmony Affirms Social Hierarchy
Provides Moral Values Causes Discrimination
Provides Social Change Triggers Conflicts and Fights
Explains the Unknown Serves as an Economic Tool for Controlling the Masses
Gives Positive Goal in Life Impedes Scientific Success and Development
Gives People a Sense of Belonging Obstructs the Use of Reason

POSITIVE EFFECTS OF RELIGION

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There is no doubt that religion has an important role in society. In fact, it has become so closely intertwined with other institutions such as political
and economic systems that religious beliefs sometimes became the basis of political legitimacy. This is the very reason why the principle of separation of
state and religion was established in many countries. However, religion has served purposes beneficial to society in general. In one way or another, it inspires
values that cultivate peace, compassion and kindness. Religion upholds traditions of shaping human's spirituality and embracing the goodness in each individual.

1. Religion Promotes Social Harmony

Religion believes in super natural beings and powers. It practices a set of rituals and ceremonious rites of passage and rites of intensification. It also
regards religious leaders such as priests, priestesses and shamans in high esteem. These characteristics help advance social harmony by assimilating
and stabilizing cultures and nations. Religion provides divine authority to ethical and moral principles which also help promote unity among people.
Common participation in rituals together with basic uniformity of beliefs help promote social cohesiveness. Belief in supernatural beings and the
supposed divine powers they can wield to reward and punish people have been a major concept in religion since ancient times. It helps lessen the
feeling of helplessness among people who believe that they are not alone in this world, that they need not rely on their capabilities alone, and that
everybody else is on the same boat, so to speak. Whenever people are afflicted with crisis, they tend to think that a greater force or high
being is there to help them, a belief people tend to share with others. Equally important is the belief in religious leaders whose function was to
mediate between the deities and the people. In ancient Philippine society for example, spiritual leaders were called babaylanes or catalones, whose
functions were to intercede between the deities and people; to continue the rituals; to play as healers; and to act as cultural leaders of the
community. Most of the spiritual leaders were women; and if men wanted to become one, they had to give up their sexuality to perform the
prestigious role of being a babaylan. People from ancient societies (to date) have a common belief in the need for intermediaries to communicate
with the deities and the super naturals. Thus, this reinforced the call for spiritual leaders in every society, and the authority and respect people
bestowed upon them. These intercessors can be considered as one source of social solidarity. They provide crucial guidance to people in their
religious efforts, thereby maintaining group unity. Another important characteristic of religion is the performance of common rituals and practices
on a regular basis. Such religious activities can be considered as one component which helps bind people together and reinforce their identification
with a particular group. Ritual participation often creates an atmosphere stimulated with emotions. The elated feelings people may
experience in such situations serve as a positive reinforcement because they feel good as a result. Take the case of the Surf Dervishes’ practice of
12
whirling or spinning, wherein the aim is to reach the source of all perfection by abandoning one’s ego or personal desires through listening to music,
focusing on God, and spinning one’s body in repetitive circles. This kind of ritual provides people of a particular religion with a positive feeling by
\

doing something together for a common purpose that is, the glorification of god. Furthermore, even attendance in Masses provides people with a
common ground, despite differences in social statuses and political ideologies. Xiao, or filial piety, on the other hand, is a significant aspect of
Confucianism which promotes social harmony. Filial piety refers to the attitude of obedience, devotion, and care of one’s parents and elder family
members. It serves as the basis of moral conduct which, in effect, leads to social harmony. Since political and social harmony were the primary
concerns of Confucianism, filial piety helps achieve this goal by maintaining order in society. Children are expected not only to obey but defer to
parents’ judgments, as well as to perform the proper rituals for them. In this way, social harmony is achieved since conflicts are avoided. Jainism
also has a key concept which helps promotes social solidarity, which is called ahimsa, or the concept of non-violence. For the followers
of Jainism, ahimsa is not only a worldview but a way of life. The killing and consumption of animals is strictly prohibited, for it is central to
the idea of ahimsa that they must minimize their violent impact on the environment. Treating other people with respect is also a way of practicing
ahimsa. Followers of Jainism have a particular stand on issues, such as international conflict, economic equality, abortion, and even civil rights.
They make sure that they live their lives without doing any form of violence to other life forms, especially to humans
2. Religion Provides Moral Values
Perhaps one of the most significant functions of religion is that it encourages moral values. It provides a systematic model of the universe, which in
effect determines organized human behavior. By providing moral values, one is able to distinguish right from wrong, good from evil. It also
provides a system of reward and punishment that administers and standardizes people’s behavior in society. Some people believe that it is
sometimes more effective than the laws implemented by the state, since most people give more importance to the reward and punishment in the
afterlife. In ancient societies, notions of right and wrong were not yet as clear-cut as the morality imposed by organized religions. People then acted
according to what they thought would please or displease the gods and goddesses. During those times, rituals were very important because it is
through these that they invoke the pleasure or wrath of the deities. For example, before planting, farmers would perform a kind of ritual, led by their
spiritual leaders, to ask for blessings from the deities so that their harvest would be bountiful. When calamity destroyed their crops, they would
interpret it as a sign that they must have done something which displeased the deities, and would again perform a ritual to appease them. When they
had a productive harvest, they would again perform a ritual to extend their gratitude to the deities whom they believed to be responsible for their
good fortune.

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 3. Religion Provides Social Change
Since religion is a source of moral values, religion provides social change. It can be very effective in lobbying and campaigning
for certain social issues
using its own moral teachings as the basis of argument. For example, the Church in the US has been active in the campaign for
civil liberties as well as
the antislavery movement. In the Philippines, much credit has been given to the Catholic Church for the success of the People
Power Revolution in 1986
when Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin urged the people to join the protest rally to oust the dictator, former president Ferdinand
Marcos. Another example
would be Gandhi’s satyagraha, or passive resistance, which paved the way for India’s independence from the British in the 20th
century. Satyagraha
advocates the belief that nonviolence of the mind can lead to the realization of the real nature of an evil situation and that by
refusing to cooperate
with evil, truth can be asserted. This concept employed by Gandhi in the early 20th century became instrumental in the Indian
struggle against the
British and became a model for other protest actions in other countries. In general, religion has the potential to institute social
change, especially in the
issues concerning poverty, reproductive health, gender equality, and religious discrimination.

4. Religion Reduces Fear of the Unknown

Religion was developed from man’s need to have a sense of origin and destination; to discover where they came from and where they are bound to
go to when they die. Religion provides answers for phenomena and questions that science or reason cannot explain. Myths about the origin of
people abound with stories of groups of people being created by gods and goddesses, perpetuating the notion that people came from supreme beings
and will eventually go back to them in the afterlife. More importantly, religion has provided assurances as to where spirits will go when people die,
reducing people’s fear of death as something undesirable. The belief in the afterlife has become very important in most religions because it has
become the basis for their daily conduct or how they live their lives. For the Hindus, for example, how they follow their dharma (moral and social
obligation) determines what will happen to them in the afterlife: as long as they follow their dharma, they will reap good karma (karma refers to

14
moral consequences of one’s act) which will eventually liberate their souls from bad karma, leading them to attain moksha, or the reunion of
Brahman or universal soul and atman or individual soul (this will be further discussed in the lesson on Hinduism). Hence, following the duties and
obligations of the caste where a Hindu belongs became the basis for what will supposedly happen to their soul in the afterlife. Among the
Christians, obeying the Ten Commandments and being good to others will earn a reward of eternal life in heaven; doing the opposite will lead to
eternal damnation in hell. Among the Muslims, there are certain circumstances which will guarantee them a place in heaven, like dying in jihad (a
struggle against unbelievers) or performing the hajj (Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca). On the other hand, early Filipino animists believed that the
afterlife is but a continuation of life on earth; in some parts of the Philippines, there were pieces of evidence that when a datu or chieftain dies, he
was buried in a ship called balanghay, together with his slaves and most precious belongings which he would still need in the afterlife. In general,
religion has provided people with answers to the unknown such as the origin of life and the concept of afterlife. Explanations provided
by religions have reduced fears and anxieties among individuals and some
religions have even made death a better alternative to living in uncertainty

5. Religion Gives Positive Goals in Life

People were inspired by the stories of different prophets from their own religious affiliations, like that of Moses, Siddharta Gautama, and
Muhammad. These people showed how ordinary people like them were given important missions in life, and how they struggled to carry out their
respective missions. Moses was ordered to liberate the Hebrews from slavery in Egypt and lead them back to the promised land; Mohammed was
chosen to challenge the supremacy of the ruling class in the desert by preaching equality and founding the Islamic religion; while Siddharta
Gautama gave up his wealth and power to find the solution for sickness, poverty, old age, and death. Their narratives—perpetuated through religion
may give people a sense of meaning in life; that they are not placed in this world without a purpose; that each and everyone has a mission to fulfill
and it is up to them to fathom what their missions in life are.

6. Religion Gives People a Sense of Belonging

Just as family, ethnicity, or nationality give people a sense of belonging, so does religion.
 For some, religion provides people with personal identity as part of a group with similar worldviews, beliefs, values, practices, and lifestyles.
 It provides communities with prospects to recognize and offer vital action and service to provide the needs of the larger community. Belonging to
a particular religion whose members share the same beliefs, practice the same rituals, and worship the same god gives individuals a sense of
being in the right place with the right people. It also provides them with a sense of security because other people who belong to the same
religious group will tend to support and help each other in times of crisis.
15
 A religious group or community can provide counsel, help the sick and underprivileged, and give other services on a more personal level than the
government. Members of a religious community can have the assurance that they can rely on other people’s help in times of need.
 They can also expect to have other people rejoice with them in times of success. Religion can provide a sense of personal identity and belonging.
 A good example of religion giving people a sense of belonging is the Sikh principle of Seva, also known as Sewa, from the word Karseva which
means “selfless service.”
 Sikhs are expected to perform work or service without expecting anything in return. They are encouraged by their Guru (Guru Granth Saib) to
perform selfless service with the belief that by so doing, they are not only promoting good community relations but also paving the way for the
moral uplifting of a person, thus strengthening his or her sense of belonging to the community. They are taught to reach out to serve and uplift all
of humanity to show their devotion to their god.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF RELIGION

Religion has often been named as the culprit behind divisiveness and conflicts among people. There is also a belief that religion can be dangerous to
society when used to advance the interests of a group of people at the expense of other people eapecially those with different religious beliefs.
Religious fundamentalism or the demand for a strict adherence to orthodox theological doctrines is often considered as the reason behind most
religious conflicts. Some of the negative effects of religion which we will discuss in this lesson are: affirmation of social hierarchy; reason why
people fght each other; promotion of discrimination; obstruction of scientifc success and development; and hindrance to the use of reason.

1. Religion Affrms Social Hierarchy

Some religions affrm social hierarchy often favoring men and as a result, perpetuate the notions of class or gender discrimination and oppression.
Another example of religion reflecting the hierarchy of political structures would be the Confucian emphasis on the relations between the ruler and
the subject, with the former exercising authority over the latter. The traditional caste system in India would also reflect how religion reflects political
and social structures since it propagated the idea that people had to be subdivided into certain social classes with particular social roles and that the
attainment of moksha (union of universal soul and individual soul) would depend on how they performed their duties based on their designated
class.
16
2. Religion Causes Discrimination
There are some who say that religion, after turning people against themselves, turn people against each other. This happens when people do not
tolerate religious ideologies different from the one they follow. Religious fanaticism can lead to feelings of hatred, which could lead to racism, and
eventually violence. Throughout history, religion has been used by colonizers to justify their forcible occupation of territories. In a way, religion has
made this world a more complicated place to live in.
 Religion can also be a source of discrimination, or the prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things, especially on the basis of
race, religion, age, or sex. In Islam, the practice of wearing the hijab (a head covering worn in public by Muslim women) is considered by many
critics as a form of suppression against Muslim women. Women have to cover their body,from head to toe, so as not to attract the attention of
men the notion that women are temptations that men should avoid. There are also religions which discriminate against other religions on the
basis of claiming to be the “right religion” and that only their followers will be saved in the afterlife. Still, there are religions which discriminate
against people from the lower class who they consider to be sinful and dirty, just like the outcast or pariahs in India.

3. Religion Triggers Conflicts and Fights

Religion also has some aspects which make it susceptible to be a source of conflict and war. History witnessed numerous lives sacrifced and lost in
the name of religion. Wars have been fought in the name of religion, and this phenomenon continues up to the present time. In Palestine, the Jews
are in conflict with the Muslims; in Kashmir, it is the Muslims against Hindus; in Sudan, it is the Muslims opposite Christians and animists; in Sri
Lanka, it is the Sinhalese Buddhists against the Tamil Hindus; in Indonesia, it is Muslims contra Timorese Christians. These are only some of so
many wars being fought in the name of religion, which means that so many resources are being wasted and millions of lives are being lost.

4. Religion As An Economic Tool for Exploiting the Masses

According to the German philosopher Karl Marx, “religion is the opium of the masses.” This is in relation to his critical approach to religion in
which he proposed that the bourgeoisie keeps the proletariat in control through religion. According to Marx, it maintains social inequality by
propagating a worldview that justifes oppression. He believed that religion can be effectively used by the ruling class to maintain a social order that
is more favorable to them. Whether one is Christian, Jewish, or Muslim, religious teachings justifying one’s acceptance of oppression as a normal
part of life on earth and as a means to get an everlasting reward in the afterlife can be seen as a bourgeois tactic to maintain the status quo where
they reap more resources and power in society. Thus, in Marx’s conflict theory, the abolition of religion is also needed to liberate the masses from
their oppressive state.

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5. Religion Impedes Scientifc Success and Development
 Throughout history, religion has proven to impede scientifc development. For nexample, it has often been said that the Catholic Church used
to teach that the world is flat and warned people against going to faraway places if they do not wish to fall off the edge of the earth.
 Another example would be the claim that the earth is the center of the solar system, also known as the Ptolemaic theory. Aristarchus, and
later on, Nicolas Copernicus, proved that the sun is the center of the solar system and all other planets move around it, hence advancing the
heliocentric model. Aside from these, some of the moral teachings of other religions are deemed by secular communities to be detrimental to
development.
 For example, some religions express their disapproval against reproductive health programs that aim to empower couples in responsible
family planning through education and access to legal and medically safe birth control, claiming that such programs defes their religious
doctrine and are, therefore, immoral. Religion-based mortuary practices can also be detrimental to public health and sanitation. For example,
during the cholera outbreak in the Philippines in the nineteenth century, the Catholic practice of having the dead body of cholera victims be
brought frst to the church for a Mass was seen as one reason why the cholera epidemic continued to spread rapidly. Liberalminded
individuals during that time believed it would be much safer and hygienic to immediately bury the dead instead of letting a lot of people
be exposed to the dead body by observing religious practices. The same dilemma can also be seen in the outbreak of the Ebola virus in Africa.
The Muslim practice of washing the dead’s body by relatives of the same gender is seen as contributory to the rapid spread of the Ebola virus
which can be transmitted through direct contact with the victim.

6. Religion Obstructs the Use of Reason

Many question the suitability of religious doctrines to the needs of the present and future generations. In order to put these dogma to practice,
religion should, therefore, evolve and learn to adapt to the ever changing world. Ancient religious beliefs and practices which have proven to be
inhuman should be replaced with sensible ones. Take the case of the trepanning, or the ancient practice of boring holes in the human skull, a
surgical procedure performed on epileptics and the mentally ill, with the belief that through the hole the evil spirit will leave the person. During
those days they regard it as an attempt at exorcism, but at present the procedure is just unthinkable.
HISTORICAL EVENTS CAUSED BY RELIGION
In some regions in the world, religion has become very influential in almost every aspect of human activity from personal routines to diplomatic
relations. Furthermore, in each country there are majority and minority religious groups and sometimes the power struggle between these two
groups escalate into historical developments which oftentimes shock the world. Here are some of the historical events that are caused by religion.

Self-Immolation of a Buddhist Monk in Vietnam

Self-immolation, or the killing of oneself as a form of sacrifice, originally referred to as the act of setting oneself on fire. But now it refers to a much wider
range of suicidal choices such as leaping off a cliff, starvation, or ritual removing of the guts (also known as seppuku). It is used as a form of political protest or
martyrdom. The case of self-immolation reported by the Western media was that of a Buddhist monk named Thich Quang Duc in Vietnam in 1963, who set
himself on fire in the middle of a street in South Vietnam. This was done in protest against the religious discrimination being experienced by the Buddhists in
18
 Vietnam by the Roman Catholic regime of Ngo Dinh Diem. Under his dictatorial regime, the minority Catholics enjoyed majority status and privileges while
the majority Buddhists were prohibited from practicing their religion in public. Prior to this, Buddhist monks were shot dead after attempting to fly a Buddhist
flag on Phat Dan, the birthday of Gautama Buddha, in South Vietnam. They were allegedly killed by the dictator’s Catholic Army, but Diem put the blame on
the Viet-Cong (Vietnamese communists). This led to civil disobedience and major protests among the Buddhists. When Thich Quang Duc failed to achieve
reforms for the Buddhist population, he set himself on fre. According to the Buddhists, after this incident and even after his cremation his heart remained intact,
which they
interpreted as a sign of his great compassion. This event served as an important catalyst in overthrowing Diem’s government and the assassination of Diem
and his brother.

Widow Burning among the Hindus in India

Sati, or the practice of self-immolation of a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre, is said to have originated 700 years ago in India. It is believed to
have started among the ruling class or rajputs in India, when the rajput women burnt themselves to death after their men were defeated in battles to
avoid being taken by the conquerors. Later on, it has become a manifestation of wifely devotion. It has been outlawed by the British rulers in 1829
but rare cases still continue to occur. In 2006, a Hindu woman was reported to have committed sati in Tuslipar village in the central state of
Madhya Pradesh. The woman, whose name was Janakrani, was said to have burnt herself to death on the funeral pyre of her husband Prem
Narayan. According to the villagers, after the cremation, the widow told them she had to attend to some work, but when they went looking for her
they found her dead on the pyre. Reports said that nobody forced her to commit the act.

The Inquisition
Inquisition refers to the Roman Catholic Church groups charged with subduing heresy from around 1184, which includes the Episcopal Inquisition
(1184- 1230s) and the Papal Inquisition (1230s). The Inquisition was a response to large popular movements in Europe considered heretical or
profane to Christianity, particularly Catharism (a Christian dualist movement which espoused the idea of two gods, one being good and the other
evil) and Waldensians (a Protestant Christian movement which advocated that apostolic poverty is the way to perfection) in southern France and
southern Italy. The word “inquisition,” has somehow become associated with the word “torture.” This is because after 1252, torture was used to
punish the heretics. On May 15, a papal bull was issued by Pope Innocent IV, the Ad exstirpanda, which authorized the use of torture by
inquisitors. One common form of torture was the strappado, wherein the hands were bound behind the back with a rope, and the accused was
suspended this way, dislocating the joints painfully in both arms.

Summary
• Religion can be described as a double-edged sword: it can have both positive and negative effects on society. It has played a very important role in
the development of societies by integrating and stabilizing them; however, it has also created conflicts.Some of its positive effects are: it promotes
social solidarity; it is a source of moral values; it nurtures positive goals in life; it gives people a sense of belonging; and it fosters social change.
• Some of religion’s negative effects include: it affirrms social hierarchy; it triggers conflicts and fights; it promotes discrimination; it impedes
scientific success and development; and it hinders the use of reason.
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• Some of the world’s atrocities and conflicts were caused by religion such as the self-immolation of a Buddhist monk in Vietnam; the practice of
sati or widow burning in India; the Inquisition of the Catholic Church; and the Godhra train incident in India.

5. Self-Assessment: 1. Do you agree that sometimes religious conflicts are being used for political reasons? Why or why not?
2. In your own opinion, can religious conflicts be avoided? If yes, how?

Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System

Information Sheet: 1.5

1. Topic: Judaism
2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
4.1. Recite the Ten Commandments as stated in the Old Testament (Exodus 20)
4.2 Identify a Jewish custom or tradition demonstrated in a movie (e.g. Fiddler in the Roof, Ten Commandments, Ben Hur)
4.3 Justify: The core teaching of Judaism is the covenant of one God with a chosen people vs. other people with many gods.
4.4 Identify a story from the Old Testament that demonstrates the Jewish belief in one God (e.g.Story of Samson)
3.Reference: Intro.to the World Religion and Belief System by Jerome A. Ong, and Mary Dorothy dl. Jose/Author/ Editor/ Page: 47-63

4. Content:

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 Judaism is an ancient monotheistic religion that traces its origin as an organized belief system during the
Bronze Age in West Asia. The religion of the Jewish people, Judaism is one of three Abrahamic religions that also
include Christianity and Islam. It is the religion professed by the Jews known as the “people of the Book” in
reference to their sacred text written covering nearly a thousand years and formalized as a canon of teaching by
the end of the first century C.E. The picture below is the Torah which is the most important text of the Jewish
people. It contains the “Five Books of Moses” and many sacred laws. The Jews consider themselves as the people
chosen by God to serve as an exemplar of devotion and purity to humankind. It is quite difficult to study key events
in the historical foundation of Judaism without discussing the history of the Jewish people from the time of the
Hebrews’ mass departure from Egypt or the Exodus. During the 20 th century, the growth in their population has
remained sluggish for quite a long time as it grew to only 25% after the catastrophic event called Holocaust.
According to a 2014 report, there were around 14 million Jewish people representing 0.2% of the entire world
population. The largest concentration of Jews can be found in Israel, North America (United States and Canada),
and Central Europe. Other countries with sizable Jewish population include France, United Kingdom, Russia,
Argentina, Germany, and Australia.
ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS
From the frontiers of West Asia developed the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, known as the first
monotheistic religions of the world. They are called Abrahamic religions because they all trace their origins to the great
patriarch Abraham and his descendants. Followers of these religions, namely the Jews, Christians, and Muslims all believe that
Abraham and his family played a significant role in the beginnings of their respective faiths. Since these religions came from the
same region, it is not surprising that they share common beliefs, foremost of which is the belief that they share common roots to
the

patriarch Abraham. Aside from this, they also share certain similarities such as belief in one god. They also believe in heaven
and hell; in prophets as instruments of god in propagating his words to the people; in angels as messengers of god to humanity;
and in judgment day, among others. Today, Christianity is considered
as the most popular religion in the world based on the number of adherents, followed by Islam. Indeed, these Abrahamic
religions have largely influenced
the world today.

JUDAISM

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 Subdivisions
Worships Worships
Sacred Beliefs and
and and
Scriptures Doctrines
Observance Observances
Beliefs

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
It is quite difficult to separate the history of Judaism from the history of the Jews themselves (Parrinder 1971). The ancestors of the Jews were
groups of Semites called Hebrews whose origin can be traced in the desert lands of Arabia (Brown 1975). The origin of the Jewish people and the
beginning of Judaism are recorded in the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, the Pentateuch. As a religion and culture, Judaism has three notable
founding figures or patriarchs, namely, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. These biblical patriarchs are the physical and spiritual forebears of the Jewish
people and their narratives can be found in Genesis 12-50 of their scripture. Judaism is anchored upon God’s revelation to Abraham that He is the
creator and ruler of the universe, and that He loves His creatures and demands righteousness from them (Losch 2001). God chose Abraham and his
family from all the people living on earth as recorded in Genesis 12. After a series of tragic events involving humankind, God entered into a
covenant with Abraham promising him that he would become the father of a great nation and would possess vast tracts of land. Abraham, in return,
must remain
devoted to the covenant. He would become the embodiment of uprightness and holiness to the world. Later on, he was succeeded by his son Isaac, his grandson
Jacob, and Jacob’s twelve sons (Hopfe 1983). These patriarchs are depicted as nomads in biblical stories. According to tradition, Abraham’s original name was
“Abram” who was born in the city of Ur of the Chaldeas around 1800 B.C.E. Questioning the folly of idol worship, Abram left his home and family to heed the

call of God en route to Canaan situated on the western side of the Fertile Crescent. The Jewish people believe that they descended from a tribe in Canaan located
in the eastern Mediterranean presently occupied by Israel, Jordan, and Syria (Bowker 1997). A covenant has been established between God and Abram, and
Abram
must prove his worth to this agreement by way of tests of faith throughout his lifetime. While Abram and his wife Sarai were initially childless, Abram
bore a son to Sarai’s Egyptian handmaid Hagar. He was named Ishmael who is considered as the ancestor of the Arabs. However, Ishmael was not
the heir to God’s promise. God changed Sarai’s name to “Sarah,” meaning “princess” or “noblewoman.” Later in life, the old Abram and Sarah had a
son named Isaac, the heir to God’s covenant and the ancestor of the Jewish people. Abram’s name was changed to “Abraham” or the “the father of many
nations.” Abraham’s story is narrated in Genesis 11-25 of the Hebrew Bible. The most difficult trial given to Abraham came when God commanded that he
sacrifice his own son Isaac at an altar in Mount Moriah. Abraham obeyed by building a fre and tying up Isaac. With Abraham’s obedience being put to the test,
an angel stopped him and he was eventually reunited with his son. A ram was instead sacrificed in place of Isaac. Later on, Isaac married Rebecca who bore him
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twin sons, Jacob and Esau. Always in constant strife, the younger Jacob bought Esau’s birthright and tricked his father Isaac into giving him Esau’s blessing as
the eldest son (Bowker 1997). Jacob fled to his uncle’s house to escape Esau’s fury. Later on, Jacob returned home and reconciled with Esau. A close encounter
with an angel merited him a change of name from Jacob to “Israel” which means “the one who wrestled with God.” The Jewish people are referred to as the
“children of Israel.” Among four different women, Jacob fathered twelve sons and one daughter. The twelve sons who became the ancestors of the tribes in Israel
were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebulun, Issachar, Dan, Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Joseph, and Benjamin. After being sold to slavery by his jealous brothers,
Joseph was brought to Egypt where his ability to see and interpret visions earned him a place in the court as a vizier, a position next only to the pharaoh. As
famine struck Canaan, Jacob and his family were forced to settle in Egypt. While the book of Genesis ends with a great nation emerging from Abraham’s
descendants, the book of Exodus begins with them crying out for deliverance from Egyptian bondage (Hopfe 1983). They were not in Canaan as initially
promised but were under enslavement in Egypt. As centuries passed and the descendants of Israel grew in number, the alarmed pharaoh decreed that all male
children be put to death by throwing them to the river.

SOCIO-POLITICAL DYNAMICS OF JUDAISM

The Old Testament gives us ideas on socio-political dynamics of Judaism. Understanding the Jewish concepts on politics and
society would help us understand the historical development of Judaism as one of the world’s religions and see its relevance in
contemporary times. The Jewish concept of leadership based on the Old Testament directs us to certain types of leadership, one
of which is kingship as the ideal form of government. This can be deduced from the chronicles of the Kings of Israel and Judah,
as well as in the Book of Deuteronomy, which stated, “Let me put a king over me like all the nations that are around me”(Deut.
17: 14-15). In relation to the idea of kingship, the concept of “covenant” between the ruler and the ruled is equally important as
well in Judaism. Just as God the Father entered into a covenant with His people (such as the covenant between God and
Abraham), the same should also be true for the King and his subjects. Thus, socio-political dynamics can also be described as
following the model of tribal federation in which various tribes and institutions shared political power. Although they practice
communal living, there were certain people who hold important positions in society with regard to their roles in Judaism, such as
the rabbi who functions as a teacher and interpreter of the Jewish law and customs. Thus, it can be deduced that for the Jews,
politics, society, culture and religion are all interconnected, thus Judaism is not only considered as a religion but as a way of life
as well.

SACRED SCRIPTURES

The Jewish people have been called the “people of the Book” in reference to the Hebrew Bible
 (Tanakh or Mikra) that has been the authority, guide, and inspiration of the many forms of Judaism that have evolved
throughout the different periods of time and in various places (Parrinder 1971). Composed over a period of almost a
thousand years, collections within the Bible became established in its full canonical form by the end of the first century
C.E. (Parrinder 1971).

