Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Thirteenth Edition,
Global Edition

Chapter 11
The Cardiovascular
System

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

The Cardiovascular System
• A closed system of the heart and blood vessels
– The heart pumps blood
– Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts of
the body
• Functions of the cardiovascular system
– Transport oxygen, nutrients, cell wastes, hormones
to and from cells

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Anatomy of the Heart (1 of 3)
• Size of a human fist, weighing less than a pound
• Located in the thoracic cavity, between the lungs in the
inferior mediastinum (medial section of the thoracic cavity)
• Orientation
– Apex (pointed region) is directed toward left hip and
rests on the diaphragm
– Base (area where great blood vessels emerge) points
toward right shoulder

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.1a Location of the Heart
Within the Thorax

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.1b Location of the Heart
Within the Thorax

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.1c Location of the Heart
Within the Thorax

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Anatomy of the Heart (2 of 3)
• Coverings of the heart
– Pericardium—a double-walled sac
▪ Fibrous pericardium is loose and superficial
▪ Serous membrane is deep to the fibrous
pericardium and composed of two layers
1. Parietal pericardium: outside layer that lines the
inner surface of the fibrous pericardium
2. Visceral pericardium: next to heart; also known
as the epicardium
▪ Serous fluid fills the space between the layers of
pericardium, called the pericardial cavity
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 11.2 Heart Wall and Coverings (1 of 2)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Anatomy of the Heart (3 of 3)
• Walls of the heart
1. Epicardium
▪ Outermost layer of the heart wall; also known as the
visceral pericardium
2. Myocardium
▪ Middle layer composed mostly of cardiac muscle
▪ This layer contracts
3. Endocardium
▪ Inner layer known as endothelium

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.2 Heart Wall and Coverings (2 of 2)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Chambers and Associated Great
Vessels (1 of 5)
• Four chambers of the heart
– Atria (right and left)
▪ Superior receiving chambers
▪ Assist with filling the ventricles
▪ Blood enters under low pressure from veins of the
body
– Ventricles (right and left)
▪ Inferior discharging chambers
▪ Thick-walled pumps of the heart
▪ During contraction, blood is propelled into circulation

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.3a Gross Anatomy of the
Heart (1 of 5)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.3b Gross Anatomy of the
Heart (2 of 4)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.5 Anatomical Differences in
Right and Left Ventricles

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Chambers and Associated Great
Vessels (2 of 5)
• Interatrial septum
– Separates the two atria longitudinally
• Interventricular septum
– Separates the two ventricles longitudinally

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.3b Gross Anatomy of the
Heart (3 of 4)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Chambers and Associated Great
Vessels (3 of 5)
• Heart functions as a double pump
– Arteries carry blood away from the heart
– Veins carry blood toward the heart
• Double pump
– Right side works as the pulmonary circuit pump
– Left side works as the systemic circuit pump

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Chambers and Associated Great
Vessels (4 of 5)
• Pulmonary circulation
– Blood flows from the right side of the heart to the
lungs and back to the left side of the heart
▪ Blood is pumped out of right side through the
pulmonary trunk, which splits into pulmonary
arteries and takes oxygen-poor blood to lungs
▪ Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart from the
lungs via pulmonary veins

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Chambers and Associated Great
Vessels (5 of 5)
• Systemic circulation
– Oxygen-rich blood returned to the left side of the heart
is pumped out into the aorta
▪ Blood circulates to systemic arteries and to all body
tissues
▪ Left ventricle has thicker walls because it pumps
blood to the body through the systemic circuit
– Oxygen-poor blood returns to the right atrium via
systemic veins, which empty blood into the superior or
inferior vena cava

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.4 The Systemic and
Pulmonary Circulations

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Heart Valves (1 of 2)
• Allow blood to flow in only one direction to prevent
backflow
– Atrioventricular (AV) valves—between atria and
ventricles
▪ Left AV valve: bicuspid (mitral) valve
▪ Right AV valve: tricuspid valve
– Semilunar valves—between ventricle and artery
▪ Pulmonary semilunar valve
▪ Aortic semilunar valve

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Heart Valves (2 of 2)
• AV valves
– Chordae tendineae anchor the cusps to the walls of
the ventricles
– Open during heart relaxation, when blood passively
fills the chambers
– Closed during ventricular contraction
• Semilunar valves
– Closed during heart relaxation
– Open during ventricular contraction
• Valves open and close in response to pressure changes
in the heart
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 11.6a Operation of the Heart
Valves (1 of 7)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.6a Operation of the Heart
Valves (2 of 7)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.6a Operation of the Heart
Valves (3 of 7)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.6a Operation of the Heart
Valves (4 of 7)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.6a Operation of the Heart
Valves (5 of 7)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.6a Operation of the Heart
Valves (6 of 7)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.6a Operation of the Heart
Valves (7 of 7)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.6b Operation of the Heart
Valves (1 of 3)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.6b Operation of the Heart
Valves (2 of 3)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.6b Operation of the Heart
Valves (3 of 3)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Cardiac Circulation (1 of 2)
• Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the
myocardium
• The heart has its own nourishing circulatory system
consisting of:
– Coronary arteries—branch from the aorta to supply
the heart muscle with oxygenated blood
▪ On the left: anterior interventricular artery and
circumflex artery
▪ On the right: posterior interventricular artery and
marginal artery