 According to the Jewish tradition, the Hebrew Bible is divided into three principal sections, namely the:

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  Torah, Nevi’im, and Ketuvim. The foundational text Torah (“Teaching”) is composed of the fiirst “Five Books”or the
Pentateuch traditionally believed to have been authored by Moses through divine instruction in Sinai. These include
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Apart from containing basic laws for Jewish self-understanding,
the Pentateuch also narrates the history, religious statues, and moral regulations for individuals and society, ceremonial
rites and creation stories by Yahweh, and the origin and growth of mankind (Braswell1994).
 Meanwhile, the Nevi’im (“Prophets”) is subdivided into Earlier Prophets, Later Prophets, and twelve Minor Prophets.
Prophets served as spokespersons who criticize the hypocritical practices of Jewish rituals. They were specifically chosen
by God to preach his message to the people.
 Lastly, the Ketuvim (“Writings”) form the third section of the
 Tanakh that contains works on poetry, temple ritual, private prayer, philosophical explorations, and other canonical
works. In the strictest sense,
 Torah refers to the “Five Books of Moses.” However, it can also pertain to the entire Hebrew Bible known as the Old
Testament to non-Jews but Tanakh (or the “Written Torah”) to the Jews. Broadly speaking,
 Torah could mean the whole body of Jewish laws and teachings. Another sacred writing of Judaism is the Talmud (or the
“Oral Torah”) which means “study.” All studies and interpretations done by Jewish rabbis or teachers of the Torah are
contained in the Talmud. In short, the Talmud is an authoritative collection of rabbinic interpretations of the sacred
scriptures. It contains materials of law and moral codes. Around the second century C.E., this oral law was compiled and
written down as Mishnah or a restatement of the law by a respected opinion. The next few centuries witnessed the
writing of an additional strand of commentaries in Jerusalem and Babylonia about the Mishnah. Known as Gemara, it
includes legends, folklores, and sayings (Brasswell 1994).
 The Mishnah and Gemara comprise the Talmud that was completed in the 5th century C.E. Serving as the foundation for
all Jewish laws codes, the whole Talmud contains 63 tractates that is often printed over 6,200 pages long. Apart from
being a book of law, the Talmud is also a fountain of religious thought and inspiration similar to the Pentateuch (Jurji
1946).
 The Pentateuch is the single most important scripture for the Jewish people that became the source of their inspiration
and direction for centuries. It became the foundation of other essential Jewish writings, such as the Talmud and Mishnah.
With all these codified laws and legal materials, Judaism has become a religion of the law and the Jews as the chosen
people have shown obedience to God’s covenant throughout their long and tumultuous history (Hopfe 1983).

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

In Judaism, actions are more significant than beliefs. However, while Judaism has no dogma, there is definitely a place for belief
within the religion since
it focuses on the worship of one god, the practice of good deeds, and the love of learning (Brasswell 1994). For the Jews, there is
one everlasting god who created the universe in its entirety and remains the master of it (Parrinder 1971). Human beings were
created by God who provided them the capacity to decide what is right and wrong, and gave them the freedom and
responsibility for their own actions (Losch 2001). Humans have the ability to restrain their evil intentions because of their
24
propensities for both good and evil (Parrinder 1971). For Jews, all human beings are created equal. While God can communicate
with humans through revelations, humans can also commune to him by means of prayers and meditations. With regard one’s
Jewishness, a Jew is someone whose mother is a Jew,

although some sectors recognize the children of Jewish fathers as Jews, too. While a Jew may not lose one’s technical status as a
Jew by converting to
another religion, he or she loses the religiosity emanating from his or her Jewish identity. A person may also convert to Judaism,
but he or she has to undergo numerous rituals.

ARTICLES OF FAITH
Perhaps the closest approach in having an acceptable creed in Judaism was proposed by the eminent medieval Jewish
philosopher Moshe ben Maimon (also known as Rambam or Moses Maimonides) during the latter part of twelfth century C.E as
an appendix to his commentary on the Mishnah.
According to Moshe ben Maimon, the minimum requirements of Jewish belief as listed in his thirteen principles of faith are as
follows:

Jewish Principles of Faith

1. God exists.
2. God is one and unique.
3. God is incorporeal.
4. God is eternal.
5. Prayer is to be directed to God alone and to no other.
6. The words of the prophets are true.
7. Moses’ prophecies are true, and Moses was the greatest of the prophets.
8. The Written Torah and the Oral Torah were given to Moses.
9. There will be no other Torah.
10. God knows the thoughts and deeds of men.
11. God will reward the good and punish the wicked.
12. The Messiah will come.
13. The dead will be resurrected

The Ten Commandments

The Ten Commandments are a set of absolute laws given by God to Moses at the biblical Mount Sinai that shall govern the life of
every Israelite. Most scholars consider this period as the offcial beginning of Judaism as an organized and structured belief
system. These laws are twice mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, particularly, in Exodus and in Deuteronomy.

25
 The 10 Commandments in Exodus 20:2-17 The 10 Commandments in Deuteronomy 5:6-21
“I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of
bondage. You shall have no other gods before Me.
“You shall not make for yourself a carved image—any likeness of anything that is in heaven “I am the LORD your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of
above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow bondage. You shall have no other gods before Me.
down to them nor serve them. For I, the LORD your God, am a jealous God, visiting the “You shall not make for yourself a carved image—any likeness of anything that is in heaven
iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth generations of those who hate above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow
Me, but down to them nor serve them. For I, the LORD your God, am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity
showing mercy to thousands, to those who love Me and keep My commandments. of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth generations of those who hate Me, but
“You shall not take the name of the LORD your God in vain, for the LORD will not hold
showing mercy to thousands, to those who love Me and keep My commandments.
him guiltless who takes His name in vain.
“You shall not take the name of the LORD your God in vain, for the LORD will not hold
“Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor and do all your work,
but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the LORD your God. In it you shall do no work: you, him guiltless who takes His name in vain.
nor “Observe the Sabbath day, to keep it holy, as the LORD your God commanded you. Six
your son, nor your daughter, nor your male servant, nor your female servant, nor your cattle, days you shall labor and do all your work, but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the LORD your
nor your stranger who is within your gates. For in six days the LORD made the heavens and God. In it you shall do no work: you, nor your son, nor your daughter, nor your male servant,
the nor your female servant, nor your ox, nor your donkey, nor any of your cattle, nor your stranger
earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested the seventh day. Therefore the LORD blessed who is within your gates, that your male servant and your female servant may rest as well
the Sabbath day and hallowed it. as you. And remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and the LORD your God
“Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long upon the land which the brought you out from there by a mighty hand and by an outstretched arm; therefore the LORD
LORD your God is giving you. your God commanded you to keep the Sabbath day.
“You shall not murder. “Honor your father and your mother, as the LORD your God has commanded you, that your days
“You shall not commit adultery. may be long, and that it may be well with you in the land which the LORD your God is giving you.
“You shall not steal. “You shall not murder.
“You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor. “You shall not commit adultery.
“You shall not covet your neighbor’s house; you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, “You shall not steal.
nor his male servant, nor his female servant, nor his ox, nor his donkey, nor anything that is “You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
Your neighbor’s.”
“You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife; and you shall not desire your neighbor’s house, his
feld, his male servant, his female servant, his ox, his donkey, or anything that is your neighbor’s.”

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

The Jewish community utilizes a lunar calendar with twelve months, each beginning at the new moon of 29 or 30 days. Every
festival and Sabbath
commences and terminates at dusk (or sunset) rather than midnight in adherence to the biblical pattern. The Jewish calendar is
followed in observance of festivities, holidays, and community and family celebrations (Brasswell 1994). Jewish holidays are
special days observed to commemorate key events in Jewish history and other events that depict the special connections with

26
the world, such as creation, revelation, and redemption.

Sabbath
The most important day in the Jewish calendar is the Sabbath (or Shabbat) which commemorates God’s completion of the
creation of the universe and his rest after the six-day toil (Parrinder 1971). This is the fourth law within the Ten Commandments.
It begins a few minutes before sunset on Friday and runs until an hour after sunset on Saturday or almost 25 hours to be
precise. At Friday sundown, Sabbath candles are lighted and kiddush (“sanctifcation”) is recited over wine or grape juice.
Children are then blessed by their parents. Jews must abstain from work and must study the Torah. Some work prohibitions
include lighting fires, using money, and writing. The Sabbath ends through the symbolic ritual of havdalah (“division”) done by
dousing wine on candles and smelling sweet spices.

The Days of Awe

 Tishri is the seventh month in the ecclesiastical year of the Jewish calendar. The first ten days of Tishri are called the “Days
of Awe” (Yamim Noraim) wherein the first two days comprise the New Year (Rosh Hashanah) and the tenth day as the Day of
Atonement (Yom Kippur). Rosh Hashanah marks the start of the ten-day period of penitence leading to the Yom Kippur and is
distinguished from other days by blowing a ram’s horn trumpet (shofar) in the synagogue and eating apples dipped in honey
which is symbolic for a sweet new year. Using the shofar, a total of one hundred notes are sounded each day. All Jews must
undergo self-reflection and make amends for all the sins they have committed. Rosh Hashanah is also a day of judgement
wherein God assesses one’s deeds and decides what lies ahead of him or her in the following year. These deeds are recorded in the “Book of
Life” and sealed on Yom Kippur. Work is not permitted during the Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Yom Kippur is the most sacred and solemn
day in the Jewish calendar that brings the period of repentance to its conclusion. The eve of the day is called Kol Nidrei (“all vows”) which are
the opening words of a prayer. The words and music of the Kol Nidrei are said to be the most powerful single item in the Jewish liturgy. A day of
fasting and praying for absolution of one’s sins, it provides every Jew an opportunity for both personal and communal repentance (Parrinder
1971). One must also refrain from eating and drinking, even water. Additional restrictions include washing and bathing, using perfumes, wearing
leather shoes, and engaging in sexual relations. Symbolizing purity, it is customary for the Jews to wear white during the holiday. An entire day
must be spent in the synagogue while reciting prayers. Another blowing of the ram’s horn ends the final prayer service.

Pilgrimage Festivals

During the olden days, the Torah commanded the ancient Israelites to go to Jerusalem on three pilgrimage festivals and
participate in the worship at the Temple. Also called the Shalosh Regalim, these are Pesach (Passover), Shavuot (Weeks or
Pentecost), and Sukkot (Tabernacles). These festivals spiritualize human life and merge nature and history in a divine pattern
(Jurji 1946). Pesach is an eight-day festival that originally marked the beginning of the barley harvest (Parrinder 1971). Its
principal purpose is to commemorate and recreate the Exodus of the Jews from Egypt. A festive meal (seder) is celebrated

27
wherein the story of Exodus is narrated by the heads of the family to the children. Shavuot is a two-day festival that was
originally a celebration of the wheat harvest. Presently, it is now being held to commemorate the revelation of the Torah to
Moses at Mount Sinai. Sukkot is a nine-day festival commemorating the autumn harvest and the forty years of the Israelites’
stay in the desert wilderness subsisting solely on the bounty of God. Temporary booths or structures (sukkah) are built in homes
with a roof through which one can see the stars in the sky. This is an attempt to recreate Israelite life in the desert.

Other Important Days

There are many feasts and festivals celebrated by the Jewish people. The family assumes the principal responsibility for worship,
religious education, and moral behavior (Braswell 1994). Rituals and ceremonies are done both at home and in the synagogue.
Other important events in the Jewish calendar include the Hanukkah, Purim, and the Independence Day of the State of Israel.
Hanukkah (“Festivalof Lights” or “Feast of Dedication”) is a celebration to commemorate the
victory of Jewish fighters against the Seleucid Empire in 165 B.C.E. Purim (“Feast of Esther”) celebrates the deliverance of the
Jews during the Persian
Empire, specifically from the vizier Haman who wanted to annihilate all Persian Jews as recorded in the Book of Esther. A brief
outline of important dates and holy days in the Jewish calendar is presented below with their approximation in the Gregorian
calendar.

Jewish Months and Festivals

Nisan (March or April)
14 – Passover Eve
15-21 Passover Iyyar (April or May)
5 – Israel’s Independence Day Sivan (May or June)
6, 7 – Shavuot Tishri (September or October)
1 – Rosh Hashanah
10 – Yom Kippur
15 – Sukkot
21 – Hashanah Rabbah
22 – Shemini Atzeret
23 – Simchat Torah Kislev (November or December)
25 – Hanukkah begins up to the second of Tebet (December or January)
Adar (February or March)
14 – Purim

SUBDIVISIONS

28
Being one of the oldest religions in the world, Judaism has undergone various changes in response to changing times and
cultures brought about by key
historical events or philosophical upheavals. While there are certain beliefs shared by most adherents, differences and diversity
in faith also abound among Jewish denominations and sects. Within Judaism are three present day movements that emerged in
response to the modern and secular culture of Europe and America. These are Reform, Orthodox, and Conservative Judaism.
Two other smaller sects, namely Hasidism and Kabbalah, are mystical approaches to the Jewish religion that emphasize spiritual
experiences over rational knowledge. Orthodox Judaism is the most traditional of modern Judaism that adheres to the authority
of the entire Torah as given to Moses by God at Mount Sinai. The Torah is the sole authority that must be strictly followed until
the present time. As it considers itself the sole and genuine heir to the Jewish tradition, it rejects all other Jewish movements as
undesirable deviations from the original Jewish religion. Reform Judaism (Liberal or Progressive Judaism) is considered the most
liberal expression of Judaism that subjects religious laws and customs to human judgment. To a certain extent, it developed due
to internal changes in Judaism as well as other factors operating within society. Members of this denomination sought to adhere
to the original teachings of Judaism while allowing some changes in their traditions. For example, services were permitted to be
conducted in mixed Hebrew and English, no longer conducted solely in the Hebrew language. Moreover, women were also
accorded equality in terms of sitting together with men in synagogues and allowing them to become rabbis unlike in other
denominations. Largely developed in the 20th century, Conservative Judaism seeks to
conserve the traditional elements of Judaism while at the same time allowing for modernization that is less radical than Reform
Judaism. The application of new historical methods of study in the light of contemporary knowledge but within the limits of
Jewish law may be applied to safeguard Jewish traditions. Gradual change in law and practice is allowed only if such occurrence
is in harmony with Jewish traditions. Because Conservative Judaism falls halfway between the two other major Jewish
denominations, it is sometimes described as traditional Judaism without fundamentalism. Hasidism or Hasidic Judaism emerged
in Germany during the twelfth century. It was largely a spiritual movement that gives prime importance to asceticism and
experience as a result of love and humility before God. During the eighteenth century, a modern Hasidic movement was started
in Poland by Baal Shem Toy (“Master of the Good Name”) as a reaction to the excessive legalistic nature of Judaism during that
time.

Summary
• The origin of the Jewish people and the beginning of Judaism are recorded in the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, the Pentateuch.
• Judaism has three notable founding figures or patriarchs, namely, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. These biblical patriarchs are the physical and spiritual forebears
of
the Jewish people.
• Judaism is anchored upon God’s revelation to Abraham that he is the creator and ruler of the universe, and that he loves his creatures and demands
righteousness from them.
• The Jewish people have been called the “people of the Book” in reference to the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh or Mikra) that is divided into three principal sections,
namely the Torah, Nevi’im, and Ketuvim.
• Jewish beliefs and doctrines are manifested in the Articles of Faith, in the Ten Commandments, and in the 613 mitzvot or laws.
• Jewish holidays are special days observed to commemorate key events in Jewish history and other events that depict the special connections with the world,

29
 such as creation, revelation, and redemption. These include Sabbath, Days of Awe, and pilgrimage festivals.
• Synagogues are Jewish temples of worship, instruction, and community fellowship.
• At present, the three major denominations of Judaism are Reform, Orthodox, and Conservative Judaism.

5. Self-Assessment: Write a movie review based on your knowledge about the story of Moses. Was the film biblically accurate? Discuss the movie and share your
insights.

Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System

Information Sheet: 1.6

1. Topic: Christianity
2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:

5.1 Recite the Apostle’s Creed, The Lord’s Prayer or the Beatitude
30
5.2 Interpret the Parable of the Prodigal Son
5.3 Explain: The core teaching of Christianity is the message that a loving God sent His begotten Son in order to redeem humankind from eternal
damnation.
5.4 Interview a Christian parent or couple on why they are Christians and what beliefs and practices they adhere to
3.Reference: Intro.to the World Religion and Belief System by Jerome A. Ong, and Mary Dorothy dl. Jose/Author/ Editor/ Page: 68-81

4. Content:
Christianity is considered the most popular religion in the world with the most number of adherents among all
religions. Starting around the 1st century C.E., it developed out of Judaism during the reign of the Roman Empire in West
Asia. It centers on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, who is considered the Messiah or Savior of
humanity. The most common symbol for Christianity is the cross, for Christians believe that Jesus died on the cross to
save humanity from their sins and to restore people’s relationship with God the Father. Christians also believe in the Holy
Trinity, which means God has three aspects—Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit. It is believed that God the Father sent His
only Son, Jesus, to earth to redeem humanity from their sins for them to avoid the eternal flames of hell. Although there
has been a prophesy in Judaism that God the Father will
send His only Son to redeem humanity from their sins and to restore relationship with God, the Jews do not accept that
Jesus was the fulfillment of that
promise. Instead, the Jews are still waiting for the Messiah to be sent by God the Father. Christians, on the other hand,
have accepted that Jesus is the
fulfillment of God’s promise. Nonetheless, Christianity is considered one of the first monotheistic religions in the world and
shares many similarities with Judaism in terms of belief in prophets, angels, judgement day, among others. Together with
Judaism and Islam, Christianity is considered one of the world religions which traces its origins to the patriarch Abraham.

Christiani
ty

31
 Subdivisions
Worships Worships
Sacred Beliefs and
and and
Scriptures Doctrines
Observance Observances
Beliefs

Christianity is a religion that is very familiar to Filipinos because the Philippines has become predominantly Catholic since the
Spaniards occupied the country from the 16th to the 19th centuries, with the spread of Catholicism as one of their enduring
legacies to the Filipino people. It is considered the world’s largest religion, a religion based on the teachings of Jesus Christ who
is considered the Son of God and the Messiah or Savior. Followers of Christianity are called Christians. As of 2010, there are
more than 2 billion Christians all over the world, which make up more than 30% of the world’s population of 6.9 billion.

According to the Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Christian Population (2011), 10
countries with the largest number of Christians are the following:
Estimated Percentage Percentage
Countries 2010 Christian of Population of World Christian
Population that is Christian Population
United States 246,780,000 79.5% 11.3%
Brazil 175,770,000 90.2 8.0
Mexico 107,780,000 95.0 4.9
Russia 105,220,000 73.6 4.8
Philippines 86,790,000 93.1 4.0
Nigeria 80,510,000 50.8 3.7
China 67,070,000 5.0 3.1
DR Congo 63,150,000 95.7 2.9
Germany 58,240,000 70.8 2.7
Ethiopia 52,580,000 63.4 2.4
Subtotal for the 10 Countries 1,043,880,000 40.4 47.8
Total for Rest of World 1,140,180,000 6.3 52.2
World Total 2,184,060,000 31.7 100.0

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Christianity developed in Palestine around 100 C.E. It was founded by Jesus, considered to be the Son of God and Messiah or

32
Savior. Regarded as an offshoot of Judaism, Christianity has survived and even surpassed Judaism and other religions in terms of
number of adherents. Today Christianity is divided into three major sects—Roman Catholicism, Greek Orthodox Church, and
Protestantism. These major Christian sects are further subdivided by Christian denominations that differ in certain beliefs and
practices but are united in worshipping Jesus Christ as the Son of God.

Historical Context

Judea, the mountainous southern part of Palestine, was the home of Christianity. During that time, Judaism was the dominant
religion in Palestine and it was considered by the Jews as land promised to them by God. However, historical developments in
the region we now call West Asia have shown that successive powers have dominated Mesopotamia and nearby territories,
including Palestine which is considered to have a desirable location. Thus, it was conquered by the Assyrian Empire, then by the
Babylonian Empire which enslaved the Jews, then the Achaemenid or Persian Empire under Cyrus, who permitted the Jews to
return to their land. Soon the Greeks under the leadership of Alexander the Great conquered West Asia including Palestine
around 400 B.C. Then the Romans conquered Jerusalem in 63 B.C. When Jesus was born, Palestine was still under Roman rule.
Thus, Christianity was born in an era when Palestine was ruled by a
foreign power, the Romans. Conditions were ripe for the beginning of a new religion. Since the concept of Messiah (which was
promised in Judaism as the one who will liberate them from the evils of the world) proved to be very attractive for a group of
people being colonized by a foreign power. Social conditions cooperated with the relatively free atmosphere created by Agustus’
Pax Romana or Roman Peace. Also, the birth of a man who was considered as the fulfilment of the prophesy among the Jews
that God will send His Son to liberate the people from sufferings and sins paved the way for the development and spread of a
new religion called Christianity.

Jesus as the Founder of Christianity

It was in this backdrop that Jesus, founder of Christianity, lived and preached teachings that served as criticisms of Judaism,
although he himself was a Jew. His ministry began when he was in his early thirties. Preaching and healing in the villages, he
started to preach teachings which were considered revolutionary at that time. For example, He criticized the uprightness and
insincerity of religious officials and emphasized that God values service and love. He also taught about the new covenant that
God will bring to humanity: that of sending His begotten son to save humanity from their sins and restore the people’s
relationship with Him. Jesus preached that he was sent by God to fulfill this goal by dying on the cross, then resurrecting to life
after three days to prove that God’s plan had succeeded. Hearing these messages, Jesus soon attracted a group of followers
who became his disciples and who called Him their teacher. Thus, Christianity started with a prophecy in the Old Testament:
that God will send his only begotten Son to save humanity from eternal damnation. Jesus was seen by his followers to be the
Messiah they were waiting for. Meanwhile, Jews did not accept this to be true; instead, they are still waiting for the promise to
be fulfilled.

33
SACRED SCRIPTURES

The Bible is considered the sacred scripture of Christianity. It is a collection of songs, stories, poetry, letters, history, as well as
literature. It is composed of two books, the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is considered the original
Hebrew Bible, written between 1200 and 165 B.C.E. The New Testament was written by Christians around 100 C.E.

The Old Testament

The Old Testament, also called the Hebrew Bible, is composed of 39 books which are arranged in three parts: The first five
books (Genesis to Deuteronomy) are considered “The Law” or Torah which may refer to guidance or instruction. They are called
as such because they serve as guidelines on how people should live their everyday lives, as well as other legal necessities. Later
these books were called the Pentateauch, which were attributed to Moses. Meanwhile, the second part of the Old Testament is
called “The Prophets” which is divided into two parts, the earlier prophets and the latter prophets. The book of former prophets
is considered historical while the book of latter prophets contain sayings and stories of the prophets. The third part is called
“The Writings,” which include Psalms (songs, prayers, and worship liturgies), Proverbs (wise sayings), Job (a drama that explores
the nature of suffering), and the fve scrolls (Megiloth) which were grouped together for their associations with a particular
religious festival.
Book of the Earlier Prophets Book of The Latter Prophets
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah,
Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, 1-2
Jonah, Micah,
Kings
Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi

The New Testament

The New Testament is composed of 27 books written around 50 to 100 C.E. and is composed of two sections: The Gospels which
tell the story of Jesus (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John); and the Letters (or Epistles), written by various Christian leaders to serve
as guide to the early Christian communities. They were written to tell the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of Apostles and
Luke tell how Christianity developed from a small group of Jewish believers to becoming one of the world’s major religions.
Revelation is the last book of the New Testament, traditionally attributed to the apostle John, which is considered an epistle and
an apocalypse.

BELIEFS/DOCTRINES

34
Christianity has certain beliefs and doctrines that serve as moral guidelines for its followers. As much as possible, Christians
should follow these teachings strictly if they want to redeem God’s promise of eternal life. These teachings are essential to their
belief system as Christians and not following them would lessen their chances of being called true Christians and reduces their
chances of salvation in the afterlife.

Ten Commandments

Also called the Decalogue, the Ten Commandments are a set of laws given by God to the people of Israel at Mt.Sinai through
Moses. In Exodus, God gave
Moses the tablets containing the Ten Commandments, which Moses smashed into pieces because of extreme anger when he
saw the golden calf idol created
and worshipped by the Hebrews. God gave Moses another set to replace the broken one. The Ten Commandments are said to
appear twice in the Bible, in Exodux 20:1-17, and at Deuteronomy 5:-21. They are meant to guide Christians on how to behave
within the family, society, and most especially with respect to God.

Ten Commandments
1. “I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. You shall have no other gods before Me.
2. “You shall not make for yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or
that is in the water under the earth; you
shall not bow down to them nor serve them. For I, the Lord your God, am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children
to the third and fourth generations
of those who hate Me, but showing mercy to thousands, to those who love Me and keep My commandments.”
3. “You shall not take the name of the Lord Your God in vain, for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes His name in vain.”
4. “Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor and do all your work, but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord
your God. In it you shall do no
work; nor your son, nor your daughter, nor your male servant, nor your female servant, nor your cattle, nor your stranger who is within
your gates. For in six days the Lord
made the heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath
day and hallowed it.”
5. “Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long upon the land which the Lord Your God is giving you.”
6. ”You shall not murder.”
7. “You shall not commit adultery.”
8. “You shall not steal.”
9. “You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour.”
10. “You shall not covet your neighbor’s house; you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, nor his male servant, nor his female servant, nor his
donkey, nor anything that
is your neighbor’s.”

35
Seven Sacraments
The Catholic Church has seven sacraments which are considered signs of inner kindness given by God for Christians to live a
genuine human life. The seven
sacraments include
 Baptism,
 Confrmation,
 Holy Communion,
 Confession,
 Matrimony,
 Holy Orders,
 and the Anointing of the Sick.
The first three sacraments are Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Communion, which are considered the sacraments of initiation.
Baptism is meant to remove the guilt and effects of Original Sin and welcome the baptized to the Church. Confirmation, which
should be administered right after Baptism, is meant to complete

Baptism and bring the baptized the graces of the Holy Spirit that were given the Apostles on Pentecost Sunday. Holy
Communion entails the reception of Christ’s body and blood which helps Christians grow in the likeness of Jesus Christ.
Confession is considered the fourth sacrament, which is meant to reconcile

Christians with God by confessing their sins. The Sacrament of Marriage comes next, with the union of a man and a woman for
the purpose of procreation and mutual support. It also reflects the union of Jesus Christ with His Church. The Sacrament of Holy
Orders is considered the continuation of Christ’s priesthood which He passed on to His apostles. And the last sacrament is the
Anointing of the Sick, also known as Extreme Unction or Last Rites, which is administered to those who are on the verge of
death or are seriously ill, or about to undergo a serious operation, for physical and moral strength.

Eight Beatitudes
The Beatitudes comprise what is known as the “Sermon on the Mount” recorded in Matthew 5-7. The Beatitudes refer to the
eight sayings of Jesus at the beginning of the “Sermon on the Mount.” Here are the Eight Beatitudes mentioned in Matthew 5-
7:

And seeing the multitudes, he went up into a mountain: and when he was set, his disciples came unto him:
 And he opened his mouth, and taught them, saying,
 Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
 Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted.
 Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth.

36
 Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled.
 Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy.
 Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God.
 Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of God.
 Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness' sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
 Blessed are ye, when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake.
 Rejoice, and be exceeding glad: for great is your reward in heaven: for so persecuted they the prophets which were before you.

Matthew 5:1-12, New Testament King James Version

Apostles’ Creed
The Apostles’ Creed is believed to have developed in the 100 or 200 C.E. and was influenced later by the Nicene Creed. A
letter written by the Council of Milan in 390 C.E. is the earliest historical evidence of the existence of the Apostles’ Creed.
It is not written by the apostles themselves but it serves as
a summary of their basic teachings.

Apostles’ Creed
I believe in God, the Father almighty,
Creator of heaven and earth.
I believe in Jesus Christ, God’s only Son,
our Lord,
Who was conceived by the Holy Spirit,
Born of the Virgin Mary,
Suffered under Pontius Pilate,
Was crucifed, died, and was buried;
He descended to the dead.
On the third day he rose again; 37
He ascended to heaven,
He is seated at the right hand of the
Father,
SUBDIVISIONS

Prior to the reign of Emperor Constantine who declared himself a Christian in 312 C.E., Christians were persecuted under Roman
emperors. Christianity was only legalized in 313 C.E. upon Constantine’s declaration of the Edict of Milan, which declared
equality among all religions. After defeating his opponents and becoming the sole leader of the Roman Empire in 324 C.E.,
Emperor Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the empire and sought to end all doctrinal arguments on
Christianity. In 325 C.E., he convened the First Ecumenical Council at Nicea in Asia Minor, which was attended by bishops from
the eastern and western regions of the empire. Then, in 330 C.E., he transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to
Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul) and renamed it Constantinople. As time went by, conflicts arose between the Roman Empire
and the Byzantium Empire, resulting in the inevitable split between

the Roman Catholic Church and the Greek Orthodox Church. The conflict was further heightened when Pope Leo III crowned
Charlemagne, King of the
Franks, the Holy Roman Emperor in 800 without consulting the Byzantine Empire. The official split happened in 105 with the
“Great Schism” which divided the
Western Latin Roman Christianity from the Eastern Greek Byzantine Christianity. Abuses and corruption in the church led
another sect to be formed around
the 16th century. Martin Luther, a teacher and a monk, posted his list of ninetyf ive propositions to the door of the church at
Wittenberg in Saxony in 1517, which signaled the beginnings of another Christian sect called Protestantism. The Protestant
Reformation is considered the second greatest split in Christianity. Luther’s timing was perfect, for the printing press was just
recently invented thus he was able to reprint numerous copies of his theses, which led to a wider dissemination of his ideas. One
of the things he opposed was the selling of indulgences (indulgence refers to the pardon granted by the Pope to purgatorial
punishment to Christians who pay a certain amount for the absolution of their sins) of the Catholic Church, which was meant to
save the soul in the afterlife. His ideas spread to England, with King Henry VIII severing his ties from Rome, creating the Church
38
of England and Lutheranism in 1555. As a result, the Catholic Church initiated its own reformation to address the issues raised
by Luther.

Summary
• Christianity is one of the first monotheistic religions in the world. It considers God as the creator and maintainer of the universe—omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent, and
omnibenevolent.
• The Bible is considered the sacred scripture of Christianity and is the basis of the religion's teachings.
• According to Christianity, since human beings are created in the likeness of God, they are intrinsically good; but they are also given free will so they are considered prone to sin
and in need of grace.
• The goal of every individual is to have eternal life of the soul after death.
• For those who have become good Christians, the reward is eternal life in heaven; for those who lived a life full of sins, the punishment is eternal damnation in hell.

5. Self-Assessment: Make a timeline of important events in the history of Christianity and explain briefly the significance of each event.

Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System

Information Sheet: 1.7

1. Topic: Islam
2. Objectives:

39
At the end of this module the student should be able to:

6.1 Read the opening lines of Qur’an preferably from an English version
6.2 Retell the life and times of Prophet Muhammad
6.3 Explain: The core teaching of Islam is there is only one God and Muhammad is His final and greatest messenger.
6.4 Conduct a panel discussion on Muslim beliefs and practices (when possible invite a Muslim)
3. Reference: Intro.to the World Religion and Belief System by Jerome A. Ong, and Mary Dorothy dl. Jose/Author/ Editor/ Page: 85-101

4. Content:
Islam is one the youngest and fastest growing religions in the world founded by Muhammad in the 7th century C.E. The Muslims adhere
Strictly to their faith as they universally follow the “Five Pillars of Islam. Majority of Muslims, the followers of Islam, live in Asia and
Africa. There
are 49 countries in the world that are Muslim-majority or comprise 50% of the population. The 1.2 billion Muslims in these
countries equivalent to 74% of the entire Muslim population worldwide. More than 60% of the world’s Muslims can be found in
Asia, including Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Turkey, and Iran. Indonesia is the world’s most populous Muslim majority
country with almost 87% of the population practicing the Islam religion. In Africa, sizeable Muslim communities are found in
Egypt and Nigeria.

SYMBOLS
The star and crescent has become the acknowledged representation of the Islamic faith. The symbol can be seen in the national
flags of states that came
about following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the 20th century. Around the 1970s, it was adopted by movements that
advocated Arab nationalism. Traditionally, the crescent moon or the hilal has early connections with royalty. It is also closely
linked to the lunar calendar that orders the religious life of the Muslims (Bowker 1997).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Islam began with the Arabian desert people around early seventh century C.E. These people had developed their own set of
beliefs prior to the formal establishment of Islam and had been influenced by other religions for a long period of time, including
Byzantine Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism.
Judea, the home of Christianity, was not too far away from Arabia, and the great cities of Damascus, Antioch, and Alexandria
were neighbors to Mecca and Medina (Hopfe 1983). Byzantine rulers, however, antagonized.

The Life of Muhammad

40
Around the year 570 C.E., Muhammad ibn Abdullah was born in the oasis town of Mecca just off the western coast of the Arabian
Peninsula (Karabell 2007). Muhammad’s father died before he was born while his mother died before he was six years old. He
belonged to the clan of Hashim of the Quraysh tribe that controlled the Kaaba and the camel trade that passed through Mecca.
Following the tradition, he was sent to be reared among the Bedouins. When his mother died, Muhammad was raised by his
grandfather Abd al-Muttalib (Renard 1992). Later on, Muhammad was taken into custody by his paternal uncle, Abu Talib, who
was chief of the Quraysh tribe. Life must have been very difficult for the young Muhammad. With no formal schooling,
Muhammad worked as a caravan worker travelling across the Arabian Peninsula as a camel driver. From his travels in the
Arabian Peninsula to the different Byzantine cities, he may have met and conversed with Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians
alike. Muhammad soon learned the various ways and means of their belief system that may have led him to question the faith of
his own people, especially with regard their animistic practices and reverence given to numerous gods and idols (Hopfe 1983).
He used to retreat to Mount Hira near Mecca in search of truth about God. Muhammad later married an older wealthy widow
named Khadija, fifteen years his senior. Muhammad was twenty-fve years old when he married Khadija who was about forty
years old at the time. Khadija managed her own caravan and Muhammad was working for her. He was married only to Khadija
as long as she lived even though it was acceptable for men to have imultiple wives then. Khadija became his staunch supporter
and one of his frst converts to the new religion he founded. Around the year 610 C.E., Muhammad began hearing the voice of
God in a cave on the summit of Mount Hira, just outside Mecca in the Arabian Hijaz. God was speaking to Muhammad in the
Arabic language (Armstrong 2000; Karabell 2007). Mostly auditory but occasionally in visual form, he began to experience divine
revelations delivered by the angel Gabriel (Renard 1992). Muhammad frst disclosed these revelations only to his wife since
revealing these messages to his tribe could disturb the social order that was primarily anchored on clan and kinship. He was
preaching a new order built upon God’s will and human submission to this belief. The term “Islam” originated from an Arabic
word meaning “submit.” In other words, Islam means to “surrender or submit oneself for obedience to God” or to “enter into a
condition of peace and security with God through
allegiance and surrender to him” (Armstrong 2000; Bowker 1997). On the other hand, the word “Muslim” is the Arabic word for a
person who submits.

A Muslim, therefore, is a “person who surrenders or submits himself to obey God” (Brown 1975). In Arabic, the word “Allah” is a
compound of al (the definite article, the) and ilah (god or deity). Joined together, the words signify “god” (Renard 1993).
Henceforth, he is called Allah or “the one who is God.” Muhammad was preaching that there can only be one God. Beginning
613 C.E., Muhammad began to impart these sacred messages to his closest relatives and friends. However, the polytheistic
people of Mecca gave him a tepid response. As the revelations became known to members of his clan, the Qurasyh tribe began
to consider Muhammad and his radical view of submission to one god as one major threat to the long established tradition and
absoluteness of tribal authority. While god and deities (known as jinn) were revered, tribes and clan reigned supreme on all
societal issues (Karabell 2007). Quite evidently, Muhammad was challenging the supremacy of the Qurasyh system. The
Muslims consider Muhammad as a messenger and the last prophet sent by God to humankind who was visited by the angel
Gabriel. While he gained the loyalty of several followers who were convinced by his religious ideals, the Meccan tribes
eventually grew hostile to Muhammad’s emerging faction. The radical teachings of Muhammad angered local tribes so they
began persecuting him and his loyal followers. In 622 C.E., Muhammad and his group moved to Medina (then known as Yathrib,
200 miles north of Mecca) to escape persecution from the Meccans. The flight of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina is known as

41
hijra which marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Mired in frequent gridlock, Medinian tribes wanted Muhammad to
become their leader (Karabell 2007). The Muslims who follow Muhammad in his journey are known as Muhajirun (“those who
made the hijra”) while those who supported him in Medina are known as Ansar (“the helpers”). Their descendants are honored
in the Islam religion (Bowker 1997). With local tribes involved in frequent internal strife, Muhammad restored peace and order in
Medina. Shortly after his arrival in 622 C.E, he united the Medinian tribes under one constitution. Muhammad and

his followers waged a constant battle against Meccan tribes until 630 C.E. Finally, after almost eight years of struggle,
Muhammad and his troops of around ten thousand converts marched to Mecca and took over the city almost unopposed. In
Kaaba, he tore down the three hundred sixty pagan idols displayed at the holy
shrine. In 632 C.E., Muhammad died at the age of 62 but his newly founded religion had spread across the entire Arabian
Peninsula and the Muslims had been united as one religious community. He was a classic example of a just, compassionate,
honest, and brave human being far removed from all evil deeds. Muhammad’s actions were solely for the sake of Allah as he is
ever mindful and fearful of his one true god (Ibrahim 1997). God has made all revelations to Muhammad, the last of the
prophets and the seal of the prophecy.

SACRED SCRIPTURES

The Q'uran
The sacred writing of the Muslims is called Quran (or Koran in English) that literally means “recitation” or “reading.” The Quran
is the revelation from God of his speech (kalam) and is the foundation of the Islam religion (Bowker 1997). It is the supreme
authority in all matters of faith, theology, and law (Parrinder 1971).
In 610 C.E., when Muhammad received the frst revelations, he was commanded by angel Gabriel to “iqra” or “recite.” All
Muslims believe that the Quran is a copy of the eternal scripture written in heaven but made known to Muhammad chapter by
chapter (Hopfe 1983). As such, the Quran is the word of God that is binding, continuous, and supreme. The same message
became known to earlier prophets like Moses and Jesus but people gradually altered the revelation entrusted to them by God
(Bowker 1997). Any translation of the Quran, either in English or in any other language, is neither a Quran nor a version of the
Quran; rather, it is only a translation of the meaning of the Quran (Ibrahim 1997). The Quran in Arabic, the only language in
which it was revealed, is considered the perfect word of God. For about twenty-three years, God revealed these messages
through Muhammad who initially memorized these lines because he was illiterate. The revelation spanned from about 609 to
632 C.E., the year of the prophet’s death. Muhammad relayed these messages to his companion and secretary Zayd ibn Thabit
(c.610-c.660 C.E.) who wrote them on leather scraps, stone pieces, ribs of palm leaves, shoulder blades of animals, and
parchments (Parrinder 1971; Hopfe 1983). At that time, the art of papermaking was still unknown to the Arab people. Zayd
became one of the first converts of Muhammad to the Islam fold. Twenty years after the death of Muhammad, the Quran had
officially come to the form that was disseminated throughout the centers of the Islamic world. The Quran has remained virtually
unaltered since the time of Muhammad. To the Meccan townspeople, Muhammad preached the messages which were short and
quite easy to remember as these lines rhymed with one another (Brown 1975). The Muslims recite and memorize the Quran
reflecting the profound influence of the scripture on the daily lives of all followers. Muhammad wanted the Muslims to recite
their scripture aloud similar to the manner done by the Jews and Christians. As time went on, the messages increased as
Muhammad kept on receiving new revelations. The Quran guides all Muslims in every stage of their lives.In comparison, the
Quran has almost the same length as the New Testament, the Christian biblical canon (Parrinder 1971). The chapters that
42
compose the Quran are called surahs while the verses are called ayahs which mean “evidence” or “sign.” There are 114
chapters in the Quran, 86 of which are classifed as Meccan while 28 are Medinian. The hijra or the journey of Muhammad from
Mecca to Medina serves as a pivot point in the division of the Quranic verses that belong before or after the said emigration in
622 C.E. (Cragg 2004). The Meccan verses generally pertain to religious ideals while the Medinian verses deal with the
organization of the Muslim community. While the chapters are of varying lengths, the Quran is also divided into thirty almost
equal parts (with each part known as juz) so as to enable a reader to complete the reading of the scripture in one month (Aziz
1993). Neither thematic nor chronological, the Quran is arranged based on the length of the surah in descending order. The
longest surah has about 286 ayahs, the Al-Baqarah (“The Heifer”). The shortest surah has only three ayahs, the Al-Kawthar
(“Abundance”). The frst of all the surah is called Fatihah (“The Opening”) that is in the form of a prayer to God for guidance. The
Fatihah, written below, is the most frequently recited segment of the Koran.

“In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful Praise be to Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the Worlds; Most Gracious,
Most Merciful; Master of the Day of Judgement. You do we worship and Your aid we seek. Show us the straight way, The way of
those on whom You have bestowed Your Grace, those whose (portion) is not wrath, and who go not astray.”

A person who is able to memorize the Quran in its entirety is called hafz (“guardian”). The female counterpart is called hafza.
Whatever denomination
Muslims may belong to, they always have the same Quran written in Arabic similar to the early days of Islam’s founding. No two
copies of the Quran
anywhere in the world differ in any way (Aziz 1993).

The Hadith

The hadith is the collection of the deeds and sayings of Muhammad and his followers (“traditional reports or sayings”) and is the second source of shari’a law
(Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Unlike the Quran that was officially compiled under the auspices of a central authority (as initiated by the first caliph Abu Bakr),
the hadiths were collected generations after the death of Muhammad. The word sahih in these titles indicates that the authors of these books sifted the authentic
reports about Muhammad from other unsubstantiated narratives (Aziz 1993). The various rituals and obligations embedded in the so-called “Five Pillars of
Islam” as well as majority of criminal laws originate from the hadiths (Horrie & Chippindale 2003).The hadiths are recognized today as second in authority after
the Koran (Parrinder 1971). Around the ninth century C.E., Muslim scholars undertook a number of great systematic collections of hadiths that are known as
Kutub al-Sittah or the Six Sahih (“Authentic”) Books. The collections of Persian scholars Muhammad al-Bukhari (810-870) and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (c.815-
875) are the most respected and most often cited among the said collections (Parrinder 1971). Imam Bukhari authored the Sahih al-Bukhari while Imam Muslim
compiled the Sahih Muslim. From the six books, these hadith records are the two most authentic collections.

BELIEFS/DOCTRINES
Islam began as a way of life (din) for its followers which God intended for his creation from the very beginning (Bowker 1997). In time, God had to send
several prophets, including Musa (Moses) and ‘Isa (Jesus), to summon people back to the din as a result of human rebellion and transgression. Ultimately,

43
all prophets were rejected, persecuted, or killed except for Muhammad. While some religions may have room for subjective or personal discernment regarding
matters of conduct, Islamic beliefs are more dominantly social in character. Islamic religious laws cover the daily life of all Muslims from education, dress,
marriage, sexual relations, justice, punishments, economics, diet, and even rules of hospitality. While Islam’s approach to life and death, origins of the universe,
and the nature of mankind is simple, it is also rigid and uncompromising (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). For all Muslims, there is only one compassionate,
everlasting, and
omnipotent God, being the lord of everything in existence, including humans. Around eight thousand years ago, God created the universe and may terminate it
when he wills it so. A “Day of Judgment” shall ensue wherein all humankind will be resurrected and individually accounted for. Everyone will be fully awakened
and raised to a higher spiritual life (Aziz 1193). Based on their own deeds and fully aware of the effects of these deeds in this life, everyone will then be sent to
either paradise or hell for perpetuity (Aziz 1993; Horrie & Chippindale 2003). All these knowledge had been revealed by God to Muhammad and written down in
the Quran. Since all people originate from God and return to him after death, there can never be contending religions that may divide people from one another. As
such, Islam advocates for the establishment of one single community or ummah (Armstrong 2000; Bowker 1997). During Muhammad’s time, the ummah was a
community bigger than the tribe, demanding a loyalty which came before loyalty to kinsfolk (Fletcher 2003). In the end, a Muslim must not fight a fellow
Muslim.

FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM

The basic obligations of Muslims are called the Five Pillars of Islam or arkan al-din. While differences may occur in the interpretation of Islamic law, all
Muslims believe and accept the entirety of these obligations that must be strictly observed to avoid being sent to hell on the
 “Day of Judgment.” The Five Pillars give structure and unity to all believers of Islam.

Foremost among all Muslims’ obligations is the declaration of their statement of belief called shahada (“witness”) that is recited during prayers and rituals. Apart
from shahada, the four other duties that must be performedby all Muslims are collectively called as ibadah (“state of submission”). The ibadah aims to discipline
the adherents and eliminate impostors to the Islamic faith. The ibadah is composed of praying five times a day, fasting during the time of Ramadan, giving of
annual charity, and undertaking a pilgrimage to Mecca once in a Muslim’s lifetime.

1. The Creed (Shahada)

The basic creed of Islam that “there is no God but Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah” is known as shahada. In Arabic, the shahada is recited
as “La ilaha illa Allah; Muhammadon rasul Allah.” These are the very first words uttered into an infant’s ear and perhaps the last words given to a dying
Muslim. The shahada asserts that Allah is the only divinity and that he has relayed his will through Muhammad (Bowker 1997). To be accepted into the Islam
fold, one must recite the kalima or phrase with two witnesses. The frst half of the kalima is known as tawheed (“the unity”) which is the most important statement
of Muslim faith. The second half is called risallah (“acceptance of prophethood”) which implies acceptance of prophets as messengers of god (Horrie &
Chippindale 2003). For a Muslim to deny any part of the shahada is tantamount to the crime of reversion toIslam that is punishable under Quranic law.

2. Obligatory Prayer (Salat)

Just as the body requires food for its daily sustenance, prayers are done for spiritual development so that a Muslim’s character and conduct remain sound and
healthy (Aziz 1993). Facing in the direction of Mecca or qiblah, Muslims must offer prayers or salat five times each and every day before sunrise (as-subh), noon
(az-zuhr), mid-afternoon (al-asr), immediately after sunset (al-maghreb), and before midnight (al-isha) (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). In a mosque or masjid
(“place of prostration”) where Muslims offer prayers in congregation, men and women pray separately. A structure of masjid can range from a simple desert
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prayer ground (musalla) or just any space whereby rules of ritual purity are properly observed. Each prayer session begins when the strong-voiced muezzin or
caller recites the call to prayer (adhan) from the tallest point of a mosque, often a minaret. A minaret is a tall structure or thin tower that is used to call the people
to prayer. The adhan, composed of rhythmic Arabic phrases devised by Muhammad himself, is often recorded and broadcast through speakers (Horrie &
Chippindale 2003). Quite regrettably, muezzins have been slowly replaced by amplifed voices and tape recordings (Jomier 1999). Before any prayer commences,
an elaborate ritual washing (wudu) must be performed to remove any impurities and unclean substances from the body or clothes of the faithful. Most mosques
are frequently equipped with facilities for washing hands, feet, and face before prayer (Hopfe 12983). Clean and potable water must be given to any person who
comes to a mosque (Horrie
& Chippindale 2003). Muslim men often pray in mosques while women pray at their homes.

3. Poor Tax (Zakat)

Muslims who live above the subsistence level must pay zakat or the poor tax to aid the underprivileged Muslims. Affluent Muslims must share their wealth to the
unfortunate ones. Originally, almsgiving was for the benefit of the poor, widows, and orphans through an act of charity. Later on, it became mandatory
amounting to a certain percentage of a Muslim’s total resources. Islam has never viewed begging as dishonorable (Hopfe 1983). Zakat is not charity but an
annual wealth tax that serves as just and lawful claim of the poor against the affluent ones. The zakat is payable the moment a Muslim has accumulated sufficient
resources starting with a basic rate which is fortieth (2.5 percent) of a person’s entire asset, including savings, jewels, and land (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). A
kind of tithe intended to support the needy, zakat has been a contributory factor of solidarity and unity for the Muslim people (Jomier 1999). It is a religious duty
done out of obedience to Allah and compassion to poor Muslims. The spirit of self-sacrifice is developed by paying zakat that somehow curtails the feeling of
greed (Aziz 1993). The Quran states that all worldly wealth is unclean unless utilized in the service of Allah and Islam. A horrible fortune awaits those people
who became wealthy as a result of usurious activities and those who neglect the welfare of poor Muslims. By fulfilling to pay zakat, well-off Muslims cleanse
their material possessions and can liberally enjoy their fortunes with Allah’s approval (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Hence, zakat is viewed as purification of
one’s resources (Frager 2002).

4. Fasting (Sawm)
Fasting or sawm during the entire 30 days of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, must be performed by all Muslims every year. The Ramadan is
believed to be the month when Muhammad received the first surah of the Quran. The sawm is done by all Muslims to express obedience to Allah and the
readiness to relinquish pleasures in their lives. By undertaking sawm, Muslims observe discipline and experience the deprivations of the poor (Bowker 1997).
During this time, a Muslim must refrain from eating, drinking, smoking, and engaging in any sexual intimacy from dusk until dawn. By resisting the demands of
the body during sawm, the Muslims strengthen their will. Muslims are reminded that they have the capacity to ignore the longing of the body or material
gratification (Frager 2002). The sawm culminates with the “Feast of Breaking the Fast” (‘Id al-Fitr) wherein Muslims may celebrate and partake in festivities.
They hold congregational prayers and exchange presents. Unlike the Jews or Catholics who fast for a brief period of time in observance of holy days, the
Muslims are obligated to fast the longest and strictest of all. Any Muslim who has reached puberty and is healthy must undertake sawm. Muslims who are
exempted from performing sawm include small children, those who are on a journey, sick persons, and mothers nursing infants. For those who are temporarily
unable to observe sawm, they must perform the missed fast after Ramadan. For those who are permanently unable to fast, such as the very old or persons those
with long-term illness, they can give charity to poor Muslims instead (Aziz 1993).

5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj)

All Muslims must attempt to undertake a pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca or hajj (“visitation of Holy Places”) at least once in their lifetime during the
twelfth Islamic month. The “Grand Mosque” (Al-Masjid al-Haram) in Mecca houses the most sacred site of Islam, the Kaaba (“House of Allah”). The Kaaba is a
cube-shaped ancient stone building that dates back to the time of Adam and Eve according to Muslim tradition. Muslims believe that the Kaaba was originally
45
built for the worship of God by Abraham and his son Ishmael (Belt 2001). The Kaaba represents the end of a journey because it is the symbolic point of origin of
all creation wherein all things turn around it and from it all things radiate (Renard 1992). Inside the Kaaba is the “Black Stone,” twelve inches in diameter,
located
on the eastern cornerstone of the building that was set intact into the wall by Muhammad himself in 605 C.E. A fragmented dark rock often described as
meteorite, the “Black Stone” has been polished smooth by the pilgrims through time. Broken into a number of fragments, it is now cemented into a silver frame
on the eastern corner of the Kaaba. Some poets consider Muhammad himself as the Kaaba of prophetic revelation while the Kaaba is the “seal of his
prophethood” (Renard 1992).

Lists some of the most important festivals celebrated by Muslims worldwide.

Month Festivities/Significance
• The Islamic year starts in the day of the hijra, Muhammad’s journey from Mecca to Medina in 622
C.E.
Month 1: Muharram (“The Sacred Month”)
• Ashura: The assassination of the Imam Husayn at Karbala’ in 680 C.E. is commemorated on the
10th by Shi’ite Muslims
Month 3: Rabi al-Awai (“The Spring”) • Birth of the Prophet: Muhammad’s birthday is celebrated on the 12th.
• Muslims do not eat or drink during daylight hours throughout the month.
Month 9: Ramadan (“The Month of Great
• Laylat al-Qadr: The commemoration of the frst revelation to the prophet is often celebrated on
Heat”)
the 27th.
Month 10: Shawwal (“The Month of • ‘Id al-Fitr: The Festival of Breaking the Fast at the beginning of Shawwal concludes the fasting
Hunting”) season.
• Month of pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca.
• Yawn Arafat: On the 9th, fasting pilgrims perform the wuquf, standing before God on Mount
Month 12: Dhu al-Hijja (“The Month of Arafat.
Hajj”) • ‘Id al-Adha: The Festival of Sacrifice on the 10th recalls the sacrificial ram God gave to Abraham
in place of his son,
and coincides with the end of Hajj.

SUBDIVISIONS
Similar to most major religions, Islam also has sects, which vary primarily as to how these sects interpret some aspects of the Islamic faith and of the Quran. In as
much as Muslims agree on the fundamental tenets of the Islam religion, variations do occur in many of their beliefs and practices (Hopfe 1983).

Sunni Muslims (The Sunnis)

Majority of Muslims, around 87% to 90% of the entirety of Islam believers, belong to the Sunni denomination. The Sunnis (“Followers of the Smooth Path”) are
traditionalists and are considered the orthodox of Islam as they endeavor to follow the original religion established by Muhammad and guided by the frst four
righteous caliphs (Hopfe 1983). These Muslims follow the sunnah (“customary practice”) of Muhammad from which their name originated. Sunnah pertains to
the orally transmitted record of wisdom, conduct,and sayings attributed to Muhammad and his earliest companions as recorded in hadith.
The Sunnis believe that any Muslim can be a ruler and he does not need to prove his lineage to Muhammad as long as he gets the approval and confdence of the
ummah or community. He can be an elected ruler or a hereditary monarch that should enjoy the support of the ummah. All Sunnis shall abide by his actions
unquestioningly regardless of whether he is a fair or cruel ruler (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Within the Sunni sect of Islam are groups of Muslims that also
differ
in views and exercise of their faith. Religious factions are often the result of national or social differences (Brown1975). Every Muslim country has a Sunni
majority except Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Yemen, and some of the Gulf States (Horrie & Chippindale 2003).
46
Shi’a (The Shi’ites)
The Shi’ite Muslims are the largest faction within the Islam religion that separated from the rest of the community (Brown 1975). Historically speaking, three
close associates of Muhammad became successive leaders or caliphs of Islam with the death of the founder in 632 C.E. The caliphate acted as a central unifying
agency in Islamic history. Initially, caliphs were friends of Muhammad that acted as virtuous leaders of the believers. They may be chosen by election or general
consent. Later on, the position became hereditary resembling that of a king (Hopfe 1983). Some Muslims believed that Muhammad should have been
immediately succeeded by his direct relative, Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was his cousin. Ali was also Muhammad’s son-in-law who married his daughter Fatima. In
656 C.E., Ali became the fourth caliph but steadily lost control of the Muslim world that culminated in the takeover of the caliphate by the Umayyad Dynasty at
the time of Ali’s assassination in a mosque at Kufa and his eventual death in 661 C.E. (Hopfe 1983; Nakash 1994). Known as rashiduns (“rightly-guided
caliphs”), the Sunnis accepted the legitimacy of the frst four successors of Muhammad: Abu Bakr (632-634 C.E.), Umar ibn al-Khattab (634-644 C.E.), Uthman
ibn Affan (644-656 C.E.), and Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661 C.E.). Other Muslims, however, believed that Ali’s descendants should become head of the religious
community. These Muslims were called “Alids” that became known as “Shia Ali” or “the party of Ali.” In time, they came to be called “Shi’ites” (Hopfe 1983).
For the Shi’ites, Ali was the frst imam and the rightful spiritual and political successor of Muhammad. Ali’s youngest son, Husayn, challenged the Umayyad
caliph Yazid I but was later killed and beheaded at the battle of Karbala in 680 C.E. This event, called Ashura or the tenth day of Muharram, is commemorated
each year as a day of mourning for all Shi’ites.
Sufi
Muslims whose concern mainly dwell for a mystical union with God are collectively called Sufs. Their name originate from the word suf that means “woolen”
since they wore coarse wool garments or robes to symbolize poverty and denunciation of worldly pleasures (Hopfe 1983). A Suf can be a Sunni or Shi’ite
Muslim. The Suf movement may have started around the ninth century C.E. at the time when there came a clarion call to live a simpler and austere life far from
the splendor and grandeur that characterized the Abbasid Dynasty. Around the twelfth century, monastic orders were established within the Sufi movement that
focused around a saint. A convert who joins the order were called fakir (“a poor man”) or dervish (“one who comes to the door”). The new recruits studied under
their master to develop their heightened sense of spirituality. Most Suf practitioners practice discipline, poverty, abstinence, and celibacy in some instances.
Summary
• The history of Islam is closely bound with the life story of Muhammad who is recognized by the Muslims as the last of the prophets.
• The sacred writing of the Muslims is called Quran (or Koran in English) that literally means “recitation” or “reading.”
• The basic obligations of Muslims are called the Five Pillars of Islam or arkan al-din and all Muslims believe and accept the entirety of these obligations. The
Five
Pillars give structure and unity to all believers of the Islamic religion.
• The major denominations of Islam include Sunni, Shi’a, and Sufi.

5. Self-Assessment: Make a list of rules that you think is do able even for non-Muslims. Report this in class and compare your list with your classmates.

Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System

Information Sheet: 1.8

1. Topic: Comparative Analysis

2. Objectives:

47
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
7.1 Identify the uniqueness and similarities of Judaism, Christianity and Islam
7.2 Provide evidence that Judaism, Christianity and Islam share common roots from Patriarch Abraham
7.3 Justify that Judaism, Christianity and Islam, as monotheistic religions, have largely influenced the world today.
7.4 Conduct a group research on the doctrines of each of the three religions and compare them in the aspects of origin, morality, purpose, destiny,
and views on women
3.Reference: Intro.to the World Religion and Belief System by Jerome A. Ong, and Mary Dorothy dl.Jose/Author/ Editor/ Page: 105-113

4. Content: ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS: JUDAISM,

CHRISTIANITY, ISLAM

ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS:

JUDAISM, CHRISTIANITY,
ISLAM

Views on
Origin Morality Purpose Destiny
Woman

ORIGIN
 Judaism is the oldest among the three Abrahamic religions, beginning at around 3,500 B.C.E. According to the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible,
the ancient Israelites trace the origin of their nation and their religion as well to one family distinct from other groups of people in Southwest Asia by
virtue of belief in one God. The patriarch of this family was Abraham, a nomadic shepherd who entered into a covenant with God that being the “Father of All
Nations” and heir to the Promised Land, which was Canaan. (Patriarchy is a system of society wherein the father or eldest male is considered the head of family

48
and lineage is traced through the male line.) According to the narratives, Abraham and his wife Sarah took a long time before having a child, who was Isaac.
Meanwhile, before Isaac was born Abraham had a son with Sarah’s lady-in-waiting, Hagar. They named their child Ishmael. Isaac married Rebecca and they had
two children, Esau and Jacob, and from Jacob (who acquires the name Israel) came the 12 tribes of Israel. Ishmael, on the other hand, became the ancestor of the
Arabs who later became Muslims. The Hebrew Bible further narrates how the 12 tribes of Israel founded the nation of Israel and Jacob, being the heir to the
covenant, made a pact
with God that they will be liberated from Egyptian enslavement if they will continue to follow God’s commandments.