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Cardiac Circulation (2 of 2)
– Cardiac veins—drain the myocardium of blood
– Coronary sinus—a large vein on the posterior of the
heart; receives blood from cardiac veins
▪ Blood empties into the right atrium via the
coronary sinus

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.3a Gross Anatomy of the
Heart (2 of 5)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (1 of 17)
• Intrinsic conduction system of the heart
– Cardiac muscle contracts spontaneously and can
occur independently of nerve impulses
– Contractions occur in a regular and continuous way
▪ Atrial cells beat 60 times per minute
▪ Ventricular cells beat 20−40 times per minute
▪ Need a unifying control system—the intrinsic
conduction system (nodal system)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (2 of 17)
• Intrinsic conduction system of the heart
– Two systems regulate heart activity
▪ Autonomic nervous system
▪ Intrinsic conduction system, or the nodal system
– Sets the heart rhythm
– Composed of special nervous tissue
– Ensures heart muscle depolarization in one
direction only (atria to ventricles)
– Enforces a heart rate of 75 beats per minute

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Concept Link 1
The one-way depolarization of cardiac muscle is very
similar to the one-way generation of an action potential as
it travels down the axon of a neuron like a wave (Chapter
7, pp. 251–253). The signals that stimulate cardiac muscle
contraction also travel one way throughout the intrinsic
conduction system.

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (3 of 17)
• Intrinsic conduction system of the heart
• Components include:
– Sinoatrial (SA) node
▪ Located in the right atrium
▪ Serves as the heart’s pacemaker
– Atrioventricular (AV) node is at the junction of the atria
and ventricles
– Atrioventricular (AV) bundle (bundle of His) and bundle
branches are in the interventricular septum
– Purkinje fibers spread within the ventricle wall muscles

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.7 The Intrinsic Conduction
System of the Heart

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (4 of 17)
• Intrinsic conduction system of the heart
– The sinoatrial node (SA node) starts each heartbeat
– Impulse spreads through the atria to the AV node
– Atria contract
– At the AV node, the impulse is delayed briefly
– Impulse travels through the AV bundle, bundle
branches, and Purkinje fibers
– Ventricles contract; blood is ejected from the heart

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (5 of 17)
• Intrinsic conduction system of the heart
– Tachycardia—rapid heart rate, over 100 beats per
minute
– Bradycardia—slow heart rate, less than 60 beats per
minutes

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (6 of 17)
• Cardiac cycle and heart sounds
– The cardiac cycle refers to one complete heartbeat,
in which both atria and ventricles contract and then
relax
▪ Systole = contraction
▪ Diastole = relaxation
– Average heart rate is approximately 75 beats per
minute
– Cardiac cycle length is normally 0.8 second

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (7 of 17)
• Cardiac cycle and heart sounds
– Atrial diastole (ventricular filling)
▪ Heart is relaxed
▪ Pressure in heart is low
▪ Atrioventricular valves are open
▪ Blood flows passively into the atria and into
ventricles
▪ Semilunar valves are closed

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (8 of 17)
• Cardiac cycle and heart sounds
– Atrial systole
▪ Ventricles remain in diastole
▪ Atria contract
▪ Blood is forced into the ventricles to complete
ventricular filling

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (9 of 17)
• Cardiac cycle and heart sounds
– Isovolumetric contraction
▪ Atrial systole ends; ventricular systole begins
▪ Intraventricular pressure rises
▪ AV valves close to prevent blood backflow into atria
▪ For a moment, the ventricles are completely closed
chambers

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (10 of 17)
• Cardiac cycle and heart sounds
– Ventricular systole (ejection phase)
▪ Ventricles continue to contract
▪ Intraventricular pressure now surpasses the
pressure in the major arteries leaving the heart
▪ Semilunar valves open
▪ Blood is ejected from the ventricles
▪ Atria are relaxed and filling with blood

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (11 of 17)
• Cardiac cycle and heart sounds
– Isovolumetric relaxation
▪ Ventricular diastole begins
▪ Pressure in ventricles falls below that in the major
arteries
▪ Semilunar valves close to prevent blood backflow
into the ventricles
▪ For another moment, the ventricles are completely
closed chambers
▪ When atrial pressure increases above
intraventricular pressure, the AV valves open