 The second oldest religion, Christianity, was formed around 33 C.E. in an area called Palestine. Christians trace their origins to Jesus Christ, born
around 4 B.C.E. while the area was under the Roman Empire. It was a time characterized by social disorder, political turmoil, uprisings, poverty, heavy taxation,
food shortage, and epidemics. To quell the rebellion and implement a semblance of order, those who participated in armed uprisings were crucified, which
incidentally was how Jesus Christ was punished as well. In the midst of these sufferings, the Jewish people were secretly hoping and waiting for God to fulfil His
promise that of sending His Son to redeem them from their oppressive state. It was in this context that Jesus Christ was born and in his late twenties, started to
preach about the coming of the Kingdom of God. He was baptized by another prophet, John the Baptist, and had 12 men as his disciples. His public ministry was
considered a threat to Roman
authority so he was arrested, whipped, and crucified as a penalty for what he did. According to the New Testament, Jesus was resurrected after three days and he
ascended to the heavens but promised that he will come back in the same way that his disciples saw him go into heaven.

 Islam, the youngest of the Abrahamic religions, started around 622 C.E., considered as the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The word Islam is an
Arabic word which means “submission” or “surrender” and is also related to salaam, the Arabic word for “peace.” It originated from Mecca, which is found in
the Arabian Peninsula, with Muhammad, considered the last prophet or “Seal of the Prophet.” It was in Mecca where Muhammed was born and raised by his
uncle Abu Talib, worked as an assistant to a rich nwidow Khadija whom he later married, and meditated on certain social issues such as unequal distribution of
wealth, leading to a great divide between the rich and the poor, as well as the possession of slaves. It was during one of his visits to a cave that the angel Gabriel
appeared before him, delivering the message of Allah that he was chosen to found a new religion and preach that Allah is the only God that should be
worshipped. At frst he thought he was just having a hallucination, but later on he was convinced that he was indeed chosen by God to spread his words so he
began preaching in Mecca,
where he won some converts. But his teaching of equality and brotherhood threatened the power of the rich Quraysh tribe so he was forced to escape to Medina
to avoid persecution. This happened in 622 C.E. and was known as Hegira. From then on Islam gained followers and became one of the dominant religions in the
world.

 If we compare the origins of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, we can see that they share more commonalities than differences. For one, they all
developed during a time of political turmoil and social inequalities (Egyptian enslavement of the Jews, Roman colonization of Christians, and the economic
dominance of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca). The conditions in society were ripe for the birth of religions which would serve as the liberating force that would
provide the people with hope for a better life. It is also noteworthy that all three religions developed belief in one God, or monotheism, with Judaism being the
first monotheistic religion in the world. The first two religions, Judaism and Christianity, also emphasized the importance of having a covenant with God, and in
a way we can say that it is

 also true with Islam because in the Quran, even though Adam and his wife were banished from paradise, Allah promised that they will have no reason to
feel fear or grief if they will just follow God’s will, foremost of which was to worship only one God, Allah. The role of angels as messengers of God was also
evident among the three religions, especially in Christianity when Angel Gabriel was sent to the Virgin Mary to tell her that she would bear the Messiah, and in
Islam when Allah sent Angel Gabriel to tell Muhammad that he was chosen to be God’s last prophet. The story of creation was also shared by the three religions,
49
with the universe and the first man and woman being created by God, but then they were tempted by evil and were banished from paradise, hence the need to
follow God’s commandments to restore humanity’s relationship with God. Lastly, one of the most important commonalities is the belief in Abraham as the
patriarch of the three religions the “Father of Many Nations” for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He was the ideal follower of God for the three religions, for he
followed God’s will unconditionally, even to the extent of sacrificing his own son when God ordered him to do so. In short, Jews, Christians, and Muslims trace
their common ancestry to Abraham.

MORALITY
 In Judaism, morality and ethics are based on the covenant between the Jews and God: that they are God’s chosen people and in return they should follow
His commandments, specifically the Ten Commandments found in the Torah. Although there are around 613 commandments (mitzvoth) in the Torah, the Ten
Commandments serve as a summary of all the laws found in the Torah. Hence, based on the Ten Commandments, murder, adultery, and theft, are prohibited,
which are also forbidden in Christianity and Islam as well. Judaism also espouses retribution, or the philosophy “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,” which
served as the guiding principle of the famous Code of Hammurabi in ancient Babylon. This philosophy can be found in Exodus 21:2, but according to scholars,
this should not be confused with belief in vengeance but equal compensation for damage or loss, often in the form of money and not physical harm. Treating
others as you would have yourself treated by others also serves as a basis for Jewish morality and ethics. This stems from the belief that people were created in
the likeness of God, therefore we all have goodness in ourselves that is why we should treat each other well. Lastly, morality and ethics in Judaism are also based
in the Halakhah, a religious law that provides prescribed rules in everyday living, such as eating, praying, wedding and funeral rites, etc. Like the Ten
Commandments, its
essence also came from the 613 commandments found in the Torah.

 Christianity shares a lot in common with Judaism since both religions use the Hebrew Bible, where the Ten Commandments were listed. Thus, in
Christianity, murder, adultery, and theft are also considered evil and should be avoided if one wants to live a moral life. Aside from the Ten Commandments,
Christianity also considers following in Jesus Christ’s footsteps as basis of morality. Since Jesus lived a life for others and even died on the cross for the salvation
of humanity, Christians are also expected to live a life for others. After all, they were created in God’s image therefore people have an intrinsic goodness in them.
Even in the Ten Commandments, what was emphasized was to love God above all else and to love your neighbor as you love yourself. Hence, living an
exemplary life means following how Jesus lived. When one is led astray from God’s teachings, the Sacraments will help in reconciling oneself to God. For
example, the Sacrament of Confession gives an opportunity for Christians to confess their sins to God through the priest and perform the necessary atonement for
the forgiveness of their sins. Certain observances such as Lent also give Christians an opportunity to reflect on their lives and help them become better Christians.
Unlike Judaism, Christianity does not advocate for retribution since Christians are advised to love their enemies.

 Islamic concept of morality and ethics is based on having faith in one God, which is manifested in exhibiting righteousness and piety. A strong
relationship with God is the key to achieving virtue and right conduct. Since Islam is considered not only as a religion but as a way of life as well, moral
righteousness is expected of Muslims in their everyday lives. The following passage from the Quran explains the Islamic concept of morality: “It is not
righteousness that ye turn your faces towards East or West; but it is righteousness to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the
Messengers; to spread of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for your orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the
ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in your prayer, and practice regular charity; to fulfill the contracts which ye have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (and
suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the Allah-fearing (Al Quran 2:177). Hence, Islam values holiness,
humility, and accountability to God, who

50
is all-knowing. Charity is considered important, and this is reflected in one of the Five Pillars of Islam, the Zakat, in which Muslims are obliged to give alms to
the less fortunate. Vanity is also discouraged, for it is a trait that is not pleasing to God, alongside attachment to material possessions on earth. Being accountable
to

God is also important for nothing can be hidden from Him, and He will be the one to judge people of their sins when the judgment day comes. Acts that
contribute to the welfare of the individual in particular and of society in general are considered morally good, while acts that harm the individual and society are
immoral.

 Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share a lot in terms of morality and ethics. First, emphasis on the worship of one God as the basis of morality. Second,
concern for others as a manifestation of one’s love of God. Judaism and Christianity share the Ten Commandments as the written code of morality, with
emphasis on the avoidance of committing murder, adultery, and theft. Meanwhile, based on the Quran, Islam emphasized the need to possess traits such as
holiness and righteousness as guidelines in becoming morally good. Adherence to religious laws is also important and may pave the way for the eternal salvation
or damnation of the soul, with emphasis on the judgment day as a way of ensuring that people obey the will of God. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam believe that
God is the only source of forgiveness for humanity and only those who follow the righteous path will go to heaven, while those who lived a life away from God
will go to hell.

PURPOSE
 Life’s purpose for Judaism is also based on the covenant between God and the people, particularly the Jewish people who were considered the “Chosen
People of God.” And because they were chosen by God and created according to God’s image, Jews should strive to become god-like and possess the attributes
and traits of God by being holy. Only when people achieve holiness, primarily by following the Ten Commandments, can they perform acts emulating God such
as helping the needy and the oppressed. Thus, the ultimate purpose in life for the Jews was to praise God as the Creator of the universe and imitate God or
become God-like. As God-like creatures, they have certain purposes in the world, the community, to themselves, to their families, and to God Himself. One’s
purpose is to realize one’s full potential and realize who one is meant to be. Living in the likeness of God will guide Jews on how to treat themselves, their
families, communities, and the world.
 In Christianity, the purpose of life is to love and serve God, who created the universe purposefully so it is basically good. Since the creation was
purposeful,
everything and everyone is naturally important. Just like in Judaism, Christianity also advocates the belief that human beings were created in God’s image and
this enables them to have some understanding of God and His divine plan. God granted human beings with reason and free will, which they can use to have a
glimpse of God’s divine plan but can also be used for selfish reasons. Since human beings are capable of committing sins, they can decide to follow God’s will or
live a life of sins. But a person’s sin does not devalue a person in the eyes of God, for in Christianity it is believed that everyone is capable of redemption,
including sinners.

 As with Judaism and Christianity, the purpose of life according to Islam is to love and serve God. The fact that Islam means “surrender” means that a
Muslim must submit to Allah and recognize that Mohammad is His prophet. This concept of submission can be literally observed in the way the Muslims
worship: with their foreheads touching the ground in worship of Allah. God created the universe on purpose so that everyone and everything on it will serve God.
When God created the first human beings, he gave them three divine gifts: intelligence, free will, and speech. The first is so human beings can distinguish
between good and evil; the second is to be able to choose between good and evil; and the third is to have the capacity to worship God. But even though people are
basically good, they can be tempted to commit sins. But since God is merciful and compassionate, people can be forgiven. Living a life in accordance to God’s
plan will help people assist God in achieving His divine plan. They become worthy followers of God by doing good deeds, being honest, and obeying God’s will

51
contained in the Quran and the law. Thus for Muslims, practicing Islam not only as a religion but as a way of life will bring a blissful life on earth and eternal
salvation in the
afterlife.

 As we can see, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have commonalities with regard the purpose of life. All three religions believe that the main purpose of
life is to worship and serve God, follow God’s will, and show this love of God by sharing with other people and helping the ones in need. Since we are all created
in God’s image, our purpose is to live according to God’s ways, and even though we cannot imitate Him absolutely, we need not worry for He is always willing
to forgive us of our sins. We should all strive to become worthy caretakers of everything God created and assist in implementing God’s divine plan.

DESTINY
Judaism believes in predetermination, which means that it is God who decides on a person’s basic lifespan, wealth, and opportunities, but it is still humanity’s
free will that is the deciding factor. A person’s duty is to overcome evil by choosing goodness in everything he or she does. To allow people to choose goodness
over evil, God allowed people into different stations in life. The main reason why God puts people in certain situations in life is for them to serve God according
to their destiny. In that sense, God allows certain people to be rich and some to be poor, for this challenges the poor to rise above the economic challenges to do
good and to serve God, while this puts the rich in an easier situation to serve God, and if they fail to serve God despite their advantageous circumstances, all the
more will they be punished. In short God places each and everyone in different situations to challenge us to do our best in serving Him no matter what our
circumstances are. Similarly, one’s lifespan is predetermined by God, but one’s lifestyle will be the deciding factor on whether God’s plan will succeed or not.
God may prolong a wicked person’s life to give him/her more time to repent, or He may take it away even before his/her predestined time of death in order for
him/her to stop doing wicked things. Similarly, a good person’s time on earth may be taken away earlier than God’s plan so that he/she will no longer fight the
evil in himself/herself, or He may prolong his/her life so that he/she will continue to do good things for others. In the Hebrew Bible, it is written that, “There was
the righteous man who perished in his righteousness, and there was the wicked man who lived long in his evildoing” (Ecclesiastes 7:15).,

 Christianity has a similar concept of destiny. God wanted all of humanity to be saved, for God created hell not for humans but for Satan and his demons
(2
Peter 2:4). Therefore, it is humanity’s predestiny to be saved. (Predestination refers to the belief that all events are determined in advance by divine will or fate.)
But since God also gave us free will, it is up to us to claim that salvation. For Roman Catholics, doing good deeds will merit salvation, while for Protestants, faith
in Jesus Christ and accepting Him as his/her Savior will earn us eternal life. In the story of creation, Adam and Eve were predestined by God to live in paradise
forever. But their free will made them choose the path of disobedience. Therefore, in Christianity, God may have the best plans for us, but our actions and
decisions determine whether God’s plans will materialize or not. Salvation lies in our own hands because of free will. Parents set the rules for their children, but
it is the children’s choice if they will follow their parents or not. And even if we are led astray because of not following them, they are always willing to accept
and forgive us until we make the right choices in life. Similarly, God may have planned the best for us but even if we do not follow His plan, He is always willing
to forgive us and give us another chance to start anew, until we discover the right path to righteousness and salvation.

 In Islam, predestination is more emphasized than in Judaism and Christianity. We have mentioned in the previous subtopic that the three Abrahamic
52
religions are unanimous in their belief that humanity was created to serve and love God. In fact, this is the reason why Islam is considered not only as a religion
but as a way of life, and the life of a Muslim revolves around the worship of Allah. Just like in Judaism and Christianity, Muslims believe they are given free will
by God which allows them to live their lives as they wish. But unlike Judaism and Christianity wherein free will might lead people to disobey God’s plan, in
Islam even the decision they make out of free will is governed by God’s will. Muslims believe that if something is not meant by God to happen, it will not
happen no matter how hard we try to make it happen. And if something is willed by God to happen, it will happen no matter how hard we try to prevent it from
happening.

Everything, even bad things such as massacre, torture, and disease, although not created by God, are allowed by God to happen for a certain purpose which only
He comprehends; it may be to teach people a lesson, or to punish them for their wrongdoings, or to serve as a warning for other people to repent. Belief in
predestiny
also encourages humility, which is one of the traits valued in Islam. The notion that everything is attributed to God hinders one from bragging about one’s
achievements in life by attributing it to God’s divine plan for him/her.

VIEWS ON WOMEN
It is equally important to look at how the Abrahamic religions view women. After all, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all came from places where patriarchy or
the rule of the father is the norm. In the Hebrew Bible, there are passages which show low regard for women, such as the passage wherein women were viewed as
unclean or impure for 40 days after giving birth to a baby boy, and 80 days for the birth of a baby girl. Christianity, although it traces its roots to the patriarch
Abraham, tends to have a higher regard for women, as shown by Jesus’ use of women as positive examples in most parables. Islam, with its belief in Ummah or
the community of believers that is supposed to promote equality among all races, ethnicities, and genders, is supposed to have a high regard for women. Let us
now take a look at how these religions view women.

 Judaism, originating from a patriarchal society, propagates an unequal view of men and women. Because of the belief that men are superior to women,
women were excluded from the priesthood and from numerous religious duties. This is also because of their “’natural” child-rearing functions (http://
www.patheos.com/Library/Judaism/Ethics-Morality-Community/Genderand-Sexuality.html). Aside from the impure state attributed to women when giving birth
especially to a girl, women are considered impure for about half of each month because of menstruation. Divorce is also allowed in Judaism, with men easily
divorcing their wives.

 Christianity is supposed to have a more positive regard for women, if we are to analyze how Jesus treated women. In the New Testament, Jesus spoke
frequently to women and allowed them to be included in his followers. He also preached that men and women have the equal capacity of eternal salvation the
soul, and advised that everybody, regardless of sex, should not let domestic chores hinder them from serving God. Historical developments after the death and
resurrection of Jesus, however, changed the course of Christianity’s positive view of women, for after the conversion of the Roman Emperor Constantine, it was
the Roman Empire that became responsible for the formation of the Christian Church, using the Roman political structures as its model, which were very
hierarchical and patriarchal. Thus, the role of women in the Catholic Church was downplayed, to the extent of excluding women from priesthood.

 In theory, Islam treats men and women equally, for it is stated in the Quran that men and women are equal in the eyes of God and are expected to fulfill
the same duties, such as prayer, worship, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage to Mecca. It is also stated in Islamic law that women should be given dowry or
property given by the husband upon marriage, and that they have the right of inheritance and property ownership. There were also women
53
political leaders in the history of Muslim expansion in West Asia and even in Europe. However, certain Islamic practices
contradict the claim that Islam has a high regard for women. Some of these practices are the limited access to education,
seclusion, strict veiling, polygyny (polygyny refers to a partnership wherein a man has many wives. This Islamic practice
originated from Muhammad who decided that men should be allowed to have more than one wife to accommodate the widows
and orphans of those who died in the wars participated by the Muslims), slavery, and concubinage, or the practice of having
mistresses. In Islam, men are allowed to have up to four wives as long as they can support them financially and guarantee that
they be treated equally. Meanwhile, women are allowed only one husband and
if they are caught with another man, in some societies the punishment is public execution by stoning to death. It is also a
practice in some Islamic societies that


when a woman is raped, she must produce four witnesses to prove that she was indeed raped, and failure to do so would
invalidate her case and penalize her by lashing in public. Strict veiling is also an issue raised by feminists against Islam some
societies require only the hijab or head covering worn in public by Muslim
omen; some require the burka, or a long, loose garment covering the whole body from head to feet. The practice of purdah or
strict veiling of women in Islam is symbolic of their subordination and literally inhibits their social mobility.

CONCLUSION
 It goes without saying that the major world religions discussed in this chapter have become influential in the world up to the present time. Two of these
monotheistic religions remain the most popular religions in the world in terms of number of adherents, with Christianity as the most popular, followed by Islam.
Thus, the cultures which developed in these societies are heavily influenced by their religious doctrines and beliefs, especially since these religions are not only
treated as religions but as ways of life. In fact, it has even been predicted that the conflict among civilizations would be based primarily on religion (Huntington
1996). Aside from this, these religions provide societies with public morality, which aids the state in maintaining peace and order among its citizens. Political
configurations in certain regions of the word are also based on religion, such as countries in West Asia which are predominantly Islamic. Certain historical
developments such as the holocaust, crusades, and holy wars have also been attributed to religion.

Summary
• Judaism originated from Israel; Christianity from Palestine; and Islam from Arabia. All three places are found in West Asia and the three religions developed at
a time of oppression the Jews from Egyptian enslavement; Christians from Roman colonization; and the Muslims from the inequality between the rich and the
poor in Arabia.
• The three religions believe in: the laws of God as basis of their morality; the worship of God; and living a life emulating God’s ways which could reward them
with eternal life.
• Judaism, Christianity, and Islam believe that the purpose of life is to serve and love God, for it is the primary purpose for which we are created in the first place.
• All three religions believe in predestination; with Judaism and Christianity emphasizing that although God has laid down His plans for us, it is free will that will
dictate if that plan will materialize; meanwhile, Islam has a stronger sense of predestination, with the belief that everything that happens is according to God’s
will in spite of free will given to humanity.
• Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, coming from patriarchal societies, do not accord to women the same rights accorded to men. All three religions do not share
religious leadership with women and have certain practices which show that women are subordinate to men.

54
5. Self-Assessment: What can be done to elevate the status of women in the three Abrahamic religions?

Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System

Information Sheet: 1.9

1. Topic: Hinduism
2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
8.1 Recite the creation story in Rig Veda
8.2 Identify the names of the major Hindu deities as well as their corresponding functions or powers
8.3 Explain: The core teaching of Hinduism is the attainment of liberation in the identification of Atman and Brahman through the Four Yogas.
8.4 Simulate a particular yoga and write a reflection paper on your insights on Hinduism
3. Reference:
4. Content:
 Hinduism is the world’s oldest organized religion that began on the Indian subcontinent with no specific moment of origin and no specific
founder. Hindu followers vary in their set of beliefs and practices as they accept the pluralistic nature of their traditions.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Hinduism is oftentimes considered as the oldest and most complex of all world religions. While the most active religions of the modern times may
have started around the sixth century B.C.E. onward, elements and themes of Hindu belief may have begun around the third millennium B.C.E. In
addition, unlike other major religions, Hinduism had no one identifiable founder (Hopfe 1983).
 The term Hindu originated from the Persian word hindu (in Sanskrit sindhu) which means “river.”
 It also refers to the people of the Indus Valley— the Indians (Bowker 1997).
 The name Hinduism was given in the nineteenth century to describe the wide array of belief systems in India. Hinduism was originally
known as “Arya Dharma” or the “Aryan Way.” As early as 3000 B.C.E., there were already thriving civilizations in India, such as those
55
 discovered in the ancient Punjab city of Harappa and in Mohenjo-Daro along the Indus. However, we know very little about the belief
system of these early people (Brown 1975). Historically, the foundations of Hinduism may have originated from the customs of the early
peoples of the Indus valley around 2500 B.C.E. to 1500 B.C.E., in the more advanced culture of the Dravidians, and from the Aryans who
invaded northwest India around 1500 B.C.E. (Bowker 1997). Aryans brought with them their set of beliefs based on oral texts known as
Vedas. This Vedic literature, however, was chiefly composed at the time the Aryans had already settled in India and blended with the
natives. Admittedly, bthere is much difficulty in identifying elements in the Vedas that are genuinely pre-Aryan or Aryan influenced.
However, certain fundamental assumptions about the Aryan religion can be stated here. Firstly, the Aryans brought with them a polytheistic
religion similar to that of other Indo-European peoples.The sun, the moon and storms, are personified in reference to the pantheon of gods
and goddesses worshipped by the Aryans. Secondly, sacrifice was the principal form of worship to the Aryan gods. Offerings to gods
include animals and dairy products performed on altars in
open spaces. Since Aryans were nomadic, they had no temples (Hopfe 1983). In general, Hinduism has pre-Aryan and Aryan elements that
date back to ancient times.

SACRED SCRIPTURES
 The sacred texts of Hinduism have been principally passed down throughout generations by way of music, recitation, dance, and drama.
Sanskrit has been the language of the earliest writings (Coogan 2005). The sacred writings of the Hindus are categorized into two classes, the shruti
and smriti.

SHRUTI
 Shruti literally means “that which is heard.” They are regarded as eternal truths that were passed orally until the beginning of the present age
wherein there came the need to write them down (Bowker 1997). The four collections of texts of the Vedas form the shruti and are considered
primary sources and the most authoritative texts of the Hindu faith. Other writings that form part of shruti include the Samhitas, Brahmanas,
Upanishads, and a few Sutras.

Vedas
 The four basic Vedic books, which are sacrificial hymns compiled from an earlier oral tradition, are composed of Rig-veda, Sama-veda,
Yajur-veda, and Atharva-veda. The word Veda means “knowledge” or “sacred lore.” The Vedas are the earliest known Sanskrit literature from the
Brahmanic period and oldest scriptures of Hinduism. Scholars disagree as to when the Vedas were first written. The earliest hymns may have been
written around 2000 B.C.E. or before the arrival of the Aryans in the Indus Valley area. They may also have been written down between 1500
B.C.E. to 400 B.C.E. Ascertaining the exact period is difficult because these books may have been composed and passed orally for so many
generations before they were first written down and eventually completed. In the great epic Mahabharata, Brahma was said to have created the
Vedas. Among the four Vedas, the Rig-Veda is the most important and oldest book that dates back to around 1500 B.C.E. to 1200 B.C.E. Apart
from being the oldest work of literature in an Indo-European language, it is also the oldest living religious literature of the world (Parrinder 1971).
The book is a collection of over a thousand hymns and more than thousand verses dedicated to the Aryan pantheon of gods.

Lists some of the names of these deities.

Gods and Goddesses Personifcations or Attributes

56
 leader of the devas or gods; the lord of heaven in Hinduism; god of
Indra rain
and thunderstorms
Agri god of fre; messenger of the gods
Adityas sun-gods
Mitra deity for honesty, friendship, contracts, and meetings
Varuna god of the water; god of law of the underwater world
Ushas deity of dawns
Savitr solar deity
Rudra deity of wind or storm
Pushan solar deity; god of meeting
Brihaspati diety and religion
Dyaus Pita sky god; father sky
Prithvi mother earth
Surya chief solar deity; the sun
Vayu lord of the winds
Apas water
Parjanya thunder and rain

Yajur-Veda or the “knowledge of rites” is the second book. Composed between 1200 B.C.E. to 1000 B.C.E., this book is a compilation of materials recited
during rituals and sacrifices to deities. The third book is Sama-Veda or the “knowledge of chants.” Dating back almost the same time as the Yajur-Veda, this
book is a collection of verses from the basic hymns recited by priests during sacrifices. Lastly, the fourth book is Atharva-Veda or “knowledge given by the sage
Atharva” that date back around 1500 B.C.E. to 1000 B.C.E. This book contains rituals used in homes and popular prayers to gods. Seldom used in solemn
ceremonies unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharva-Veda contains numerous spells and incantations for medicinal purposes and magical aids to victory in battle
among others (Parrinder 1971).
 Each Vedas consists of four main parts, the Mantras, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Mantras are hymns and chants for praising god.
Brahmanas are explanations of the Mantras with detailed descriptions of the sacrificial ceremonies related to them. Aranyakas are meditations that
explicate their meaning. Upanishads or secret teachings transcend rituals to elucidate the nature of the universe and human’s connectedness to it. The
many teachings embedded in the Upanishads are called Vedanta, and these are teeming with spiritual truths (Brown 1987).
Upanishads
 Forming the fourth part of the Vedas, the term Upanishad literally translates as “sitting down near” or “sitting close to” as it implies listening intently
to the mystic teachings of a spiritual teacher who has fully understood the universal truths. It could also mean “brahma-knowledge” whereby ignorance is totally
eliminated. Within these amazing collection of writings that were transmitted orally through generations, one can find early philosophical statements that form
the basis for all later Hindu philosophy. The great Indian nationalist and philosopher Sri Aurobindo described the Upanishads as the “supreme work of the Indian
mind.” Varying in length from one page to over fifty pages, all fundamental teachings and concepts about Hinduism are found in these profound treatises—such
as karma (action), samsara (reincarnation), moksha (nirvana), atman (soul), and Brahman (Absolute Almighty). Of the two hundred Upanishads, fourteen of these
are considered principal writings. The earliest of the Upanishads may have originated in the ninth century B.C.E. while the most recent around the sixth century
B.C.E. (Hopfe 1983).

SHMRITI
 Smriti literally means “that which has been remembered.” These writings serve to reinforce shruti and are interpreted by sages and scholars alike. Most
of these texts are sectarian in nature and considered of lesser importance compared to shruti, such as stories and legends, codes of conduct for the society,
57
 and guidebooks for worship. The great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, which contains the philosophical poem Bhagavad Gita, are part of shmriti.
These are national epics of India and considered to be the sacred texts of the masses where they draw their values and ideals (Brown 1975).

Ramayana
 The Ramayana, translated as the “Story of Rama” or “Rama’s Journey,” is a Sanskrit epic poem written by the poet Valmiki consisting of 24,000 verses
in seven books and 500 cantos. This great epic was written between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E. Central to the story is Rama, a prince and later portrayed as avatar
or incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu, who was born in Ayodhya. Rama was exiled by his father on the eve of his coronation. Meanwhile, in the forest, Rama’s
consort, Sita, was abducted by Ravana, the demon-king of Lanka. Rama struggles mightily to win Sita back. After a battle, Rama kills Ravana and reunites again
with Sita. Returning to Ayodhya, they are crowned with Rama portrayed as the ideal king. Rama and Sita are the epitome of perfect man and woman. Meanwhile,
Ravana symbolizes ambition and greed resulting in cosmic disorder and degradation of women and family (Bowker 1997). Presently, this story is danced out and
acted in Southeast Asia where Hindu influence is observable. Most characters are popular in Indonesia, Thailand, and Cambodia (Coogan 2005).

Mahabharata
 Another major Sanskrit literature of old India is Mahabharata which is composed of around one hundred thousand verses making it the word’s longest
poem. Written around 500 B.C.E., this magnificient work is attributed to the author Vyasa who is also considered to be the scribe of the Vedas. The Mahabharata
tells of a great struggle among the descendants of a king called Bharata, a name used by many Indians to mean “India” (Coogan 2005). Two families are at war,
the Pandavas who represent good and the Kauravas who embody evil (Brown 1975). The hundred Kaurava brothers try to cheat their five cousins, the Pandavas,
out of their share of the kingdom. As intense battle ensued, every kingdom had to take sides.