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (12 of 17)
• Cardiac cycle and heart sounds
– Heart sounds
▪ Lub—longer, louder heart sound caused by the
closing of the AV valves
▪ Dup—short, sharp heart sound caused by the
closing of the semilunar valves at the end of
ventricular systole

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.8 Summary of Events
Occurring During the Cardiac Cycle

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (13 of 17)
• Cardiac output (CO)
– Amount of blood pumped by each side (ventricle) of
the heart in 1 minute
– Product of stroke volume and heart rate
• Stroke volume (SV)
– Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one
contraction (each heartbeat)
– About 70 m l of blood is pumped out of the left
illi iter

ventricle with each heartbeat

• Heart rate (HR)
– Typically 75 beats per minute
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Physiology of the Heart (14 of 17)
• Cardiac output is the product of the heart rate (HR) and
the stroke volume (SV)
–
–
–

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (15 of 17)
• Regulation of stroke volume
– 60 percent of blood in ventricles (about 70 m l ) is illi iter

pumped with each heartbeat

– Starling’s law of the heart
▪ The critical factor controlling SV is how much
cardiac muscle is stretched, called preload
▪ The more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the
stronger the contraction
– Venous return is the important factor influencing the
stretch of heart muscle

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (16 of 17)
• Regulation of stroke volume
– Two factors influence preload
▪ Amount of venous return (volume of blood
returning to the heart)
▪ Length of time the ventricles are relaxed and
filling (determined by heart rate)
– Contractility is the ability of cardiac muscle tissue to
generate tension
– Afterload is the amount of pressure the ventricles
must overcome to eject blood

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of the Heart (17 of 17)
• Factors modifying basic heart rate
1. Neural (ANS) controls
▪ Sympathetic nervous system speeds heart rate
▪ Parasympathetic nervous system, primarily vagus nerve
fibers, slow and steady the heart rate
2. Hormones and ions
▪ Epinephrine and thyroxine speed heart rate
▪ Excess or lack of calcium, sodium, and potassium ions
also modify heart activity
3. Physical factors
▪ Age, gender, exercise, body temperature influence
heart rate
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 11.9 Influence of Selected
Factors on Cardiac Output

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Vessels
• Blood vessels form a closed vascular system that
transports blood to the tissues and back to the heart
– Vessels that carry blood away from the heart
▪ Arteries and arterioles
– Vessels that play a role in exchanges between
tissues and blood
▪ Capillary beds
– Vessels that return blood toward the heart
▪ Venules and veins

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels (1 of 4)
• Three layers (tunics) in blood vessels (except the
capillaries)
– Tunica intima forms a friction-reducing lining
▪ Endothelium
– Tunica media
▪ Smooth muscle and elastic tissue
▪ Controlled by sympathetic nervous system
– Tunica externa forms protective outermost covering
▪ Mostly fibrous connective tissue
▪ Supports and protects the vessel

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.10a Structure of Blood
Vessels

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.10b Structure of Blood
Vessels

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels (2 of 4)
• Structural differences in arteries, veins, and capillaries
– Arteries have a heavier, stronger, stretchier tunica
media than veins to withstand changes in pressure
– Veins have a thinner tunica media than arteries and
operate under low pressure
▪ Veins also have valves to prevent backflow of
blood
▪ Lumen of veins is larger than that of arteries
▪ Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the
heart

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.11 Operation of the Muscular
Pump

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels (3 of 4)
• Structural differences in arteries, veins, and capillaries
– Capillaries
▪ Only one cell layer thick (tunica intima)
▪ Allow for exchanges between blood and tissue
▪ Form networks called capillary beds
▪ Blood flow through a capillary bed is known as
microcirculation
– Blood flows from terminal arteriole

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels (4 of 4)
• Structural differences in arteries, veins, and capillaries
– Special capillary beds of the mesentery have
precapillary sphincters and a vascular shunt
▪ Precapillary sphincters regulate blood flow through a
capillary bed
▪ Vascular shunt directly connects the arteriole and
venule at opposite ends of the bed
– When precapillary sphincter is open, blood flows
through and exchanges with cells can occur
– When precapillary sphincter is closed, blood flows
through the shunt and bypasses cells in that region

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.12a Anatomy of a Capillary Bed

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.12b Anatomy of a Capillary Bed

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (1 of 17)
• Major arteries of systemic circulation
– Aorta
▪ Largest artery in the body
▪ Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart
▪ Regions
– Ascending aorta—leaves the left ventricle
– Aortic arch—arches to the left
– Thoracic aorta—travels downward through the
thorax
– Abdominal aorta—passes through the
diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 11.3a Gross Anatomy of the
Heart (3 of 5)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.13 Major Arteries of the
Systemic Circulation, Anterior View (1 of 2)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (2 of 17)
• Major arteries of systemic circulation
– Arterial branches of the ascending aorta
▪ Right and left coronary arteries serve the heart