Bhagavad Gita
 A celebrated episode within the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad Gita (or simply Gita) which is translated as “the Lord’s Song.” It is believed to have been
written between the second century B.C.E. and third century C.E. Considered as one of the holiest books by the Hindus, the Gita is a 700-verse narrative of a
dialogue between the Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide-cousin Krishna. Just as the war is about to commence at Kurukshetra, Arjuna is troubled at the
thought of having to fght his relatives and contemplates his fate and struggles set before him. He then seeks the opinion of his charioteer Krishna who asserts the
righteousness of the act while expounding the moral and philosophical consequences of human actions. Their conversations in the battlefield, found between
chapters 25 and 42, comprise about eighteen chapters and constitute the Bhagavad Gita.
 The Gita instructs any person that one may reach god through devotion, knowledge, or selfless action (Coogan 2005). Humans must do their duty or
dharma whatever it may be and whatever results it could produce. The Gita is considered the layman’s Upanishads because the difficult teachings of the
Upanishads are presented here in a manner that commoners can understand (Brown 1975).

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

The Hindu faith offers its followers many paths to salvation. They may find liberation from the cycle of life through devotion to one or more gods. Gods and
goddesses can be worshipped at their temples. In temples, devotees can pray and offer sacrifices so that they can gain favor from deities and assist them in their
struggle for salvation. Bhakti stands for the soul’s longing for and clinging to god (Brown 1975).

58
Devotion to the Trimurti
Central to Hinduism is the Brahman who is the ultimate reality, one and undivided (Hopfe 1983). The Brahman is often seen in three forms or functions. Called
the Trimurti, these are creation, preservation, and destruction. These functions are expressed in god forms, namely, Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver;
and Shiva, the destroyer. Though widely respected and recognized as the creator of the universe, Brahma receives the least attention among the trimurti. In fact,
only two temples are dedicated to him in India and he has no cult of devotees (Hopfe 1983). He is not worshiped in the same way as other gods because he has
done his task and will not come into his own until the next creation of the universe (Bowker 1997). When depicted, Brahma has four heads and eight hands. His
chief consort is Saraswati, the goddess of science and wisdom. Brahma’s vehicle is a swan or goose which symbolizes knowledge. Known as a god of love,
benevolence, and forgiveness, Vishnu’s primary concern is humanity itself. As the preserver, the creation is withdrawn to a seed whenever he sleeps but rises
again as he wakes up. He is worshiped in various forms of his incarnations or avatars. Based on mythology, Vishnu has appeared on earth in nine different forms
and will come a tenth time to end the present era or kalpa, to bring the world to an end, and then recreate it. These manifestations of Vishnu are intended to help
humanity with his preserving, restoring, and protecting powers.

Lists the 10 avatars of Vishnu.

Incarnation Form Attributes
saved humanity and the sacred
Matsya fsh
Veda texts from flood
helped create the world by
Kurma turtle
supporting it on his back
raised the earth out of water with
Varaha boar
his tusks
Narasimha half-man, half-lion destroyed a tyrant king
subdued king Bali, a powerful
Vamana dwarf
demon
Parshurama Brahmin destroyed the warrior class
rescued his wife Sita and killed
Rama man
the demon Ravana
told the epic poem Bhagavad Gita
Krishna man
to the warrior Arjuna
Buddha man the enlightened man
Kalki horse yet to come to earth

Lists down the four yogas with their corresponding practices.

The Four Yogas Practices
Jnana Yoga (The Way of
The path of knowledge, wisdom, introspection, and contemplation
Knowledge)
The path of devotion, emotion, love, compassion, and service to God
Bhakti Yoga (The Way of Love)
and others
The path of action, service to others, mindfulness, and remembering
Karma Yoga (The Way of Work)
the levels of our being while fulfilling our actions or karma in the world
The path of meditation that directly deals with the encountering and
Raja Yoga (The Way of Meditation)
transcending thoughts of the mind

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 Hindu Festivals
Month Name of Festival Signifcance
January Lohri Celebrated in the Punjab, this marks the end of winter
Februar
Pongal-Sankranti A feast held in south India to celebrate the rice harvest
y
March Holi The national celebration of spring and the New Year
A national honoring of Shiva; Worshippers fast during the day, and an
March Shivaratri
all-night vigil is held at Shiva temples
An honouring of Vishnu and his consort Sri, celebrated in Madras at the
April Sri Vaishnavas beginning of the hot season; Images of Vishnu are taken from the
temples to the seashore
May Rathyatra The birthday of Lord Jagannath, celebrated with chariots in Puri
The birthday of Krishna, celebrated nationally; Worshippers fast during
August Janmashtami the day and break the fast in the evening, following a special puja, or
worship
Septemb A celebration of the triumph of good over evil, in honor of Durga or
Dusserah
er Rama
Septemb The birthday of Ganesh, celebrated nationally throughout India; Huge
Ganesh Chaturthi
er images of Ganesh are paraded
October Diwali A national celebration in honor of Rama and his consort
SUBDIVISIONS
 Followers of Hinduism vary in their set of beliefs and practices, including reverence to a particular god. Presently, there
are four principal denominations within the Hindu faith. These are Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishavism, and Smartism. It is
important to note, however, that while these gods have different names, Hindus all worship one supreme being. Each sect
has its own religious leaders, sacred texts, schools, and temples. While there is indeed variety and key differences among
sects, adherents of these denominations share the pervading beliefs concerning karma, dharma, reincarnation, and other
key Hindu concepts and philosophy.

Shaivism
Lord Shiva, the Compassionate One, is God for the Saivites. Followers of Shaivism value self-discipline and philosophy. They
worship in temples and practice yoga.

Shaktism
The Goddess Shakti is supreme for Shaktas. She is the divine mother and assumes many forms, be it a gentle one or a fierce
deity. Believers use chants, magic, and yoga to summon cosmic forces.

Vaishnavism
Lord Vishnu is God for the Vaishnavites, especially in his incarnations Krishnan and Rama. Adherents have multitudes of saints,
temples, and sacred texts.

Smartism
For the Smartas, devotees are left to choose their own deity in one of six manifestations, namely, Ganesha, Siva, Shakti, Vishnu,
Surya, and Skanda. Smartas are known as liberals as they embrace all major Hindu gods.
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Summary
• Hinduism is oftentimes considered as the oldest and most complex of all world religions. Hinduism has no single founder, no specific theological
system, and no single sacred text.
• The concept of dharma is closely linked to the Hindu religion. It is the power that preserves the society.
• The sacred writings of the Hindus are categorized into shruti and smriti. Shruti literally means “that which is heard” and are regarded as eternal
truths that were passed orally. The four books of Vedas are part of the shruti. Meanwhile, smriti literally means “that which has been
remembered”
and these are writings that serve to reinforce shruti.
• Fundamental to Hindu teachings are the doctrines of samsara (the cycle of rebirth) and karma (the universal law of causality).
• Apart from recognizing a vast assortment of Indian deities, the Hindus believe in the trimurti (trinity) composed of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
Integral to Hindu worship are the sacred images and temples believed to house and represent the deities.

Self-Assessment: Simulate a particular yoga and write a reflection paper on your insights on Hinduism

Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System

Information Sheet: 1.10

1. Topic: . Theravada Buddhism

2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
9.1 State the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-fold path
9.2 Give examples of situations that demonstrate cravings which may lead to suffering according to The ravada Buddhism
9.3 Explain: The core teaching of Theravada Buddhism is that life is suffering; suffering is due to craving; there is a way to overcome craving;
and the way to overcome craving is the Eight-fold Path, the Middle Way (between pleasure and mortification).
9.4 Evaluate the Eight-fold Path in terms of how it achieves the Middle Way

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 3. Reference:
4. Content:
Buddhism is one of the most practical among the world’s great religions because its belief system intends to meet basic human needs and
solve humankind’s spiritual problem without depending on supernatural forces (Brown 1975). The two main divisions of the religion are Mahayana
Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism. With around 360 million followers, Mahayana Buddhism is practiced in China, Japan, and Mongolia.
Meanwhile, Theravada Buddhism, with 150 million adherents, is followed in Myanmar, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. Buddhism is the religion of around
500 million people or about 7% to 8% of the world’s population. Buddhist followers are mostly found in the Asian continent, with China having the
largest population at around 244 million or 18% of its total population. Asian countries that have the highest Buddhist majority in terms of population
include Cambodia (97%), Thailand (93%), Myanmar (80%), Bhutan (75%), Sri Lanka (69%), and Laos (66%).
 Buddhism has two main divisions and many sects. A major branch of the religion, Theravada Buddhism (“school of elder monks” or “school
of the ancients”) or the “Southern School of Buddhism” draws on the collected teachings of the oldest recorded texts of Buddhist texts to
become its central precept, the Pali Canon. This school claims to have preserved the original teachings of Siddhartha with pristine purity
(Clasper 1992). Theravada Buddhism has gained considerable following in the West in modern times.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Buddhism has been in existence for over 2,500 years and has never experienced any drastic or radical schisms in its evolution
(Toula-Breysse 2001). As the disciples of Siddhartha Gautama spread his word and preached throughout various communities,
there came a need for them to adapt to local culture, politics, and economic context. Emerging branches of Buddhism had
become adjusted to the milieu of the place. They may differ on the doctrines of Buddhism but their relationships with other
subgroups are generally good (Toula-Breysse 2001). The basic tenets of both major schools of thought originate from Siddhartha
Gautama whose life has become a constant source of inspiration to others (Brown 1975).

Life of the Buddha

The sage Siddhartha Gautama may have been born between 563 B.C.E. to 480 B.C.E. into the Sakya tribe in Lumbini (in present-
day Nepal) near the town of Kapilavastu (the capital city of the Sakya state) in the foothills of the Nepalese Himalayas
(Kulananda 2001). Born into the Kshatriya caste, his father was Suddhodana, an aristocratic Hindu chieftain, and his mother was
Mahamaya, a Koliyan princess. The Buddha’s family name was Gautama or Gotama. According to tradition, at the time when
Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Mahamaya dreamt of a brilliant white light shining down on her from the sky. In the rays of
the light was a magnificent white elephant with six large tusks. The elephant moved closer to the queen and melted into her
body. Ten months later, Siddhartha was born. He emerged from the side of the queen, took seven steps, and said, “I have been
born to achieve awakening (bodhi) for the good of the world: this is my last birth (Coogan 2005).” Mahamaya died shortly after giving
birth to Siddhartha, also known as Sakyamuni or the “sage of the Sakya clan.” The name ‘Siddhartha’ means “he who achieves his aim.” He was reared by
62
Mahamaya’s younger sister Mahapajapati who became his father’s second wife and the frst woman to request ordination from the Buddha. The word “Buddha”
means “the awakened one” or the “enlightened one.” At the time of his birth, the seer Asita predicted that the child was destined for either political or spiritual
ascendancy (Skilton 1994; Kulananda 2001). Since Suddhodana wanted Siddhartha to choose the life of a great king, he made sure that the young boy
experienced the comfort of wealth and power. In effect, Suddhodana kept his child shielded from the harsh realities of human suffering outside the luxurious
palace. He was given noble education and instruction in science, horsemanship, and archery (Toula-Breysse 2001). At the age of sixteen, Suddhodana arranged
Siddhartha’s marriage to a beautiful and refned young woman, Yasodhara (also Siddhartha’s cousin), who later gave birth to their son Rahula.
 Siddhartha spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu and he began to develop a keen sense of discontent. As he felt constant emptiness despite living a
life of luxury and ease, he sought answers to his questions by leaving his comfortable abode without the knowledge or approval of his family. He left his wife,
child, and social status as he began to search for truth and liberation (Kulananda 2001). Siddhartha’s venture outside the comfort of the palace led him to
encounter four suffering people that eventually transformed his outlook on life (Brown 1975). The four encounters or the “Four Signs” that occurred made him
realize the inevitability of misery in people’s lives. First, meeting an old man made him accept that old age was an unavoidable circumstance no matter how
unwelcome it is to a person. Second, a crippled man reflected upon him that illness is inescapable despite a person’s relentless effort to avoid any disease. Third,
a decaying corpse made him understand that death was the inevitable end of all. Last, an ascetic monk or shramana impressed upon him the person’s tranquillity
and the possibility of renouncing worldly pleasures in exchange for utter quietude. All these distressing manifestations convinced him that worldly and material
possessions could not satisfy one’s need. Taking his fnest horse, he rode off into the night. He cut his hair and beard, and sent them back with the horse through
his charioteer (Hopfe 1983). Ultimately, he renounced the members of his caste despite his father’s resistance and he resolved to become a mendicant, a beggar
of alms. Also known as the “Great Renunciation,” he lived as an ascetic with homeless existence (Bowker 1997). He went to the forest and clothed himself in the
yellow robes of a hermit (Brown 1975). Siddhartha practiced asceticism in search of a way to escape suffering. Far withdrawn from his accustomed environment,
he lived at the outskirts of society and associated himself with religious masters, such as Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta (Skilton 1994). As he became
dissatisfed with their teachings, however, he went on his own way to subject himself to inexorable

SACRED SCRIPTURES
The early schools of Buddhism developed their own unique body of sacred texts. Of these, however, only the Pali Canon or
the Tipitaka/Tripitaka (“three baskets”) of Theravada Buddhism survives (Coogan 2005). Preserved in the Pali language, this
standard collection of scriptures of Theravada Buddhists is the first known, the most conservative, and the most complete
extant early canon of Buddhist writings. Immediately after Siddhartha’s death or parinirvana, the “First Buddhist Council” was
called to order to recite the content of his teachings or dhamma/ dharma. These teachings were initially passed down orally
until

they were recorded in palm trees after fve centuries during the “Fourth Buddhist Council” held in 29 B.C.E. The monks saw
the need to commit into writing
the Pali Canon so that in the event that the monks die, important Buddhist teachings would still remain. The council was
convened in Tambapanni as a result of poor harvests in Sri Lanka that starved many monks. With the support of the Sri
Lankan king, Vattagamani or Valagamba of Anuradhapura, the council lasted

for three years. Five hundred monks recited Siddhartha’s teachings as they recorded them in palm trees. In Pali language, the
word pitaka translates as “basket” referring to the receptacles where the palm leaf manuscripts were stored by the monks.

The three baskets (tipitaka/tripitaka) and their contents

63
 Tipitika Contents
Buddha’s doctrinal discourses; short poems to long prose narratives
Sutta Pitaka (Discourse)
about Siddhartha’s previous lives
Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline) Rules of discipline; stories that illustrate Buddhist moral principles
Abhidhamma Pitaka (Ultimate Doctrine) Systematic analysis of the categories of Buddhist thought
 The frst basket, the Sutta Pitaka, contains the conventional teaching delivered by Siddhartha on different occasions. Discourses of Siddharta’s disciples,
such as Sariputta, Moggallana, and Ananda, are also part of the Sutta Pitaka. It is divided into fve collections, namely, Digha Nikaya (Collection of Long
Discourses), Majjhima Nikaya (Collection of Middle-length Discourses), Samyutta Nikaya (Collection of Kindred Sayings), Anguttara Nikaya
(Collection of Discourses arranged in accordance with number), and Khuddaka Nikaya (Smaller Collection).
 The second basket, the Vinaya Pitaka, contains the disciplinary code nrequired of Buddhist monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis). Various rules and
regulations must be followed by the monastic community. It consists of five books, namely, Parajika Pali (Major Offences), Pacittiya Pali (Minor
Offences), Mahavagga Pali (Greater Section), Cullavagga Pali (Smaller Section), and Parivara Pali (Epitome of the Vinaya).
 The third basket, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, is a work on moral psychology. The reflective philosophies of Siddhartha’s teachings are contained in the
Abhidhamma Pitaka that is strictly a Theravada collection. It is composed of seven works, namely, Dhamma-Sangani (Enumeration of Phenomena),
Vibhanga (The Book of the Treatises), Katha Vatthu (Point of Controversy), Puggala Pannatti (Description of Individuals), Dhatu Katha (Discussion with
reference to Elements), Yamaka (The Book of Pairs), and Patthana (The Book of Relations).

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

Siddhartha never intended to start a new religion especially, and so his teachings are focused primarily on ethics and self-understanding as people work for their
salvation on their own without needing the assistance of any supreme being (Hopfe 1983). Here lies the main difference of Buddhism with other religions it has
no place for God or savior, as salvation entirely lies within anyone’s control (Brown 1975). Siddhartha did not claim to be a savior but a guide and teacher as he
pointed the way for others to follow and gain spiritual bliss in doing so. Another unique feature of Buddhism is the belief that soul or the Hindu atman does not
exist as people live in a state of nonsoulness or anatman/ anatta. Buddhism does not preach that humans have an eternal and indestructible soul (Brown 1975).
Nothing is permanent in this world, hence, all things change and are impermanent. The mark of impermanence or anitya/anicca states that all conditioned things
are transitory and passing; they all have beginning and end to their existence (Skilton 1994). Human existence, or what we actually call soul, is a composite of fve
mental or physical aggregates or khandas.

These aggregates include the

(1) physical form or corporeality,
(2) feelings or sensations,
(3) understanding or perception,
(4) will or mental formation, and
(5) consciousness (Hopfe 1983;
Toula-Breysse 2001) Hence, humans do not have a permanent, unchanging, real soul that dwells within them (Parrinder 1971). In effect, no soul is being reborn
because there is no permanence in anything (Bowker 1997).

Four Noble Truths

(1) The First Noble Truth. This identifies the origin of the problem the dukkha. Suffering can be experienced throughout the different stages of a person’s
life from birth, sickness, old age, to ultimate death. When one clings to one of the previously stated aggregates, this leads to suffering. When one unites
with the unpleasant, it causes suffering. When one dissociates from the pleasant, it also results in suffering.
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 (2) (2) The Second Noble Truth. This explains the cause of suffering or the samodaya – in craving or desire (or tanha), in the perpetual thirst of humans to
consume things, experiences, or ideas (Parrinder 1971). People are never satisfed as they always want more or something else, want somethingb new, or
just want to discontinue something. People crave for existence or non-existence and seek sensual pleasures. People search for self-satisfaction from
things they believe they can experience. However, since the nature of all these things is impermanent, people become attached to these things due to
ignorance that leads to desire and eventual suffering (Brown 1975).
(3) (3) The Third Noble Truth. This asserts that there is a cessation or nirodha to suffering and bondage by eliminating craving and desire. By dropping the
bonds of craving, one gets to be released from the fundamental nature of reality.
(4) (4) The Fourth Noble Truth. This directs an individual to the path or magga leading to the termination of craving and desire, and to eventual cessation of
pain. Likewise, one must avoid self-indulgence and self-torture since both are pointless. This is the path toward moderation or the “Middle Way” aimed
at ending suffering. Known as the “Noble Eightfold Path” which is an entirely practical path and each described as “right” or samma it is divided into
three aspects, namely, wisdom, morality, and meditation. For path of wisdom, this includes Right View and Right Intention. For path of morality, this
includes Right Speech, Right Action, and Right Livelihood. For path of meditation, it consists of Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right
Concentration.
Summarizes the essence of the “Noble Eightfold Path.”
Eightfold Path What One Must Do
Right View Understand the “Four Noble Truths”
Right Intention Free one’s self from ill-will, cruelty, and untruthfulness
Right Speech Abstain from untruthfulness, tale-bearing, harsh language, and vain talk
Right Action Abstain from killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct
Right Livelihood Earn a living in a way not harmful to any living thing
Avoid evil thoughts and overcome them, arouse good thoughts and
Right Effort
maintain them
Right Mindfulness Pay vigilant attention to every state of the body, feeling, and mind
Concentrate on a single object so as to induce certain special states of
Right Concentration
consciousness in deep meditation

SUBDIVISIONS
Theravada is the more conservative subdivision of Buddhism than Mahayana. Thus, it is closer to the fundamental teachings of Siddhartha. Sri Lanka,
Myanmar, and Thailand are predominantly Theravada Buddhists. During the third century B.C.E., the Indian emperor Ashoka Maurya, who ruled between 269
B.C.E. to 232 B.C.E., propagated Buddhism in Sri Lanka that has remained relatively unchanged through time as a result of its rather peaceful history (Mizuno
1987; Hopfe 1983). Ashoka’s son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra established Buddhism in then Ceylon.

Summary
• The fundamental teachings of Buddhism are closely tied to the life of Siddhartha Gautama who was born between 563 B.C.E. to 480 B.C.E. in Lumbini in the
foothills of the Nepalese Himalayas.

65
• The Theravada sect is the school of Buddhism that draw its scriptural inspiration from the Pali Canon or Tipitaka/Tripitaka (“three baskets”).
• The teachings of Siddhartha include discourses on the “Four Noble Truths,” “Noble Eightfold Path,” “Impermanence of Things,” and “Dependent Origination.”
• The sangha pertains to the Buddhist order and monastic community as founded by Siddhartha during the same year that he attained his enlightenment.
• Most Buddhist festivals are frequently happy celebrations. Most Buddhist festivals are held to commemorate important events in the life of Siddhartha
Gautama.
• The subdivisions of Theravada that existed during the early history of Sri Lanka can be traced from the three monasteries of Mahavihara, Abhayagiri vihara,
and Jetavana.

Self-Assessment: Why does Buddha believe that one must truly understand the “Four Noble Truths” and “The Middle Way” before beginning the “Noble Eight fold Path”?

Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System

Information Sheet: 1.11

1. Topic: Mahayana Buddhism

2. Objectives:

66
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
10.1 State the three levels of perfection of Mahayana Buddhism (moral discipline, cultivation of virtue, and altruistic conduct)
10.2 Give examples of acts of generosity of Mahayana Buddhists
10.3 Explain: The core teaching of Mahayana Buddhism is to seek complete enlightenment for the benefit of all living beings through insight and
compassion.
10.4 Draw the insight from the acts of generosity of Tzu Chi Foundation that reflect the core teaching of Mahayana Buddhism
3. Reference:
4. Content:
Mahayana and Theravada both originated in the foundational teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, their methods and search for liberation
from the cycle of reincarnation can be very different. They may be viewed as two different articulations of the original principles of the
historical Buddha. For example, in contrast to the Theravada school of thought, Mayahana Buddhism aims to extend religious authority to a
larger number of people.Not a single group but more of an assembly of Buddhist customs, Mahayana Buddhism is widespread in China
Mongolia, Korea, Japan, and Tibet. With its openness to more traditional religious views, it has developed a wide appeal to common people
and gained tremendous ground in becoming one of the most successful missionary religions in the world (Hopfe 1983).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
During the third century B.C.E., a number of subtle variations began to take place in Buddhism at a time when the Mauryan king Ashoka
was propagating Buddhist gospels through missionary efforts (Hopfe 1983). The Mahasamghika (“of the Great Sangha”), one of the early
Buddhist schools, may have been the source for the initial growth of Mahayana Buddhism, especially during the “Second Buddhist Council”
that occurred a hundred years after Buddha’s parinirvana. Considered a historical event, a religious schism between the Mahasamghika and
Sthavira nikaya (“Sect of the Elders”), another major Buddhist school, transpired during the said council. These new ideas eventually
concretized resulting in a new form of Buddhism quite different from the original teachings taught by Siddhartha Gautama and to those
accepted by Theravada Buddhists. In short, Mahayana Buddhism practically became a new religion. In time, missionaries of Mahayana
Buddhism were able to penetrate new places without fear of reprisal from native religions since deities or local gods can be treated as
manifestations or incarnations of Buddha. Other religions could be absorbed by Mahayana Buddhism by way of this key principle in their
proselytizing activities. While Theravada was the first to enter China during the first century C.E., Buddhism did not gain much ground here
not until the arrival of Mahayana in the third century C.E. In time, Mahayana Buddhism took a major foothold of China while local beliefs
were relegated to lesser stature (Hopfe 1983). Korea was the next territory to be influenced by Mahayana school around the fourth century
C.E. and followed by Japan
in the sixth century C.E. Mahayana Buddhism existed alongside Japan’s native religion Shintoism. Mongolia and Tibet likewise embraced
Mahayana Buddhism. All these places developed their own versions of Mahayana Buddhism that exist up until the present day.

Summarizes the nature of the three bodies of Buddha.

Nature or Aspect
The Body Manifestation
of “Buddha-hood”
Dharmakaya Body of absolute truth; absolute Buddha is transcendent

67
 nature of all beings
Buddha’s body of bliss, or
Body that experiences bliss of
Sambhogakaya enjoyment
enlightenment
body
Body that manifests the world; Buddha’s earthly body, just like
Nirmanakaya embodiment of any other
dharmakaya in human form human being’s body

The dharmakaya is identical with perfect enlightenment that is absolute and beyond existence or non-existence. Everyone is capable of
attaining this special place which is beyond perceptual forms. As a body of bliss, the state of sambhogakaya is already enlightened but
remains distinctive. Believed to be a remuneration of one’s aggregated positive deeds, it serves as a crossing point between the two other
trikayas of Buddha. Lastly, nirmanakaya is the physical body that undergoes birth, inhabits the world, and dies in the end. The great teacher
Siddhartha Gautama is an example of a Buddha in a state of nirmanakaya. For Mahayana Buddhists, Buddhas are not individuals who
actually lived in this world. In some ways, they are simply expressions of the one Buddha reality, such as that of Siddhartha Gautama
(Brown 1975). These great Buddhas are to be found in various heavens enshrined together with other gods and saints. In China, Amitabha is
a very popular Buddha. In Japan, Vairocana is the great Buddha.

Bodhisattvas
One distinct feature of Mahayana Buddhism concerns its teaching about an enlightened being or bodhisattva (“enlightened existence”)
which is the ultimate way for any Buddhist to live in this world. A bodhisattva has generated bodhicitta or the spontaneous desire to achieve
the state of being enlightened. The concept of bodhicitta greatly differs between the two main schoolsmof Buddhism.

The teachings of Theravada place a great emphasis on selfliberation where there is a total reliance on one’s self to eradicate sufferings. On
the other hand, apart from self-liberation, it is also essential for Mahayana adherents to assist other sentient beings in their quest for
liberation. The attainment of nirvana is not confned to one’s self as an arhat (“perfected one”) but must be shared to all striving beings
(Bowker 1997).
A bodhisattva, who is already eligible to enter fnal enlightenment by perfecting himself through countless incarnations, opts to forego the
right
to enter nirvana and decides to be born again into this evil world to assist others in attaining the same state, even descending to the depths of
lowest hells to rescue ill-fated victims imprisoned there (Jurji 1946; Murphy 1949). Through skilful ways, a bodhisattva has the capacity to
determine the state of mind and emotion of each person thereby facilitating assistance based on the actual needs. The concept of bodhisattva
helped in explaining the life of Siddhartha Gautama before he died, as depicted in the jataka tales or birth stories of the historical Buddha.
The path of the bodhisattva can also be taken by any ordinary person, which is a way of selflessness so that one can also be liberated from all
forms of suffering in the cycle of rebirth. Frequently depicted as celestial beings who answer the prayers of those who need help,
bodhisattvas are embodiment of great compassion. Numerous devotions and meditational texts have been developed that revered these
benevolent beings. As a result, Mahayana Buddhism as a polytheistic belief continued to grow in time along with its pantheon of
bodhisattvas. Nevertheless, bodhisattvas from those countries that embraced Mahayana Buddhism differ significantly from one another,
such as those that were adopted Buddhist deity among all bodhisattvas, being the personification of perfect compassion, probably
representing in Buddhism the sun-god Vishnu of the older Hinduism (Murphy 1949). Manjushri is the embodiment of wisdom, intelligence,
68
and willpower. Ksitigarbha is the one who helps and liberates all sentient beings residing in hell. Samanthabhadra is the representation of
love, virtue, and diligence. Mayahana Buddhism encourages everyone to pursue the path of a bodhisattva, assume their vows, and work for
the absolute enlightenment of all living beings. in China and Japan. While Maitreya (“Buddha of the Future”) is the only accepted
bodhisattva in Theravada Buddhism, oriental Mahayana Buddhism has four other principal bodhisattvas, namely, Avalokiteshvara,
Manjushri, Ksitigarbha, and Samanthabhadra. Avalokiteshvara is the most revered and most popular.

The Ten Bhumis and The Six Paramita

Bhumi Description Paramita Nature
The bodhisattva starts the journey Perfection
Pramudita-bhumi Dana Paramita
joyful with the inspiration of of giving or
(Joyful Land) (Generosity)
enlightenment generosity
Vimala-bhumi The bodhisattva is purifed of immoral Sila Paramita Perfection
(Land of Purity) conduct and dispositions (Discipline) of morality
Prabhakari-bhumi The bodhisattva is purifed of the Perfection
Ksanti Paramita
(Luminous or Radiant “Three Poisons,” namely, greed, hate, of patience
(Patience)
Land) and ignorance or forbearance
Archismati-bhumi
(The Brilliant or The bodhisattva burns away all false Virya Paramita Perfection
Blazing conceptions (Diligence) of energy
Land)
The bodhisattva goes deeper into
Sudurjaya-bhumi meditation and understands the “Four Dhyana Paramita
Perfection
(The Land That is Noble Truths” and the “Two Truths” (Meditative
of meditation
Diffcult to Conquer) which are the conventional and the Concentration)
ultimate truths
The bodhisattva sees that all
Abhimukhi-bhumi
phenomena are without self-essence Prajna Paramita Perfection
(The Land Looking
and understands the nature of (Wisdom) of wisdom
Forward to Wisdom)
dependent origination
Durangama-bhumi The bodhisattva acquires the power
(The Far-Reaching of skilful means (upaya) to help others
Land) realize enlightenment
Achala-bhumi The bodhisattva can no longer be
(The Immovable disturbed because “Buddha-hood” is
Land) within sight
Sadhumati-bhumi
The bodhisattva understands all
(The Land of Good
dharmas and is able to teach others
Thoughts)
The bodhisattva is confrmed of the
Dharmamegha-bhumi
“Buddha-hood” and enters “Tushita
(The Land of Dharma
Heaven” or the heaven of contented
Clouds)
gods

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Summary
• The Mahasamghika (“of the Great Sangha”), one of the early Buddhist schools, became the source for the initial growth of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Mahayana Buddhists advanced the radical idea that Siddhartha Gautama was not the only Buddha. There were other divine beings that came to our
world even before Siddhartha, some of them came after him, and still others in the future.
• The canon of Mahayana Buddhism consists of the Tripitaka, namely, Sutra Pitaka (Discourse), Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline), and Abhidharma Pitaka
(Ultimate Doctrine).
• Mahayana Buddhism adopted the Sanskrit usage rather than the Pali form of common terms strictly used in Theravada Buddhism.
• One of the most popular and prominent Mahayana Buddhist texts (or sutra) is the Lotus Sutra containing the most defnitive teachings of the
Buddha.
• The concept of trikaya (“three bodies”) pertains to the teaching of Mahayana Buddhism about the nature of the Buddha and reality.
• One distinct feature of Mahayana Buddhism concerns its teaching about an enlightened being or bodhisattva (“enlightened existence”) who is
already
eligible to enter nirvana but opts to forego this right to assist others attain the same state.
• Buddhism integrates an assortment of religious practices and devotional rituals with the objective of aiding worshippers in their journey toward
enlightenment and in bringing blessings to each and every one.
• Mahayana Buddhism consists of a variety of schools and family of religions, including the Pure Land Sect, the Intuitive Sects, Rationalist Sect,
Socio-political Sect, and Tibetan Buddhism.

Self-Assessment: Draw the insight from the acts of generosity of Tzu Chi Foundation that reflect the core teaching of Mahayana Buddhism

Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System

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Information Sheet: 1.12

1. Topic: Comparative Analysis of Hinduism and Buddhism & Mahayana and Theravada
2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
11.1 Identify the uniqueness and similarities of Hinduism, Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism
11.2 Provide evidence that Hinduism Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism share common roots from India
11.3 Justify that Hinduism, Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism, as Vedic religions, have largely influenced the world today.
11.4 Conduct an interview on the doctrines of each of the three religions and compare the in the aspects of origin, morality, purpose, destiny, and
views on women
3. Reference:
4. Content:
In Hinduism and Buddhism (Mahayana and Theravada), integral concept. In Hinduism governing a person’s conduct. It is also one of the
four Hindu goals of life. , dharma refers to the religious and moral law dharma is an For the two Buddhist schools, it may pertain to the
cosmic law and order or to Buddha’s teachings. Apart from the Buddha and the sangha, the dharma is one of the “Three Jewels” to which
Buddhist followers go for refuge. Hinduism and Buddhism both originated in India. Hindu followers comprise 80% of India’s population of
more than a billion or about 14% of the world’s population. Meanwhile, there are more than 370 million Buddhists around the world that
represent about 6% of the entire population. Quite interestingly, while Buddhism began in India, it almost died out as a living religion
in its place of origin (Coogan 2005). Majority of its followers can be found in China Japan, Korea, and Indochina Peninsula. The major sects
of Buddhism include Theravada and Mahayana schools of thought.

ORIGIN
 Both Hinduism and Buddhism, two of the world’s great religions, trace their origin in India. Believed to be the oldest living religion in the
world, the early beginnings of Hinduism with its forms and themes may have begun around the third millennium B.C.E. (Hopfe 1983). As
the precise time of its founding is very much difficult to determine, Hinduism evolved and developed during the ancient Indus Valley
civilization. It is widely regarded that both pre-Aryan and Aryan elements are found in Hinduism (Brown 1975). A timeless religion as it is
and a way of life for its adherents, Hinduism has no precise moment of origin and no one specific founder or prophet unlike most other
world religions. Throughout its long history, Hinduism became the source of three other religions, namely, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
Buddhism also traces its origins in northern India around the sixth century B.C.E. as another interpretation of the Hindu belief. This religion
is closely linked to its founder Siddhartha Gautama who is also referred to as the
 Buddha or the “Enlightened One.” A son of a Kshatriya chief, the once affluent Siddhartha abandoned the comfort of his palace and family
as he set to discover the remedy to universal suffering he observed in this world. After long periods of abstinence and meditation, he finally
reached enlightenment (nirvana) and became known as the “Buddha” or the “enlightened one.” He preached mainly in the eastern part of the

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  Indian subcontinent such as in Magadha and Kosala. About 500 years after Buddha’s enlightenment, a schism within the Buddhist religion
resulted in the emergence of two major branches around the first century C.E, namely, the Theravada and Mayahana schools of tradition.
Both schools owe their fundamental teachings to the Buddha whose life has become an inspiration to millions of followers all over the
world. Around the third century B.C.E., Buddhism reached neighboring Asian countries as a result of the missionary zeal of Indian rulers. A
different outlook to salvation attracted many Asian people to embrace the tenets of Buddhism as it reached China, India, Korea, and
Indochina Peninsula. However, while Buddhism was successfully converting people in faraway places, Buddhist fervor gradually waned in
native India as a result of resurging Hinduism. The resurgence in Hinduism is due to how Hinduism absorbed the rising challenge of other
new religions as it incorporated their elements into the Hindu belief.

MORALITY
 Hinduism is said to be the most tolerant of all religions as there are numerous ways to manifest one’s set of Hindu beliefs (Hopfe 1983). In
short, the Hindus themselves differ in the manner of practicing their religion. However, while Hinduism may seemingly lack a cohesive
system of beliefs and practices, most of its adherents hold several key moral values such as karma and dharma. The concept of karma
involves the accumulation of one’s past deeds that have a direct effect on one’s present condition. Karma is closely linked to the Hindu
belief of reincarnation (samsara) or the cycle of life, death, and rebirth. Bad deeds, including actions and thoughts, may result in one being
born into an unpleasant circumstance in the next life. On the other hand, good deeds generate an enjoyable disposition in one’s next life. In short,
karma is the universal law of causality. The notion of balance and order in this universe is integral to the Hindu belief. People are born in this world with
specifc duties to perform in accordance to their status in society, such as those elements related to gender and caste. This is the concept of dharma
wherein people must accomplish their tasks so that society can prosper as a whole. Evidently, dharma is a complex term that could mean law, duty,
order, justice, or norm within Hinduism. To disregard one’s dharma is tantamount to reaping bad karma that could have an adverse effect in the next life.
By performing one’s dharma correctly, one gains good karma. Essentially, dharma brings morality and ethics in the Hindu belief system.

 While the Buddha embraced the general framework of Indian ideas, he radically altered many of them (Bowker 1997). Similarly, the cycle of rebirth
persists in Buddhism and succeeding lives may be affected by the moral laws of cause and effect or karma. Until one has achieved enlightenment, one’s
deed in the present lifetime will affect the course of future rebirths. Buddhist moral thoughts and actions are principally guided by the “Four Noble
Truths” formulated by the Buddha, along with the basic guide called the “Eightfold Paths” that are divided into three categories, namely, right
view, right conduct, and right practice. Unhappiness of life (dukkha) is principally caused by people’s unending desires. People are advised to scrutinize
their motivations and ponder upon the outcome of their actions keeping in mind Buddha’s teachings. Anything harmful to others, in deed and in
thought, must always be avoided. The two major schools of Buddhism, the Theravada and Mahayana sects, follow the “Four Noble Truths” and the
“Noble Eightfold Path.

PURPOSE

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  In Hinduism, there are four desirable goals of life (purushartha). All Hindus aim to achieve the four-fold purpose of life that includes dharma, artha,
kama,
and moksha. Dharma means to behave appropriately and act righteously. In essence, dharma is a path toward a pleasant rebirth through fulfllment of one’s
destiny that is often defned by class, family, social status, age, and gender. It also involves paying debts to gods, fellow humans, and other living beings during
their lifetime. Artha pertains to the pursuit of legitimate worldly prosperity or material well-being. Wealth must be gained by way of lawful measures. As one
pursues success, dharma must always be kept in mind. Kama refers to the pursuit of legitimate pleasure as one obtains enjoyment in life, such as those related to
arts, music, and dance. This could also include satisfaction of one’s desire or sexuality. Moksha is the fnal meaning of life that involves enlightenment, self-
realization, or union with god. For the Hindus, this is the most diffcult goal of life to accomplish. While some can accomplish moksha in just one lifetime, others
may take several reincarnations in another physical form just to be liberated from the cycle of rebirth. While ignorance and illusion hinder the enlightenment of
sentient beings, they can still escape these bondages. In essence, the main purpose of their life is to obtain release from the cycle of reincarnation or at least a
better rebirth.

 In addition to the four goals of life, traditional Hindus often pass the four stages of life (ashramas). The frst stage of Hindu life is that of being a student
(brahmacarya). As a bachelor, he lives in the house of a guru and studies sacred scriptures under his guidance. The second stage is that of being a householder
(grihastha) wherein he takes in a wife, raises children, and contributes to the well-being of society (Brown 1975). During the third stage (vanaprastha), he
withdraws to the forest with his wife as he undergoes meditation to understand the meaning of life. Finally, the fourth stage (samnyasin) involves renouncing the
world and all its attachments as he now becomes a holy sage. The first three stages are obligatory in nature while the fourth is only optional and not all men attain
it.

 In Buddhism, the principal purpose of one’s life is to terminate all forms of suffering caused by attachment to impermanent entities, such as material
things, friends, and health. All these do not offer enduring happiness but sorrow. When one recognizes the impermanence of all these things, an individual begins
to free one’s self from attachment thereby reducing suffering and ending the cycle of rebirth. Buddha’s teachings on the “Four Noble Truths” and the “Noble
Eightfold Path” form the basic tenets of all Buddhist sects.

 In Theravada Buddhism, the monastic way of life ensures the path toward enlightenment. For the Buddhist laity, they must first be reborn as monks for
them to be eligible for enlightenment. As members of the laity perform good deeds, positive karma may bring forth a pleasant condition in the next life. In
contrast, Mahayana Buddhism offers enlightenment to anyone, not only for the members of the monastic order, but also for those with families and secular
careers. Moreover, the Mahayana branch of Buddhism attracts followers because it offers a faster route to enlightenment than the Theravada sect.

DESTINY
Simply put, the destiny of all Hindus involves reincarnation until such time they gain ultimate enlightenment. Hinduism believes that within the human is an
eternal soul (atman) that is being reborn millions of times and in many forms subject to the moral law of karma (Bowker 1997). While the soul is immortal and
naturally blissful, it could plunge into darkness because of ignorance and delusion concerning reality. Moral law enables souls to create their own destiny leading
to a pleasurable or repulsive state of existence. Hindu practices to achieve enlightenment involves yoga, meditation, proper worship, rituals, devotion to gods and
goddesses, pilgrimage to sacred shrines, and performing one’s duties. For the Hindus, the idea of an eternal heaven or hell is unfounded as it does not uphold
genuine moral behavior. In fact, the concept of heaven and hell can be exploited by religious groups just wanting to lure or scare people.
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  Meanwhile, Buddhism holds that no soul is being reborn because there is no permanence in anything (Bowker 1997). The Buddha preached to his
followers to achieve their own salvation conscientiously because external forces have no control over their life and circumstances. They control their own fate as
they are bound to the law of causality. Buddhist destiny, therefore, is the direct result of natural law or dharma and one’s accumulated deeds or karma. Here lies
the glaring difference of Buddhism as a dharmic religion when compared to other world religions that teach the concept of fate or predestiny. For Buddhist
followers, life and events are not controlled by an all-powerful creator or universal force. In contrast to Hinduism and other religions, the Buddhist goal is neither
absorption into Brahman nor union with God. Instead, Buddhists aspire to reach nirvana or the extinguishing of fires of longing and suffering (Bowker 1997).
When one has achieved nirvana, one has attained the state of perfect peace wherein attachment, aversion, and ignorance have ceased once and for all.
 In the Theravada school of Buddhism, the trainings on the development of ethical conduct, meditation, and insight assist in eradicating all forms of evil
in order to acquire goodness and purify the mind. All worldly things are momentary and impermanent. By following the “Middle Path” and practicing the basic
doctrines of Buddhism, there is a realization that desire can be terminated and suffering reduced. In the end, a perfected state of insight can be accomplished. A
person who has attained this position is called an arhat or a “worthy person” who must be emulated by Theravada Buddhists. Adherents can reach an enlightened
status through their own ways without any assistance from any divine beings, such as gods or goddesses. With the help of Buddha’s teachings, the journey
toward nirvana becomes possible.
 Meanwhile, the Mahayana sect devotes much attention to the bodhisattvas or “enlightened beings” who delay their own enlightenment for them to
benevolently aid other beings to reach their ultimate end. All beings can follow the path of the bodhisattvas which is the ideal way for all Buddhists to live. Well-
known in the Mahayana sect are Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, Ksitigarbha, and Samantabhadra. The Theravada sect only accepts Maitreya as boddhisatva.

VIEWS ON WOMEN
 The status of women in ancient India leaves much to be desired as they are always seen as inferior to men in all aspects of life. Restrictions abound
with regard to their daily activities; tending household chores would be their primary role. Women are to be cared for by their parents in their childhood days, by
their husbands when they marry, and by their sons when they reach old age. Religious and educational liberties for women are severely lacking. Honoring women
in Hindu society as a fundamental teaching has been laid down in one of the supplementary arms of the Vedas, the Manusmriti or the “Laws of Manu.” Based on
this standard book in the Hindu canon, women must attend ritualistic practices despite the fact that they had no roles to play in these activities. According to this
basic text, the three-stage pattern for a woman include that a woman child be protected by her father, a wife must be protected by her husband, and an old woman
be protected by her sons. As a married woman, she must become a good wife and treat her husband as a god. She must serve and follow him, and pray for him.
She often eats when her husband has fnished eating. In return, a husband must also revere his wife as a goddess. The sacred text adds that the happiness of the
wife is crucial in the stability of the family. Cases of having several wives also exist in Indian society that naturally breed hatred and jealousies among the wives.
More so, women are not allowed to remarry after the death of their husbands. Shaving their head is a requirement to make them unappealing to other interested
men. The most diffcult chores are given to widows and they are forbidden to eat alongside family members. Widows are personifcation of all the negative
characteristics of a woman, ill-fated and wretched. Widows are brought to the Indian city of Vrindavan by their families who eventually abandon them there. A
widow can opt to commit sati or the act of killing herself by jumping into the funeral pyre of her husband. It is believed that immolating one’s self assures
immense rewards for the family and gives a chance to the wife to be with her husband in the next life. The practice of sati has now been banned in India
especially with the passage of Sati (Prevention) Act of 1988 that criminalized any type of involvement in sati. On the other hand, women have enjoyed
considerable freedom in their religious life in Buddhism as compared to Hinduism. The Buddha himself allowed the full participation of women in all major
Buddhist rites and practices. For so long a time when women’s duties were confned to household and kitchen duties, Buddha radically changed this when he
allowed women to join the monastic order and attain enlightenment in equal footing with men. In the past, learned women members of sangha include

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Dhammadinna, Khema, and Uppalavanna. Fully-ordained Buddhist female monastic members are bhikkunis. For the Buddha, men are not always wise and
women can also be wise. In Buddhism, women should not be treated as

inferior to men because both are equally valuable in society. Women as wives and mothers have roles to fulfill in the family and society. Husbands and wives
must equally share responsibilities in the family with the same zeal. Wives must also familiarize themselves in trade and business dealings so that they can also
handle these affairs. Men and women have equal status in Buddhist societies.

Summary
• Both Hinduism and Buddhism, two of the world’s great religions, trace their origin in India. Throughout its long history, Hinduism became the source of three
other religions, namely, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
• Buddhist fervor gradually waned in native India as a result of resurging Hinduism that absorbed the rising challenge of other new religions as it incorporated
their
elements into the Hindu belief.
• Most Hindu adherents hold several key moral values such as karma and dharma. Buddhist moral thoughts and actions are principally guided by the “Four Noble
Truths” and the “Eightfold Paths.”
• In Hinduism, there are four desirable goals of life (purushartha). All Hindus aim to achieve the four-fold purpose of life that includes dharma, artha, kama, and
moksha.
• In Buddhism, the principal purpose of one’s life is to terminate all forms of suffering caused by attachment to impermanent entities.
• The destiny of all Hindus involves reincarnation until such time they gain ultimate enlightenment. Hinduism believes that within the human is an eternal soul
(atman) that is being reborn millions of times and in many forms subject to the moral law of karma. On the other hand, Buddhism holds that no soul is being
reborn because there is no permanence in anything
• Honoring women in Hindu society as a fundamental teaching has been laid down in one of the supplementary arms of the Vedas, the Manusmriti or the “Laws
of
Manu.” Women have enjoyed considerable freedom in their religious life in Buddhism as compared to Hinduism.

Self-Assessment: 1. What are the specific goals of Hindus and Buddhists for them to gain spiritual enlightenment?
2. What are the basic doctrine of Hinduism and Buddhism that make them attract millions of followers?

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 Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System
Information Sheet: 1.13

1. Topic: Confucianism
2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
12.1 Describe the five basic relationships (king to subject, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother and friend to friend)
12.2 Give examples of acts showing filial piety in the family, community and society
12.3 Explain: The core teaching of Confucianism is to be a “gentleman” by following the moral way consisting of the virtues of love, righteousness,
wisdom, propriety and loyalty in order to promote harmony in society.
12.4 Present a character sketch of a person who personifies the Confucian virtues
3. Reference:
4. Content:
Confucianism
 There has always been a debate whether Confucianism should be regarded as a religion or a philosophy. Those who argue that Confucianism
is a philosophy assert that when Kung Fuzi founded Confucianism, he never meant to establish a new religion; he merely wanted to interpret andn
revive the ancient religion of Zhou dynasty. Since Confucianism emphasizes the ethical dimension of the world, it gives primary attention to human
relationship, thus advocating social values and ideals which should serve as the foundation of Chinese society. Advocates of Confucianism as a
philosophy further argue that Kung Fuzi seldom touched on religious matters, thus branding him as a humanist advancing practical and ethical
wisdom. On the other hand,
 Confucianism is considered a religion because its ideals were inspirational, not in the supernatural sense but in the
sense of aiming for excellence in one’s relationships with others. For Confucius, what happens in everyday life should not be trivialized but should
be considered as the realm of moral and spiritual fulfillment. Focus on relationships should be emphasized, for it is often taken for granted that these
relationships which we encounter everyday should be the easiest to perfect, but in reality they are the hardest to attain. Moreover, Confucius
stressed
the importance of rituals which would lead them back to the ideal society of their ancestors when there was harmony between heaven and earth.
Confucianism has often been categorized together with Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Daoism as one of the world’s
major religions, and has greatly influenced the East Asian political and spiritual life. For these reasons, Confucianism may be viewed both as
philosophy and as a religion. It has become a practical way of life for so many Chinese for a long time and so has been intensely embedded in the
structure of Chinese societies and politics. As of 2010, the Encyclopaedia Britannica estimates the number of followers of Confucianism at more
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than six million.
 Adherents of Confucianism are called Confucians or Confucianists. Religions in East Asia are not mutually exclusive, hence one can still be a
Confucian/Confucianist while at the same time being a Taoist, Buddhist, Christian or Muslim. This is because, as mentioned earlier, Confucianism has often been
debated if it is a religion or philosophy/ethical tradition. It is characterized as having a lot of ritual practice but with little formal worship or meditation. Hence,
one can blend belief in the religious elementsof Budhhism, Taoism, Shinto, and other religions with the ethical elements of Confucianism.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
 The proliferation of Chinese classical thought happened within the reign of the Zhou dynasty, the second historical dynasty in China. It was the result
of several factors such as technological and economic advancement, stronger political units, political and social improvement, and even military development.
Advances in the said realms led to the emergence of competing dynasties who wanted to establish supremacy over other dynasties, hence the period was marked
by social upheaval and chaos. This led to the search for political and social stability through the birth of philosophies and religions which attempted to restore
social harmony in China. The Zhou period was divided into Western Zhou (1122-770 B.C.E.) and Eastern Zhou (770-221 B.C.E.). The Eastern Zhou was further
subdivided into the Spring and Autumn period ((722-481 B.C.E.) and the Warring States period (403-221 B.C.E.).
 It was during the period of Eastern Zhou,
a period of great economic growth, social change, and political development that philosophies would emerge and the Classics would be written. During the Zhou
period, technological growth led to trading development, which led to a remarkable increase in wealth. Iron became common in China in the fifth century B.C.E.
and had replaced bronze as material for weapons, as well as agricultural tools such as the ox-drawn pilow, which in turn led to agricultural revolution in China.
This growth of production coincided with a rapid growth in trade, and, as a consequence, a new class of wealthy merchants emerged. Accordingly, this became a
threat to the nobility, which led them to propagate a theory that society is composed of four
 classes in this order: the warrior-administrator, the peasants, the artisans, and the merchants. Alongside technological and economic growth was the
development of stronger political units, which led to the emergence of four vassal states that competed against each other for political supremacy. These vassal
states were Qin in the west, Jin in the north, Yan in the northeast, and Qi in the
east. The struggle for supremacy among these vassal states characterized the Warring States period in Chinese history. Their political stability was enhanced by
military development. The use of chariots, iron weapons, and the use of cavalry all contributed to the newfound power of the vassal states who tried to overpower
each other through the use of warfare. Amidst the development and chaos, China was faced with a dilemma: the failure of old authority made it necessary for new
guiding values to restore social order. It was in this very crucial time that philosophers would try to find solutions to the social problems being faced by society.
Incidentally,interest was focused primarily on society and not on the individual. Because of this, these philosophers have often been classified as practical
politicians
because they were products of the proliferation of literacy and part of the new bureaucracy. They went to different states to offer their services whenever needed.
One of them was Confucius. Among the four rival states which competed for supremacy, the Qin dynasty would emerge as the victor and would establish the first
empire of China in the 3rd century B.C.E. The name China would come from the Ch’in, the first to create an imperial Chinese identity.

THE LIFE OF CONFUCIUS

 Confucius is the Latinized version of Kongzi and the honorifc Kong Fuzi both meaning “Master Kong.” He was born on September 28 on 551 B.C.E.
Hence, it is considered a day of celebration in East Asia an offcial holiday in Taiwan (Teacher’s Day), and a day of cultural celebration in mainland China, Hong
Kong, and Singapore. Confucius was born in a small feudal state of Lu (now Shantung province) in Qufu. His personal name was Qiu and his family name was
Kong. He came from a noble family, but by the time of his birth, they had already lost much of their wealth. His frst teacher was his mother, and at the age of 15
he set his heart upon learning, thus love of learning became one of the highest virtues in Confucian ethics. He married at the age of 19 and had a son at the age of
20. At this point in his life he had already served in minor government posts and had already gained a reputation as an all-around scholar. When he was in his 30s
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he had already started a brilliant teaching career because of his mastery of the arts of ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic. He was
also familiar with classical tradition, particularly in poetry and history. He is often considered as the frst person to devote his whole life to learning and teaching
for the purpose of social transformation and improvement. He held several government positions including as arbiter, assistant minister of public works, and
minister of justice in the state of Lu. Frustrated that his ideals and policies were brushed off by his superiors, he soon left Lu. For 13 years, he wandered from
state to state, trying to put his theories to practice. At 67, he returned home to teach (where he gained more disciples) and to preserve his classical traditions by
writing and editing. He died in 479 B.C.E at the age of 73 and he left around 3,000 followers who preserved and put his other teachings to writing.

SACRED SCRIPTURES: THE CONFUCIAN CLASSICS

 The Five Classics are a group of books which was regarded as early Confucianism’s basic texts. This includes the Book of Changes, the Book of History,
the Book of Poetry, the Classic of Rites, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. The Analects is also considered an important source of Confucian teachings since it
contains a record of his conversations with his disciples. Let us now take a look at what these classics are all about. Confucius has often been considered as the
author or editor of the Classics, but contemporary scholarship has shown that even though many of these texts can be traced back to Confucius, they have
undergone a long period of development. Moreover, these Classics were burned during the reign of the Qin dynasty and was restored only during the Han
dynasty. It was Confucius’ followers who exerted effort in writing and collating his teachings and philosophies.

Rectifcation of Names
Confucius believed that to return to the ancient Dao, people must play their assigned roles in society. This was later called the rectifcation of names, or
zhengming,

The Five Relationships include:

1) ruler-subject;
2) father-son;
3) husband-wife;
4) elder and younger brother; and
5) friend and friend.
 The responsibilities originating from these relationships are shared and reciprocal. For example, a minister owes loyalty to his ruler, and a child owes flial
respect to the parent. In return, rulers must care for their subjects, and parents must care for their children. The Five Relationships emphasize the upright sense of
hierarchy. Among friends, for example, seniority of age requires a certain deference. Zhengming helps bring social order for it advocates the idea that every
person has a particular role at a particular time in life, and that by abiding to this particular role, one is able to fulfl one’s social duties and responsibilities, thus
creating social harmony.

Human Nature as Originally Good or Evil

 Confucius himself was silent on the concept of human nature, but there were two philosophers who had different interpretations on the subject of human
nature based on the Analects. They were Mengzi and Xunzi (Hsun tzu). Their views on human nature were opposed to one another. For Mencius, renxing or
human nature is naturally disposed toward ren, or virtue of the superior man. Mengzi believed that all human beings are born with innate goodness which, on one
hand, can be cultivated through proper education and self-discipline (li); or be thrown away through neglect and bad influence, on the other. However, it needs
cultivation through li (ritual propriety) as well as obedience to one’s qi (vital energy). Human nature may be impeded through negligence or an unfavourable
environment naturally organized toward ren. On the other hand, Xunzi believed that human nature is basically evil but can be improved through self-cultivation.
Like Mencius, Xunzi considers the li as the key to the cultivation of human nature.
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The Five Constants
The Five Constants, also known as the Five Classical Virtues, or Wuchang, are the five most important Confucian ethics mentioned in the Analects and
the Book of Mencius. These include the following:
a. ren or benevolence; 2. yi or righteousness; 3. li or propriety; 4. zhi or knowledge/wisdom; and 5. xin or fidelity.

1. Ren, or benevolence, can be achieved by returning to li, or the traditional Chinese rituals. It means following the social hierarchy patterned after
family relationships. Ren can also be achieved by extending one’s flial love for parents and siblings to fellow human beings. It can also be achieved
by avoiding envy or harm.
2. Yi, or righteousness, can be achieved by having the moral disposition to do good, which can only be possible after recognizing what is right and good.
It can also be achieved through the ability to feel what is the right thing to do.
3. Li, or propriety, which is considered as the concrete guide to human action and social order, can be achieved by following the guide to human
relationships (rectifcation of names, doctrine of the mean, The Five Relationships); it can also be achieved by following the norms of ren, or
righteousness.
4. Zhi, or knowledge/wisdom, can be achieved by knowing what is right and what is wrong, which is innate in people who are basically good according
to Mencius.
5. Lastly, xin, or fdelity can be achieved by keeping one’s word and being faithful, for Kung Fuzi believed that only people who are faithful can be
trusted with important tasks. Fidelity is also seen as the key to nation-building.

Filial Piety as an Important Virtue

 For Confucius, family relations provide a model for social behaviour. Respect for elders, whether your own or others, is emphasized, as well as
kindness to your own children and juniors, including those of others. These were said to be instructed by Mencius and have provided inspiration for
generations of
Confucians. Filial piety is said to have provided China with a strong sense of solidarity not only in the Chinese family, but also in Confucian social
organizations and even among Chinese communities in different parts of the world. Ancestor worship is a manifestation of flial piety, or respect for one’s
parents, which is directed toward older relatives and ancestors. The idea of ancestor worship is based on the key Confucian idea that it is expected of
children to respect and obey their parents in life, and to continue remembering them after they have died through the proper observance of rituals. One
way to remember them is by worshipping ancestral tablets which can be kept at home.

 “Consciousness and movement are due to yang, while physical form and body are due to yin. The clear breath (qi) belongs to the heavenly aspect
of the soul (hun) and the body is governed by the earthly aspect of the soul (po). A person is born as a result of integration of essence and material force.
One possesses this material force only in a certain amount, which in time necessarily becomes exhausted. This is what is meant by physicians when they
say that yin or yang no longer rises or falls. When exhaustion takes place, the heavenly aspect of the soul (hun) and the clear breath (qi) return to Heaven,
and the earthly aspect of the soul (po) and the body return to the Earth, and the person dies. When a person is about to die, the warm material force leaves
the body and rises. This is called the hun rising.

Four Rites

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  COMING OF AGE RITES are ceremonies held to signify that a young person has reached the marriageable age and could join the different activities of his/her clan as
an adult. Two important coming of age rites among the Chinese are capping and hair pinning ceremonies. Capping refers to doing the male teenager’s hair in a bun/coil and
wearing a cap. This is a ritual that male teenagers have to go through sometime between the ages of 15 and 20. In this occasion, a male Chinese receives his formal hat and
ceremonial gown, as well as his formal name. Also, a wine libation (a drink poured out as an offering to the deity) is made and the young man is formally introduced to his
ancestors. Hair Pinning refers to the gathering of a girl’s hair into a knot, and securing it using a hairpin or a hairclip; often done by 16-year old women after engagement and
before their wedding day.
 MOURNING RITES often involve intricate practices, which include the following steps: First, there should be public announcement of grief through weeping, and the
wearing of white funeral clothes by the family of the deceased. Mourning also constitutes the offering of symbolic goods like money and food from the living to the dead,
preparation and setting up of a spirit tablet, payment of ritual experts, the playing of music and chanting of scriptures to accompany the corpse and to pacify the spirit, the sealing
of the corpse in a coffin, and the removal of the coffin from the community. There is also a tradition of exerting effort to recover the deceased, which is being practiced to avoid
false death. They do this by trying to call or shout over the wandering soul through the person’s clothes, in case the soul just lost its way back to the body of the person.
 MARRIAGE CEREMONIES are an important aspect of Chinese culture since marriage is considered as a central feature of society; through marriage, patience and
love are cultivated to promote the right virtue. Traditionally, a marriage is decided by the parents of the couple, with wealth and social status as the primary considerations.
Monogamy is preferred, which means married couples should be loyal to their partners for the rest of their lives. Marriage rituals include giving of gifts and following the
necessary etiquettes, from marriage proposal to the wedding ceremony itself, in which the groom and his family meet the bride at her home, after the bride sent the dowry to the
groom’s house; on the wedding day, rites include carrying the bride to the sedan and the couple leading the festivity at the bridal chamber; on the wedding night, friends, and
relatives are supposed to banter the couple; and on the third day, the couple would go back to the bride’s parents’ home to pay respect.
 SACRIFICIAL RITUALS are performed regularly by the descendants of the deceased ancestors. Sacrifices are often given at festivals. One such festival is the
Qingming Festival celebrated annually by Chinese all over the world to honor their dead. Qing Ming means “clear and bright”which describes the weather on that particular day
of the year. It is observed by visiting the ancestor’s grave to clean and repair it, and through offertories, such as food, fruit, wine, incense, or candles. Descendants of the deceased
normally bury their ancestors with belongings that they wanted to be transported to the spirit world with the dead. During ancient times, some royal families put bronze vessels,
oracle bones, and human or animal sacrifces in the grave. These were considered as things one may need in the spirit world and as a form of continued flial piety. It is the oldest
and most enduring Confucian ritual still observed today.

Summary
• Human nature is basically good, and this innate goodness can be further developed through self-cultivation and education.
• The goal of a person is to be a “gentleman” by following the moral way consisting of then virtues of love, righteousness, wisdom, propriety and loyalty to promote harmony in
society.
• Ancestor worship is an important aspect of Confucianism; for Confucius believed that one way of achieving harmony in society was by way of performing the necessary rituals
which would bring reward (social order) or punishment (social chaos)
• Since Confucius believed that the afterlife was not on the realm of human comprehension, people should live based on the promotion of social relations rather than on the
expectations of rewards or punishments after death
• Confucius discouraged his students from worrying about the afterlife, but he believed in Tian (heaven) which is analogous with moral order but dependent upon human
intervention to bring its will into action; the li or ritual propriety is the way through which the family, the state, and the world may become parallel with Tian’s moral order

Self-Assessment: 1. Do you think harmonious relationship is achieved by knowing where you stand in a particular relationship?
2. Will your positions in these relationships change as time goes by? If yes, how?

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 Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System
Information Sheet: 1.14

1. Topic: Taoism
2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
13.1 State that “Tao is the origin of all beings whose essence is nothing”
13.2 Give examples of acts showing love and respect of nature and the environment
13.3 Explain: The core teaching of Taoism is becoming one with ‘Tao.
13.4 Identify the things she can do without by making an inventory of personal belongings (e.g. things in the bedroom) and write a reflection on
Taoism based on the result of the inventory.
3. Reference:
4. Content:
Daoism/Taoism functioned as a philosophy of abandonment and withdrawal from the rampant warfare and social unrest which
characterized the reign of the Zhou dynasty a period of constant struggle for power, wealth, and prestige. It began in the state of Chu in the southern
part of the present Hunan Province. In effect, it served as a protest of common people against the rising despotism of rulers and served as a reaction
to the growing firmness of the moralists, who were followers of Confucius. Daoists struggled to fight for individual autonomy in the midst of the
struggle of rulers and moralists to bring people to conform to social patterns to achieve social harmony. The ultimate goal of Daoists was to
conform to the great pattern of nature, which is called Dao, or “The Way.” As a philosophy, Daoism focuses on the great mysteries of the Dao; as a
religion, its goal is to achieve long life and, ultimately, immortality.

SYMBOLS
The Yin and Yang is the most well-known Daoist religious symbol. It is an image composed of a circle divided into two swirling parts: one
black and the other white. Within each swirling or teardrop-shaped half is a smaller circle of the opposite color. Overall, the Yin and Yang symbol
signifies the perfect harmonic balance in the universe. For example, day and night; birth and death. According to Daoist cosmology, the big circle
signifies the Tao (Dao), the source of existence. Meanwhile, the black and white teardrop-shaped halves signify the Yin-qi and Yang-qi, known as
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the primordial feminine and masculine energies, respectively. Daoists believe that the interplay of the Yin-qi and Yang-qi created the manifest
world.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
 Laozi (Lao-tzu), meaning “Old Master,” is believed to have authored the Da De Jing (Tao te ching or The Book of the Way and its Power), dating back
to around third century B.C.E. According to myth, Laozi was conceived by a shooting star and was born of a virgin mother, who kept him in her womb for 82
years; Laozi was said to be born with flowing hair, which signifed that he would become a wise man. He is considered as the frst important Daoist who is
believed to be a senior contemporary of Kung Fuzi (some said he even became Kung Fuzi’s adviser) although there is much debate on his date and identity. The
Chinese historian Sima Qian wrote a biography of Laozi in the Historical Records (Shih Chi) in the late 2nd century B.C.E.
 According to Sima Qian, Laozi’s family name was Li, his given name was Erh, and he was also known as Tan. According to his biography, he worked as
a government archivist but became frustrated with government corruption, and sensing his unavoidable disgrace he left Chu and was detained at Han-ku Pass by
a gatekeeper named Yin Hsi, who requested him to write a book for him before leaving. Laozi agreeably wrote two chapters about the Dao (Way) and De
(individual power), which came to be named Dao De Jing or Laozi. Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu), is believed to have lived from 369 to around 286 B.C.E. Sima Qian
also wrote a biography of Zhuangzi in the Historical Records.
 According to Sima Qian, his last name was Chuang, his given name was Chou, and Tzu means “master,” thus Chuang Tzu (Zhuangzi) means “Master
Chuang.” He was born in the town of Meng in a small state of Sung, near the border between present-day Hunan and Shandong Province. He served as an offcer-
in-charge of a royal garden during the middle of the Warring States period and was said to be invited by King Wei of Chu to become his chief minister, which he
declined. Zhuangzi is considered a great philosopher and a great writer, and he wrote a book, together with his followers, which became known as Zhuangzi, and
was believed to be completed before the Han dynasty (Fairbank and Reischauer 1989).

SACRED SCRIPTURES
Dao De Jing Daoism’s foundational text is the Tao te Ching or Dao De Jing, meanin “The Book of the Way and its Power.” It is a mysterious collection of
enigmatic remarks which many fnd hard to understand. Its opening line which is often translated as “The name that can be named is not the eternal name,”
implies the difficulty of putting the truth into words, and can only be explained through riddles and paradox. The Dao De Jing has often been attributed to Laozi,
but some believe that it was a product of the collective efforts among various groups in China, since a closer analysis of the scripture reveals that there is no
integrated philosophy in the Dao De Jing; instead, it was a collection of sayings and proverbs, lines from popular songs, and clever maxims coming from various
contributors with various concerns. The Dao De Jing, which literally means The Book of the Way and its Power, expounds on the meaning of Dao and its
accompanying concept of D the power or virtue acquired by a person by means of living in harmony with Dao. It is said to have a paradoxical element, meaning
it contains assertions that were rather contradictory and illogical, yet contain deeper meaning which can be understood through intuition than through rational
thinking.

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CONCEPTS/BELIEFS
Daoism can be best understood by discussing its concepts and beliefs. Some of its concepts include the Dao or the “way of nature”; the De or “virtue/
proper” adherence to Dao; Wu Wei or “action through inaction” which gives importance to humility and noncompetition, naturalness and naturalism, and
non-aggression; yinyang or the balance of nature or universe; and the Chi/Qi or the natural energy or life force that sustains living beings.
The Dao
According to Laozi, the Dao, which is the essential concept and creative principle in Daoism, existed before the world. It is undetectable, indistinct, shapeless,
and indefnable, it is the foundation of all being, and the way in which nature and the universe exist. All things come from it, and are nourished by it, that is why
sometimes the Dao is called “Mother.” Dao is the origin of heaven and earth and it is also the way in which heaven and earth now live. Its meaning differ across
religions and philosophies: for Confucians, it refers to the basic principles of moral philosophy while for the Legalists, it is the way of power (Brown 1987). The
Dao is distinct from God. It is not a being for it is the origin of all beings, and its great virtue is that it does everything but desires nothing. It is “emptiness”,
which does not compete with other forces but is content with itself. This contentment, when practiced by people, will enable them to lead good lives (Ching
1993).

Deity/God (Dao as the origin of all beings)

 Unlike the Abrahamic religions, Daoism does not have a God, for Daoists believe that the universe originated from the Dao, which created and controls
the universe and distantly guides things on their way. However, the Dao itself is not God and is not worshipped by the Daoists. Instead, they worship deities, who
are gods of a particular role, and they traditionally worship Laozi not only as the frst god of Daoism but also as the representation of the Dao. Most of the deities
worshipped by the Daoists were borrowed from other cultures, but they are within the universe and are subject to the Dao. The Daoist pantheon has often been
described as a divine administration which reflects the secular governments of Imperial China. However, some believe that it is the other way around that the
secular administrations are just reflections of the divine administration (Fairbank and Reischauer 1989).
 For the Daoists, the Dao possesses heavenly qualities, is mysterious, indescribable, lies under the surface of sense perception, and unifes obvious
opposites on a different level. Daoists also believe that the Dao can only be found in silence since it is heavenly and beyond change. For the Daoists, God is
found inside us, in the thoughtful emptiness from which all power and life originates in all directions; it is the “Nothing” within all of us where all our energy
comes from.
The De
The De, which means virtue or the proper adherence to Dao, is another basic concept in Daoism. It encourages inaction in nature and advocates the quiet and
passive nature of a person so that the Dao, or the creative principle in the universe, may act through them without interference. People should simply follow the
Dao and must do nothing on their own. In this regard, Laozi professed a distaste for culture and civilization for they are products of human activity and proof of
humanity’s tampering with nature. In line with this, he preferred the use of inaction in ruling the people (Brown 1987).
 “Non-competition in Emptiness” is said to be the other side of the principle of “inaction in nature.” For Daoists, inaction means a person’s outward
actions, and emptiness is the corresponding inner state, which also means “absence of desire.” Daoists believe that when a person becomes peaceful,
that person acquires power to overcome all things without having to compete with others. In line with this, humility and avoiding competition with others
are two virtues which Daoists value most. Lastly, “contentment with what is” is another expression of inaction in nature and of non-competition in emptiness. By
following the way of nature, a person can attain contentment. For Laozi, the way of happiness is contentment. “There is no greater sin than the desire for
possession, no greater curse than the lack of contentment.” (Brown 1987)
Wu-Wei
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Wu-wei means “no behavior” or “doing nothing.” It also means “to do without doing” (wei-wu wei) or “actionless activity.” It is a concept used to negate or limit
human action. It refers to the cancellation or restriction of human behavior, especially human activities. Wu-wei may refer to certain stages such as nonbehavior
or doing nothing; taking as little action as possible; taking action spontaneously; taking a passive attitude toward society; waiting for the spontaneous
transformation of things; and taking action according to objective conditions and the nature of things, or acting naturally. It advocates a “go with the flow”
attitude by cultivating a state of being wherein our actions are in harmony with the natural cycles of the universe. Laozi believed that wu-wei can lead to a
peaceful and harmonious society. The opposite of wu-wei, which is yu-wei, means taking action, which Laozi believes causes vicious actions, theft, and crime.
Wu-wei, on the other hand, brings prosperity, harmony, and peace.
 Wu-wei considered by Daoism as the highest form of virtue emphasizes passivity, which may beneft less fortunate or weak people, for it will help
them overcome their opponents and become strong. Spontaneity, or “being natural” is important in wu-wei, for Daoists believe that everything in the world
should develop naturally. Non-aggression is also important in wu wei, for Laozi believed that the Daoist ideal society is a primitive community with a natural,
harmonious, and simple life which exists without war and competition (Sharma 1993). One may practice wu wei by becoming an “enlightened leader,” one who
rules in such a way that the people become happy and prosperous. Another way of practicing wu wei is to become a hermit by withdrawing from society and
wandering through the mountains, meditating in the caves, and eating based on what the natural world has to offer.
Yin Yang
As stated earlier, the concept of yin yang was articulated by the Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi who stated that “yin in its highest form is freezing while yang in its
highest form is boiling. The chilliness comes from heaven while the warmness comes from the earth. The interaction of these two establishes he (harmony), so it
gives birth to things. Perhaps this is ‘the law of everything’ yet there is no form being seen.” (Zhuangzi Chapter 21) Yin yang is an important concept in Daoism
which explains Laozi’s methodology that everything contains opposite sides, and each side depends on the other, which emphasizes the concept of dualism, of
two halves forming a whole. Yin yang emphasizes complementarity, interconnectedness, and interdependence of both sides seeking a new balance with each
other. When something is whole, it is fxed and imperfect, but when it is split into halves, it disturbs the balance of completeness, thus initiating change. The
theory that opposite sides always transform into each other serves as the philosophical foundation of Laozi’s methodology. There are about 70 concepts of things
in pair which are listed in Laozi, and some of them are: good and evil, long and short, bright and dark, full and empty, lead and follow, strong and weak, beauty
and ugliness, diffcult and easy, favor and disgrace, superior and inferior, glory and humility, masculine and feminine, increase and decrease, offensive and
defensive, and being and nonbeing, among others. The yin and yang symbolize the integration of the polarities mentioned by Laozi. He stressed the need for
balance and harmony, which is achieved only when one is fully grounded in the Dao. Here we can deduce that masculinity refers to all forms of behaviors that
are forceful and aggressive while femininity represents all gentle, nurturing, and flexible attributes. The goal is to embody both these polarities in a balanced and
harmonious manner (Hodge 2002)

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Summary
• Daoists believe that everything comes from the Dao. Human nature should be aligned with the rest of nature to achieve harmony and balance. Self-cultivation
should be encouraged for people to return to the natural mode of existence.
• For some Daoists, spontaneity is the mode of being experienced fully only by immortals; for most Daoists, living a long and healthy life is their goal. They can
achieve this through practicing methods of nourishing life by way of physical exercises designed to improve one’s health and lengthen life, breathing exercises,
drinking potions believed to lengthen life, etc.
• Living in harmony with nature is the way of living with the Dao, which will lead to good health and long life (even immortality for some) because there is a
balance of yin and yang, therefore the qi flows freely.
• Life and death are mere phases of the qi according to Daoists. They are advised not to be afraid of death since life and death are but phases of the circulation of
the qi. Thus, Daoist concept of salvation focuses on this life than in the afterlife.
• Daoists have no concept of heaven and hell as compared to other religions. In their scriptures there were mentions of heaven as the abode of their deities and
life
on earth should be in harmony with the will of heaven. However, based on their concept of qi, heaven is achieved when one achieves immortality and, if this is
not possible, then long life is enough. They have this concept that those who achieve immortality reside in utopian places on earth, such as forests and
mountains.

Self-Assessment: • Why is there a debate on Laozi being a historical or a mythical figure?

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 Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System
Information Sheet: 1.15

1. Topic: Shintoism
2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
14.1 Narrate the Kojiki creation story
14.2 Explain why is it important for Japanese people to worship gods
14.3 Evaluate: The core teaching of Shintoism is to worship the ancestors and forces of nature to achieve harmony in all dimensions.
14.4 Interpret the Kojiki creation story creatively
3. Reference:
4. Content:
Shintoism is considered as the very essence of Japanese devotion to unseen spiritual beings and powers. It is a very local kind of religion in that it is focused
on the land of Japan, hence an “ethnic religion” that is not interested in missionary activities so as to spread it outside Japan. Shintoism espouses the belief that
“human beings are basically good and has no concept of original sin.” Unlike other religions, it has no known founder nor god, and it may be practiced with other
religions such as Buddhism and Daoism. The picture below shows the entrance to Itsukushima shrine, one of the most visited places in Japan. Shrines are an
important aspect in Shintoism, considered as the main religion in Japan which is more closely associated to the Japanese way of life and traditions. Shinto belief

86
in kami or spirits is reflected in the numerous shrines they have built to honor the spirits which they believe can be found in nature, and which still guide their
everyday lives by giving them good fortune and prosperity. In return, the Japanese people have to perform the necessary rituals to appease the spirits surrounding
them. Purifcation is a key concept in Shintoism, that is why much of their rituals make use of water for cleansing purposes. Ancestor worship is also an important
aspect of Shintoism, as well as showing reverence to forces of nature, and because Shintoism is considered more as way of life than a religion, it has co-existed
with other religions in Japan, such as Buddhism and Confucianism. In fact, Shintoism has become so entrenched with the way of life of the Japanese people that
most of them would perform Shinto rituals like worshipping at the shrines while not identifying themselves as Shintoists. The shrine shown at the picture is
dedicated to the daughters of Susanoo-no Mikoto, the god of seas and storms and brother of the sun goddess, Amaterasu, who is believed to be the ancestor of the
Japanese imperial
family.
 Shintoism is considered the ethnic religion in Japan and is practiced by less than 40% of the population according to 2006 and 2008 surveys. Around
50% to 80% worship spirits or kami at Shinto shrines while not identifying themselves as Shintoists. This is because Shintoism has become a way of life for the
Japanese people instead of considering it as a religion; it does not exist independently of other religions. Hence, syncretism is a common practice, with Shintos
the fundamental folk belief incorporated to Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism. Followers of Shintoism are called Shintoists.

Symbol
The Torii Gate is the most common symbol for Shintoism. It is a sacred gateway supposed to represent a gate upon which a cock crew on the occasion when
Amaterasu emerged from the rock cave and relighted the world. It marks the entrance to a sacred space which is the Shinto shrine. It represents the transition
between the world of humans and the world of the gods and goddesses. It is believed to help prepare the visitor for their interaction with the spirits by signifying
the sacredness of the location. It is traditionally made of wood or stone, but now most toriis are made of concrete and steel.

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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The development of Shintoism in Japan has a long history. During the prehistoric period in Japan, animism was evident in the agricultural affairs of the
people. Agricultural rites were celebrated seasonally and all communal religious activities were focused on objects or places believed to be inhabited by kami or
spirits. Later on, adherents formulated rituals and stories for them to make sense of their universe, such as creation stories regarding Japan and its natural
elements, thereby creating their own sense of cultural and spiritual worlds. One such story is the “Story of Creation,” which narrates that in the beginning there
were two kami, Izanagi-no-Mikoto (male) and Izanamino-Mikoto (female). It was said that after Izanagi’s creative work on earth, he went up to heaven while
Izanami was left permanently on earth as the queen of the lower world. According to the myth, Amaterasu-o-mi-kami, the goddess of the sun, came out of
Izanagi’s left eye while Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto came out of his right eye, and Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto came from his nostrils. The Nihongi narrates the following
account of the creation of the three great kami of the upper air:
 “When Izanagi-no-Mikoto had returned (from the Lower World), he was seized with regret, and said, ‘Having gone to Nay! A hideous and filthy place, it
is meet that I should cleanse my body from its pollutions.” He accordingly went to the plain of Ahagi at Tachibana in Wodo in Hiuga of Tsukushi, and purifed
himself...Thereafter a Deity was produced by his washing his left eye, which was called Amaterasu-no-Oho-Kami. Then he washed his right eye, producing
thereby a Deity who was called Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto. Then he washed his nose, producing thereby a God who was called Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto. In all, there
were three Deities. Then Izanagi-no-Mikoto gave charge to his three children, saying, “Do thou, Amaterasu-no-Oho-Kami, rule the plain of High Heaven; do
thou, Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto, rule the eight-hundred-fold tides of the ocean plain; do thou, Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto, rule the world.” (Holtom 1965) Amaterasu-
Omikami, who is believed to have come from the left eye of the sky god Izanagi, is considered the sun goddess and the ancestor of the Japanese imperial family,
with Emperor Jimmu Tenno, Amaterasu’s great grandson, as the frst emperor of Japan. Amaterasu exhibited great virtue and ruled over Takama-ga-Hara while
Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto performed evil deeds and was later driven out and went down to Izumo, where he subdued the rebels and gained possession of the sword,
which he presented to Amaterasu, the Great Deity. He had a child named Okuni-Nushi-no-Mikoto, who succeeded him as the ruler of Izumo and, with the help of
SukunaHikona-no-Kami, ordered the cultivation of the land, suppressed the rebels and taught the knowledge of medicine, making him popular in the land. The
myth further narrates that just when Amaterasu was about to make her grandson the ruler of Japan, she instructed Okuni to give up the land, to which he obeyed
and preferred to retire in the palace of Kidzuki, where he was later enshrined, thus beginning the Great Shrine of Izumo. Afterwards, Amaterasu gave an imperial
command to her grandson, Ninigino-Mikoto, saying that her descendants should reign in the land of Japan, and that she has chosen Ninigino to rule over the land.
She conferred on him the Yata mirror, the Clustering-clouds sword, and the Yasaka curved jewels, which are called the “Three Sacred Treasures.” And so
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Ninigino descended upon the land which is now called Japan, with his son Hiko-Hoho-Demi-no-Mikomoto, and his grandson, Ugaya-Fuki-Ahezu-no-Mikoto,
and for three generations made Hyuga their capital. The frst emperor of Japan, Jimmu Tenno, was the son of Ugaya (Holtom 1965). After the prehistoric period,
the kami living in some places were gradually associated with local ruling clans, also known as uji, thus taking the name ujigami. A clan from the Yamato region
claimed that they have descended from Amaterasu, and that family was then recognized as the imperial household of Japan and cornerstone of Japanese
nationhood. From then on, indigenous festivals and ceremonies became inseparable from government affairs especially with the emergence of the unified nation-
state.

SACRED SCRIPTURES
The Kojiki and Nihongi are considered as sacred scriptures on Shinto, although they are not exclusively about Shinto; they also contain extensive information on
Buddhism and Confucianism. These books, which are compilations of ancient myths and traditional teachings, are considered to have a dual purpose: a political
as well as a moral purpose. Its political purpose is to establish the supremacy of Japan over all countries in the world by legitimizing the divine authority of the
ruling families and to establish the political supremacy of the Yamato. Its moral purpose is to explain the relationship between the kami and human beings by
establishing that the Japanese are a special people chosen by the kami, who have many humanlike characteristics. It also emphasizes purifcation as both a creative
and
cleansing act. Death is considered as the ultimate impurity.

Kojiki
As one of the most important texts on Shintoism, Kojiki is composed of three books: the frst is the age of kami, which narrates the mythology, while the second
and third books discuss the imperial lineage, narrating the events concerning the imperial family up to the death of the thirty-third ruler, Empress Suiko. The third
book is concerned mainly with revolts and love stories of successive rulers intertwined in a song-story format. After providing rich information about what
transpired up to the reign of Emperor Kenzo, genealogy of each imperial family was discussed. The establishment of the three orders are reflected in the three
books: the establishment of the order of the universe, the establishment of the order of humanity, and the establishment of the order of history. Even though it
was written at the onset of the spread of Buddhism in Japan and despite the fact that Emperor Genmei, to whom the Kojiki was presented, was a Buddhist, there
was no mention
of Buddhism in the Kojiki. It just goes to show that Kojiki is based on the eternal and cyclical world of mythology

Nihon shoki/Nihongi
Meanwhile, the Nihon shoki or Nihongi records the descent of the Yamato rulers of Japan from the gods. It represents a combination of a political purpose with
folklores and myths. It is believed to have been completed around 720 C.E. and have become signifcant in the restructuring of Japan by the Yamato rulers, even
in the naming of the country as Nippon. It was presented to the court during the reign of Emperor Gensho and is considered as Japan’s frst offcial history which
was completed after 39 years and compiled by Jimmu Tenno’s third son, Prince Toneri, along with numerous bureaucrats and historians. It is composed of 30
books, the frst two of which discuss the “age of the kami” while the remaining books chronicle the events pertaining to the rulers up to the 41st emperor.
 The stories in the Kojiki and Nihongi provide the Japanese people with a sense of pride, for these scriptures narrate how their rulers were descended
from the gods, and how their race was descended from the gods as well. Some would even interpret that the whole of humanity descended from the two deities
(Izanagi and Izanami), thereby creating a sense of superiority among the Japanese people. We can also see in the creation story the concept of dualism in Shinto,
as shown by Izanagi as the sky god, and Izanami as the earth mother, as well as with Amaterasu as the benevolent child and her brother Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto
as performing evil acts. The political legitimacy this myth provides the ruling families of Japan as well as the sense of pride it provides the Japanese people have
made the Japanese people develop a strong sense of nationalism.

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

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 Unlike other religions, Shintoism has no weekly service; instead, people visit shrines at their own convenience. Proper performances of rites and
ceremonies are an important aspect of Shintoism. They hold most of their rituals at the shrines, which they believe are the abode of the kami or spirits. At frst,
shrines were normal things that can be found in nature such as mountains, rivers, trees, rocks, etc., but later on they built shrines dedicated to their deities. Such
shrines are often wooden structures that feature the natural beauty of the surroundings, which basically expresses Shintoism’s profound veneration of the
environment (for example, woods used in shrines are often left unpainted). For Shintoists, the performance of rituals will give them the blessings they expect
from the kami. Below are some of the rituals performed by the Shintoists.

Shinto Rites of Passage

Below are the rites of passage observed by the Shintoists from birth to death:
1. Hatsumiyamairi (First Shrine Visit). Newborn children are taken to the shrine to seek protection from the kami; traditionally, the newborn is taken by the
grandmother because the mother is deemed impure from childbirth; the ritual takes place on the second day after birth for a boy, and third day for a girl;
2. Shichi-go-san (Seven-Five-Three). Festival observed every 15th of November by boys of fve years and girls of three and seven years of age, who visit the
shrine to give thanks for the protection provided by the kami and to ask for their healthy growth;
3. Adult’s Day (Seijin Shiki). Observed every 15th of January by the Japanese who had their 20th birthday the previous year by visiting the shrine to express
gratitude to the kami (20 being the legal age of adulthood in Japan)
4. Wedding Rites. Patterned after the wedding of Crown Prince Yoshihito and Princess Sado in 1900;
5. Funeral rites. Since death is considered impure, most Japanese funerals are Buddhist in nature; Shintoism’s funeral practices are called sosai.

Ritual Purifcation (Meditative Practices)

The Japanese observe the misogi, or ablutions (the act of washing one’s body part or part of it, usually for religious purposes) which are considered as
very
ancient ceremonies performed after funeral ceremonies, when all members of the family go into the water together to cleanse themselves in a purifcation bath.
Today, this can be done privately with water and salt, or with water alone. Its purpose is to cleanse the body of minor contaminations associated with the dead.
Another form of purifcation rites is the harai or exorcism (the expulsion of an evil spirit from a person or place), performed usually by a priest by swinging a
purifcation wand over the people and the objects to be exorcised. Another is the imi or abstentions (the act of restraining oneself from indulging in something),
which are practices performed against.

TYPES OF WORSHIP
There are various ways by which Shintoists worship kami. They may worship at home, at Shinto shrines, and during seasonal festivals. Let us take a look
at each of these categories: At Home (kamidana) Shintoists often place a small altar (“kami shelf”) inside their houses and this is where they perform the the
following rituals: purifcation; offertory; clapping their hands to the kami (who, they believe, could see and hear what they are doing); and offering of prayers.
 At Shinto Shrine Also called ceremonial worship, this includes a visit to a Shinto shrine which detaches a worshipper from his or her ordinary
environment. In this type of worship, trees in Shinto shrines, particularly the oldest and most revered ones, have ropes tied to them to signify reverence to the
presence of kami. Shrine visits usually take the following steps: frst, one is advised to behave respectfully and calmly (there are prohibitions for the sick,
wounded, or in mourning from visiting shrines because these people are considered impure). Take the ladle at the purifcation fountain, rinse both hands then
transfer some water to rinse one’s mouth, then spit the water beside the fountain (one should not transfer the water directly from the ladle to the mouth or
swallow the water). Then throw a coin at the offering box upon entering the offering hall, bow deeply twice, then clap hands twice, bow deeply again, use the
gong, and pray for a while. It is believed that using the gong before praying attracts the attention of the kami.

Magical Charms and Amulets

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  Aside from worshipping the kami at the shrines, one of the main attractions at the shrines is the sale and distribution of charms or amulets. Shintoists
believe that these amulets provide protection and can even be a source of magic. They often carry personal amulets and their homes are guarded by magical
charms in the form of lintel placards or different talismanic symbols placed on the altars for their deities. The most common Japanese designation for charm is
mamori, which they believe provides them with protection and may include a wide range of objects. Shimpu (god ticket or sacred ticket) is the term they use to
refer to the magico-religious objects obtained at the Shinto shrines. These charms vary in sizes and shapes. Private amulets are often small in size and worn by
the person in a specially constructed charm bag, in the purse or sash which is placed in close contact with the body, and these amulets are considered as a means
of bringing the individual under a close supervision of a particular deity. Charms may be made of wood, paper, and other materials. Most of the charms have
specifc uses, such as
the lover’s charm which aims to fulfl a lover’s wish; the easy-birth charm; and the charm for the expurgation of intestinal worms. Meanwhile, domestic charms
are larger and also vary in size and form. One type of domestic charm consists of a white paper covering folded around two very thin sheets of wood. In between
the sheets of wood we can fnd the charm proper, the name or printed image of a deity. Shintoists believe that these charms are blessed by the kami and serve as
material manifestation of the guidance, blessings, and protection of the deities (Holtom 1965).

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

Kami Worship Shintoism is a religion which revolves around the belief in and worship of kami or spirits. Scholars agree that the concept of kami is
diffcult to explain, and that even the Japanese themselves who are Shinto believers cannot provide a definite definition of kami. According to the Japanese
scholar, Motoori
Norinaga: “I do not yet understand the meaning of the term, kami. Speaking in general, however, it may be said that kami signifes, in the frst place, the deities of
heaven and earth that appear in the ancient records and also the spirits of the shrines where they are worshipped. It is hardly necessary to say that it includes
human beings. It also includes such objects as birds, beasts, trees, plants, seas, mountains, and so forth. In ancient usage, anything whatsoever which was outside
the ordinary, which possessed superior power or which was awe-inspiring was called kami. Eminence here does not refer merely to the superiority of nobility,
goodness or meritorious deeds. Evil and mysterious things, if they are extraordinary and dreadful, are called kami.” (Holtom 1965) To Norinaga, even the
successive generations of emperors can be called kami since for the ordinary people, they are far-separated, majestic, and worthy of reverence. However, the
kami is not exclusive to the nobility alone; for in every village and even in every family, there are human beings who can be considered as kami. Even things
such as thunder and echo can also be considered as kami, as well as animals such as tigers and wolves. Among the deities considered as kami, were Izanagi, the
sky father, and Izanami, the earth mother.
In Shintoism, people are regarded as superior beings and everyone is considered a potential kami whose life on earth is destined to be filled with
blessings. In that sense, Shintoism can be considered to have an optimistic222 Daoic Religions view of human nature (“people are basically good and have no
concept of
original sin”), hence it motivates people to accept life as it is and expect that life will be filled with blessings if only they will practice the necessary rituals and
possess the right attitude. As for the nature of kami, they are not all-powerful but believed to possess human traits, hence they may behave badly. Like human
beings, they enjoy entertainment such as dance, music, etc. Kami can also refer to beings or to qualities which beings possess, hence kami may possess good or
evil characteristics. Kami is roughly translated to English as “spirits,” but they are more than invisible beings, and they are best understood by Shinto followers
through faith. Kami are numerous and can appear anywhere, and believed to have existed even before the Japanese islands were created. Kami are often confused
with the Western concept of a supreme being, but this is because explaining the concept of kami is not an easy task, and associating them with divine beings
makes the concept of kami easier to understand. Although kami may refer to the gods such as Izanagi and Izanami, they may also refer to the spirits that inhabit
many living beings, some beings themselves who inspire a feeling of awe (such as emperors and priests), elements of nature such as mountains and rivers, forces
of nature
such as earthquakes and storms, and certain human beings who become kami when they die. In general, kami may be classified into three types: the ujigami or
clan ancestors; kami who reside in elements and forces of nature; and the souls of exceptional human beings who died. Shintoism has a concept of yao yoruzu no
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kami, or eight hundred myriads of kami. Some of them are tutelary deities of clans who were later elevated to tutelary deities of their respective communities
while some have no direct connection with the Shinto faith. Here are some of the most important kami in Japan:

Most Important Kami in Japan

De/Virtue
The way to appease the kami or the spirits, according to Shinto, is through purification. Proper observance of rituals is necessary in order to
purifyoneself and be deserving of the blessings from the deities. Living in harmony with nature, which is inhabited by the kami or spirits, is
encouraged. In line with this, Shintoists value the virtues of beauty, truth, goodness, and morality. Sincerity in everything that we do is also valued,
for it implies a pure heart. To achieve this, purity rituals often involve cleansing with water, such as rinsing the mouth, washing the hands, taking a
bath, standing under waterfalls, and it is better if these activities are performed at the shrine. Hence, cleanliness is also valued by the Shintoists for it
is through cleansing that purity can be achieved.

SUBDIVISIONS
There are three main types of Shintoism: The Shrine (Jinja) Shinto, the Sect (Kyoha) Shinto, and the Folk/Popular (Minzoku) Shinto. The
Shrine Shinto is considered as the purifed/traditional type under which the State and Imperial Shinto belong. The Sect Shinto refers to the 13
governmentorganized independent sects formed during the 19th century, focusing on human welfare in this earthly life. Folk or Popular Shinto is
the type of Shintoism practiced in local shrines and considered to be more ingrained to the people’s rite of passage. It is considered as a Japanese
folk religion. Let us take a look at each main type of Shintoism.
Shintoism Shrine
Shintoism Shrine, or Jinja, was officially coined by the Japanese government in the 19th century when Shintoism gained state support and
was recognized as a state religion. Prior to this, at the advent of Buddhism in Japan in the 7th century, Buddhism was intertwined with Shintoism,
when Buddha and the bodhisattvas were regarded as kami. Later on, the imperial government started to purify Shinto from all Buddhist elements.
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In the 19th century during the Meiji Restoration, Japan was transformed to a modern nation, and the said transformation covered the political,
economic, social, and religious aspects. It was then when Shrine Shinto became the state religion. As a result, Shintoism became a vehicle for
patriotism. Japan’s divine origin was also emphasized on Japanese children. The Japanese people had to attend and serve shrines, and consequently
shrines and priests were put under imperial control. However, the defeat of Japan in World War II brought a major setback on Shinto, yet it
remained to play a significant part in Shinto in general.

Sect Shintoism (Kyoha)

This type of Shintoism was recognized by the Imperial government in the late 19th century, referring to the 133 organized Shintoism. It developed
in response to historical reality, as an administrative way of dealing with the crystallization of Shinto traditions into organized religious groups.
 Sect Shinto were designated by the government as “religions” along with other faiths such as Buddhism and Confucianism. Their place of
worship were called “churches” to distinguish them from the shrines which are under imperial control. Incidentally, many of the sects were founded
and led by women, which is a reflection of women’s prominent role in Japanese religion in ancient times. Sect Shinto can be classified into five
groups (Bahn 1964):
1. Pure Shinto Sects
2. Confucian Sects
3. Mountain Sects
4. Purifcation Sects
5. Faith-healing sects

Folk/Popular Shintoism (Minzoku)

This type of Shinto is often associated with superstition, magic, and common practices of the Japanese people. It includes traditional practices, often
best understood as Japanese folk religion. It is a form of Shinto worship which does not require a priest or a formal shrine, hence it is also known as
Shinto which people practice in their daily lives. It emphasized on purification rituals and regarded as more personal or local. It is often practiced in
connection with growing of crops, major blessings, and at major stages of life, such as birth and marriage.

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Summary
• For Shintoism, human beings need to ensure that they continue to become part of the natural world, which is considered sacred; human nature is
pure and in the natural state of existence, and people need to continuously purify themselves through rituals so as to maintain this purity.
• The goal of every human being is to become part of the natural realm through purification rites.
• There is no clear-cut distinction between good and evil in Shintoism, but there are things which are associated with impurity such as blood and
death; thus, it is necessary to perform the appropriate rituals to purify oneself from these things which are considered impure.
• As long as people worship the kami, they are protected and provided for by the kami; not performing the necessary rituals that will appease the
kami will certainly not earn the favor of the spirits.
• Living a healthy and bountiful life is more important than the concept of what will happen in the afterlife; hence, Shintoism prefers that people
live a healthy and prosperous life here on earth than be concerned with the afterlife.
• There is no clear concept of heaven and hell; there is mention, however, of another world which is inhabited by the kami; and there is another
world connected to the burial of the dead.
• Shintoism is primarily concerned with humanity’s life on earth than on the afterlife.

Self-Assessment: 1. Why is Shinto criticized for not having a clear concept of morality?
2.Why is Shintoism considered more as a way of life than a religion?

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 Information Sheet in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System
Information Sheet: 1.16

1. Topic: Comparative Analysis of Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintoism

2. Objectives:
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
15.1 Identify the uniqueness and similarities of Confucianism, Taoism and Shintoism.
15.2 Provide evidence that Confucianism, Taoism and Shintoism share common traits in viewing nature and ancestors.
15.3 Justify that Confucianism, Taoism and Shintoism as East Asian religions/philosophies have largely influenced the world today.
15.4 Prepare a multimedia presentation on the perceptions of people from all walks of life on the doctrines of each of the three religions and
compare them in the aspects of individual, family, society, government and nature
3. Reference:
4. Content:
Confucianism may have started during the time of Kung Fuzi, but his ideas became popular only after his death, with the initiatives of
Mengzi, and later of Xunzi, who were among those who contributed their own ideas to Confucianism on concepts such as human nature,
morality, politics and government. It initially started as a philosophy that would provide a solution to China’s chaotic society during the Zhou
dynasty, but later it became a religion as well, although its main contribution to China lies in its ethical and moral dimensions.
However, it was not until the reign of the Han dynasty during the 3 rd century B.C.E. that Confucianism secured a very significant place in
Chinese society. With the initiative of Dong Zhongshu, Confucianism was adopted by the Han dynasty as an instrument for its political
legitimacy. Confucian thought became mandatory for it served as the basis for civil service examinations, hence those who wanted to serve in the
government should be wellversed with Confucianism, and in effect Confucianism became the official religion/philosophy of the state. “Without
Kongzi, there would be no Confucianism; but without Dong, there would be no Confucianism as it has been known for the past 2,000 years.”
Thus, when Confucianism was adopted by the Han dynasty, it served as the basis not only of China’s political and ethical system; but also of
China’s social system as well. Just like Confucianism, Daoism also started in China at almost the same period when Confucianism developed.
Like Confucianism, it was also meant to offer solutions to China’s social upheavals during the time. Laozi, who is considered as Daoism’s
prominent philosopher, authored Daoism’s sacred scripture, the Dao De Jing (believed by some as a reaction to Confucianism).
While Confucianism accepted the importance of rituals and ancestor worship for the achievement of harmony between heaven and earth,
Daoism believed that nature should be allowed to take its natural course for the attainment of social order. Confucianism and Daoism may have
flourished at the same period and may have faced the same obstacles in society, but their solutions for the achievement of harmony between
heaven and earth differ, with Confucianism emphasizing the need for a strict ethical control and with Daoism advocating the “go with the flow”
attitude.
While Confucianism became extremely relevant in Chinese society when it was adopted by the Han dynasty, Daoism’s importance began
upon the collection of writings of unknown origin during the 3rd or 4th centuries B.C.E. This collection of writings became known as the Dao De
Jing, a compilation of several hundred years of writings about the Dao (the way) and De (virtue).
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 Later it was attributed to Laozi, who was among those, together with Kung Fuzi and other scholars, who participated in the “hundred
schools” debates during the Warring States period. Zhuangzi was another major contributor to Daoism by writing a book which also tackled the
Dao. Despite the existence of these sacred scriptures in the said period, it took many centuries before Daoism would secure its rightful place in
China’s religious and philosophical life.

MORALITY
In Confucianism, the concept of morality is based on loyalty to one’s superiors and elders, parents, and respect for others. Proper ritual
observance, including rituals performed for the ancestors, is also considered moral action, as well as self-cultivation through wisdom and
trustworthiness. Doing the right thing at all times is also considered meritorious. Loyalty is also translated as “regard for others” (zhong),
specifically loyalty to one’s superior but also includes respect to one’s equals and subordinates. The importance of self-reflection is also
emphasized, with the Golden Rule as the guiding principle, “Do not do unto others what you do not want others do unto you.” From this self-
reflection comes the need to express concern for others, and eventually the attainment of social order. From self-reflection comes self-cultivation, or
the need to cultivate oneself through wisdom.
Maximizing ren (concern for others) by performing the necessary rituals (li) would lead to de (virtue) and would produce the ideal person according
to Confucianism. The cultivation of oneself would eventually lead not only to personal cultivation but to social and even cosmic cultivation as well.
While Confucianism had very few moral guidelines, Daoism initially advocated the idea that society should not be regulated with morality, but
should be allowed to exist according to the natural laws. Doing so would lead to virtuous behavior. Later on, Daoist masters advocated the idea that
one should perform good deeds that would be known only to the gods. Gradually, they started to regulate morality by confessing one’s sins and ask
for forgiveness from the gods. Austerity and self-discipline were also emphasized, until in the 4th century C.E., the text containing 180 moral
guidelines appeared, which listed moral guidelines attributed to Laozi and were clearly influenced by Buddhism. Included in the guidelines were the
prohibition on stealing, adultery, abortion, murder, intoxication, and overindulgence. More developed moral guidelines appeared in the 5th century
with the introduction of the Lingbao scriptures, which was heavily influenced by Buddhism. Some of its important guidelines were the prohibitions
against killing, lying, stealing, intoxication, immoral deeds and actions, as well as maintaining good relationship with one’s family members (even
with the dead ancestors), committing good deeds, helping the less fortunate, and avoiding thoughts of revenge.
Unlike other religions, Shinto morality is not based on definite standards of right and wrong. Since Shintoism is focused on following the will of the
kami or spirits, anything that is not in accordance with the will of the kami is considered bad. Shintoism has provided the Japanese with a way of
life that revolves around the worship of the kami, while Confucianism from China provided them with ethics. Hence, Shinto morality is based on
having purity not only in the physical sense but also in a spiritual and moral sense. Human nature is basically good according to Shintoism, hence
evil comes from external forces. And when people let evil guide their actions, they bring upon themselves impurities and sin which need to be
cleansed through rituals. Impurities also disrupt the flow of life and the blessings from the kami that is why purification rituals are needed to be able
to return to the natural state of cleanliness not only of the people but of the universe as a whole. In general, things which are considered bad in
Shintoism involve disrupting the social order, the natural world, the harmony of the world.

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PURPOSE
The three Daoic religions basically share the same view regarding the purpose of existence. Confucianism and Daoism both espouse the importance of
self cultivation for the benefit of all while Shintoism emphasizes the need to return to the original state of nature by observing purity in everyday life.
Confucianism advocates the idea that the ultimate goal of everyone should be to reach one’s highest potential as a person, and this can be achieved through self-
cultivation. To become virtuous, one should be mindful of all the senses (sight, hearing, speech, and action) and make sure that every action, thought, and feeling
should be in accordance with li (ritual). For Kung Fuzi, the ideal person is called a junzi, a person who exemplifies the quality of ren or concern for fellow human
beings and manifests the quality of yi or righteousness. Mengzi shares the same belief: that human nature is basically good but still needs cultivation through the
proper observance of li (ritual) and meditative practices to ensure the smooth flow of the qi (vital energy). He also believed that what makes us human is our
feeling of sympathy for others’ suffering, but what makes us virtuous is our cultivation of this inner potential. While Xunzi believed otherwise—that human
nature is essentially Bad he also believed that this can be reformed through self-cultivation and also through the proper observance of li or rituals, an idea also
espoused by Kung Fuzi and Mengzi.

As for Daoism, the purpose of existence is to ensure that order and harmony are maintained by being aligned with nature. Thus, like in Confucianism,
self-cultivation is also needed because it is the only way to return to the natural state of existence. The goal of every person is to make the body capable of
reacting in a natural and spontaneous way. Doing physical exercises may help the body achieve that goal. Since spontaneity is meant only for the immortals,
common people should instead aim for a long and healthy life. Activities such as gymnastics, breathing exercises, dietary restrictions, drinking talisman water,
and certain sexual practices can help achieve longevity and body wellness. It is also important to make sure that there is proper alignment or balance within the
body, otherwise illness will occur. That is why acupuncture is very important among the Chinese, for it helps adjust the flow of qi and tends to balance yin and
yang. They also believe that the body is inhabited by the gods, and that organs are governed by the gods, that is why it is necessary to perform the necessary
rituals that are meant to welcome the gods to enter the body. Daoists also believe that one way to become a mortal is by merging the yin and yang within, leading
to the creation of an embryo even among males (Daoists believe that Laozi was able to achieve this). Thus, in Daoism, to ensure that the body functions well is
very important since what happens to the body is reflected outside, so that the purpose of existence is to cultivate the self in the physical, mental, spiritual, and
emotional aspects so that harmony and order will prevail.
Shinto shares with Daoism the belief that the natural state of existence should be maintained. While Daoism and Confucianism both emphasized the
importance of self-cultivation to achieve this goal, Shintoism emphasized the importance of purifcation rituals to maintain the natural state of existence.
Hence, avoidance of pollution or anything that they consider impure (death, blood, or disease) is seen as a way to maintain purity. Pollution is inevitable but can
be washed away by misogi or purifcation rituals. In Shintoism, maintaining the pure and natural state of existence is the purpose of life, and one should start with
oneself.

DESTINY
For Confucianism, reality has two spheres: the inner sphere and the outer sphere. Destiny (or ming) is considered the outer reality which is outside the
control and concern of people. Self-cultivation should be the goal of everyone, thus the focus should be on the inner sphere the cultivation of oneself for what
happens inside reflects what happens outside. A descriptive interpretation of ming sees destiny as a distant force beyond human control.mMeanwhile, a normative
interpretation of ming sees destiny as basically the same with the concept of yi (duty): everything is being willed by heaven and people should follow the will of
heaven not out of fate but as a way of performing the duties assigned to them as individuals (Slingerland 1996). Among all Daoic religions, Daoism is often
criticized for espousing a fatalistic attitude in life, with emphasis on wu wei, often translated as “non-doing” or “non-action.” This is interpreted by critics as a
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proof that Daoism encourages people to live by leaving everything to the universe and not taking action at all. An analysis of the Daoist concept of destiny,
however, would reveal that just like in Confucianism, “non-action” does not mean not taking any action at all. Instead, self-cultivation is also needed so that one
may develop oneself to the extent that one’s actions are naturally in accordance with the flow of the universe. Thus, destiny or fate can only be achieved when
one has cultivated oneself to the highest potential that one’s actions go effortlessly with the way of the universe. Shintoism advocates the idea that every person
has a destiny to follow, a mission to fulfill which will make one’s life worthwhile. However, not everyone is able to realize his or her destiny or mission, for it is
impossible to discover destiny when one has lost natural purity. Thus, misogi or purification is important to regain the natural purity one once had. Only when
one is truly purified can one discover his or her mission in life. Shintoism believes that humanity’s natural greatness can only be achieved by returning oneself to
the
state of natural purity. Just like in Confucianism and Daoism, what happens in heaven should reflect the affairs of human beings, hence in Shintoism, humans are
affected by the pattern of the universe, specifically under the guidance of the sun, moon, and stars. Thus, performing the necessary rituals at the shrines will help
people purify themselves and unfold the destiny they are meant to fulfill.

VIEWS ON WOMEN
Among the three Daoic religions, Daoism can be considered as having the most positive view of women, with its emphasis on the significance of balancing the
masculine and feminine qualities in every individual to achieve harmony not only of the body but the world as well. Confucianism emphasized hierarchy, and in
that hierarchy women are expected to become subservient to men. Similarly, in Shinto men are placed at a more advantageous position in society than women.
 Confucianism places women at the bottom of the hierarchy both in family and society. They are expected to exhibit proper behavior and utmost
obedience. More privileges were accorded to men, like having many wives and concubines while women were allowed to have only one husband and see only
their closest male relatives. A woman’s life revolves around obeying men her father, her husband, and grown-up son. Women are expected to be loyal to their
husbands even when widowed. In fact, widows are expected not to remarry, for it is considered a disgrace for widows to remarry after the death of their
husbands. To encourage this, there were times when the government offered tax exemptions and memorial monuments to the families of women who were
widowed before the age of 30 but did not remarry until the age of 50. Confucianism advocates the belief that widows who remarry after the death of their
husbands lose their virtue.
 Daoism espouses a positive view of women, or qualities associated with women. In fact, the Dao is considered as the “mother of all things” and playing
the feminine part is a constant theme in Daoism. Since balancing the yin and yang is important in Daoism, men are encouraged to perform female roles and vice-
versa. Androgyny, or the combination of masculine and feminine characteristics, can be achieved by developing a divine embryo (even among males), ritual
sexual intercourse, and internal alchemy. The high status accorded to women is manifested by the fact that women are allowed to become priests in Daoism, and
by the existence of numerous female deities.
 Shintoism initially started with a high regard for women especially in the religious aspect. Historical developments, however, have brought considerable
changes to the role of women in Japanese religion and society. We can see how the status of women in religion and in society have changed in the three periods
of the development of Shintoism in Japan. During the “Primitive Shinto” period (from early history to the end of the 2nd to 7th century C.E.), women had a
significant role in religion as the medium between the gods and the people, with the message of the gods being revealed to them, while the implementation of this
will was entrusted to men. Thus, religion was the domain of both women and men, usually brothers and sisters. Upon the rising importance of religion in the lives
of the people, women gained power as proven by the rising number of female shamans (or miko) who were deifed, and the numerous female rulers mentioned in
the ancient chronicles. Upon the subsequent centralization of the empire, religion gradually came under the control of the imperial government and as a result,
women’s role in religion was relegated to becoming the emperor’s representative in the religious domain instead. The status of women in Japanese society
continued to change during the time of “Organized Shinto” (from Taika Reform to the Meiji Restoration 645-1867), when religion became the government’s
responsibility, when rites had to be performed by provincial governors and priests, usually males. During that time, only the shrine at Ise was led by a priestess.
From the Meiji Restoration in 1868 up to the present day, the role of women in society continued to decline. Pure Shinto as the national religion was established,

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 abolishing the mystical elements of Shintoism often associated with women, thus deterring women from participating in offcial priesthood. Since World War II,
women were again accepted in the priesthood but only as substitutes for male priests. Since then, two issues continued to pose a threat to the low status of women
in Japanese religion and society: one, the limited role given to women in high ranking shrines such as Ise, which was previously led by a priestess; and two, the
emphasis given by Shintoism to blood being one of the causes of impurity, hence limiting women’s role in priesthood. The miko or female shamans remained
active as fortune tellers, founders of new sects, and as healers. (Haruko 1993) However, in general women are still not on equal status with men in society, where
men are allowed to commit adultery while women are expected to be loyal to their husbands. Women were also allowed the right to divorce their husbands only
in the last century.

CONCLUSION
By comparing the three Daoic religions, we have seen that they share more similarities than differences. One important aspect that needs to be stressed is their
belief that the state of nature should be maintained for it is the only way to promote harmony and order in society. Another important aspect is the emphasis on
rituals and ancestor worship, which need to be performed to help achieve self-cultivation at its highest form. On the other hand, Shintoism states the importance
of returning to the natural state of purity to become a better person and fathom one’s destiny, thereby promoting order in society.

Summary
• All three Daoic religions originated in East Asia—with Confucianism and Daoism originating in China during the Warring States period while Shinto started as
an indigenous religion of Japan. Confucianism and Daoism started as attempts by philosophers Kung Fuzi and Laozi to bring order to the chaos happening during
the Warring States period in China, while Shinto started as a religion focusing on the worship of kami or spirits that were seen as the source of prosperity,
especially in the sphere of agriculture.
• Unlike other religions, the three Daoic religions discussed in this chapter have no strict set of moral guidelines to follow. In Confucianism, morality is based on
loyalty, ritual observance, and self-cultivation; in Daoism, imposition of ethics was initially discouraged for it would hinder humanity from being in harmony with
nature, but later Buddhism had influenced Daoism with its moral dimension. In Shinto, anything that goes against the observance of purity is considered evil.
• All three Daoic religions consider the harmony between heaven and earth as the ultimate goal, since they all believe that what happens in heaven should be
reflected on earth. Thus, self-cultivation, for Confucianism and Daoism, is important for one can reach one’s highest potential only by cultivating oneself for the
common good. Shintoism emphasizes purity of oneself to maintain the natural state which can bring harmony and order in society.
• Destiny, according to Confucianism and Daoism, lies in one’s cultivation of the self in order to achieve a harmonious society. In Shintoism, everyone has a destiny
to fulfll, but only purity would make one capable of realizing his or her mission in life.
• Among the three Daoic religions, Daoism is considered as having the most positive view of women, with the idea of balancing the feminine and masculine
qualities in everyone to balance the yin and yang and allow the smooth flow of qi. Confucianism, with its emphasis on hierarchy, prioritizes men over women in
all aspects. Shintoism initially had a high regard for women, but historical developments led to the diminishing status of women in religion and society.

Self-Assessment: How similar are Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintoism in terms of origin?

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 COURSE REQUIREMENTS AND CLASS POLICY
Course Requirements: Class card with 1x1 picture, student/s portfolio, and school manual.

Class Policy: No using of mobile phone inside the classroom, except if emergency or w/permission, avoid coming
late to my class.
Grading system: WRITTEN WORK : 25 % PERFORMANCE TASK : 45% QUARTER EXAM : 30 %
Textbook and Supplementary reading: Giving module/handouts weekly.
Prepared by: Checked by: Noted by:

MUSRIFA J. UNTIH Al-MICHA-EL D. LADJAHASAN

ALMALYN A. TARABASA HUMSS 12 COORDINATOR SHS PRINCIPAL
Approved by:
ISNAILA J. MASILLAM
WRBS Teachers ALBASHER J. MASILLAM
HJI. EUFREMIO N. CANARIA
HUMSS 11 COORDINATOR
VP President for Administration

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 Sulu College of Technology, Inc.
Formerly: Sulu Tong Jin School
Moore Avenue, Alat Street, Jolo, Sulu. Philippines
E-mail: [email protected]
Senior High School Department

Information Sheet for students in Introduction to World Religion and Belief System
A.Y. 2020-2021
Course Title Introduction to World Religion and Belief System Name of Teachers WRBS Teachers
Credit Units/Prerequisite 3 Units Consultation Time
Subject
Class Schedule MWF/TTHS Contact Hours/week 3 Hours
Instructional Graduate Attributes
At the end of the course, students should have exhibited the attributes found below as envisioned by the school:

REFRESH Resilience Empowerment Fortitude Respect Excellence Service Humility

Course Learning Outcome Institutional Learning Outcome:

At the end of the course, the students should be able to: K- Analyze issues, concerns, problematic situations
to
KNOWLEDGE come up with a solution.
1. Understand the different meaning of religion and belief system.
2. Demonstrate various ways of world religion and philosophy of S- Manifest competence in observing and recording
religion and theology. details, innovating products and service, weighing
3. Understand the elements of religion, belief system and spirituality. pros and cons to arrive at sound decision.
SKILLS
1.Acquire understanding of the positive and negative effect of religion A- Exhibit the values of resiliency and proactivity
2.Apply their belief system, religious,spirituality, philosophy of religion
and theology to affair of daily life.
3.To become a religious and understand of her religion and adopt for daily
life.

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 VALUES
1. Belief and one religion in perform daily life
2. Justify that religion can have positive effect on society.

Course Description : Introduction to World Religions and Belief Systems

Subject Description:
The course explores the main tenets and practices of major world religions: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism,
Theravada Buddhism,
Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Shintoism. It aims to help learners understand the historical contexts of nine
religions,
Appreciate their uniqueness and similarities and promote mutual understanding among believers of different faiths. They are
expected to
demonstrate understanding and appreciation of one’s faith and that of others.

Reference: Textbooks. Diwa Senior High School Intro.to the World Religion and Belief System

Jerome A. Ong, and Mary Dorothy dL. Jose/Author/Editor/ Intro.to the World Religion and Belief System

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