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (3 of 17)
• Major arteries of systemic circulation
– Arterial branches of the aortic arch
▪ Brachiocephalic trunk splits into the:
– Right common carotid artery
– Right subclavian artery
▪ Left common carotid artery splits into the:
– Left internal and external carotid arteries
▪ Left subclavian artery branches into the:
– Vertebral artery
– In the axilla, the subclavian artery becomes the

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (4 of 17)
• Major arteries of systemic circulation
– Arterial branches of the thoracic aorta
▪ Intercostal arteries supply the muscles of the
thorax wall
▪ Other branches of the thoracic aorta (not
illustrated) supply the:
– Lungs (bronchial arteries)
– Esophagus (esophageal arteries)
– Diaphragm (phrenic arteries)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (5 of 17)
• Major arteries of systemic circulation
– Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta
▪ Celiac trunk is the first branch of the abdominal
aorta. Three branches are:
1. Left gastric artery (stomach)
2. Splenic artery (spleen)
3. Common hepatic artery (liver)
▪ Superior mesenteric artery supplies most of the
small intestine and first half of the large intestine

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (6 of 17)
• Major arteries of systemic circulation
– Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta
▪ Left and right renal arteries (kidney)
▪ Left and right gonadal arteries
– Ovarian arteries in females serve the ovaries
– Testicular arteries in males serve the testes
▪ Lumbar arteries serve muscles of the abdomen
and trunk

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (7 of 17)
• Major arteries of systemic circulation
– Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta
▪ Inferior mesenteric artery serves the second half of
the large intestine
▪ Left and right common iliac arteries are the final
branches of the aorta
– Internal iliac arteries serve the pelvic organs
– External iliac arteries enter the thigh

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.13 Major Arteries of the
Systemic Circulation, Anterior View (2 of 2)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (8 of 17)
• Major veins of systemic circulation
– Superior vena cava and inferior vena cava enter the
right atrium of the heart
▪ Superior vena cava drains the head and arms
▪ Inferior vena cava drains the lower body

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.3a Gross Anatomy of the
Heart (4 of 5)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.14 Major Veins of the Systemic
Circulation, Anterior View (1 of 2)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (9 of 17)
• Major veins of systemic circulation
– Veins draining into the superior vena cava
▪ Radial and ulnar veins drain to
axillary vein
▪ Cephalic vein drains the lateral aspect of the arm
and empties into the axillary vein
▪ Basilic vein drains the medial aspect of the arm and
empties into the brachial vein
▪ Basilic and cephalic veins are joined at the median
cubital vein (elbow area)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (10 of 17)
• Major veins of systemic circulation
– Veins draining into the superior vena cava
▪ Subclavian vein receives:
– Venous blood from the arm via the axillary vein
– Venous blood from skin and muscles via external
jugular vein
▪ Vertebral vein drains the posterior part of the head
▪ Internal jugular vein drains the dural sinuses of the
brain

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (11 of 17)
• Major veins of systemic circulation
– Veins draining into the superior vena cava
▪ Left and right brachiocephalic veins receive
venous blood from the:
– Subclavian veins
– Vertebral veins
– Internal jugular veins
▪ Brachiocephalic veins join to form the superior

▪ Azygos vein drains the thorax

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (12 of 17)
• Major veins of systemic circulation
– Veins draining into the inferior vena cava
▪ Anterior and posterior tibial veins and fibial veins
drain the legs
▪ Posterior tibial vein drains to

▪ Great saphenous veins (longest veins of the body)

receive superficial drainage of the legs
▪ Each common iliac vein (left and right) is formed by
the union of the internal and external iliac vein on its
own side
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (13 of 17)
• Major veins of systemic circulation
– Veins draining into the inferior vena cava
▪ Right gonadal vein drains the right ovary in
females and right testicle in males
▪ Left gonadal vein empties into the left renal vein
▪ Left and right renal veins drain the kidneys
▪ Hepatic portal vein drains the digestive organs
and travels through the liver before it enters
systemic circulation
▪ Left and right hepatic veins drain the liver

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.14 Major Veins of the Systemic
Circulation, Anterior View (2 of 2)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (14 of 17)
• Arterial supply of the brain and the cerebral arterial circle
(circle of Willis)
– Internal carotid arteries divide into:
▪ Anterior and middle cerebral arteries
– These arteries supply most of the cerebrum
– Vertebral arteries join once within the skull to form the
basilar artery
▪ Basilar artery serves the brain stem and cerebellum

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (15 of 17)
• Arterial supply of the brain and the cerebral arterial circle
(circle of Willis)
– Posterior cerebral arteries form from the division of
the basilar artery
▪ These arteries supply the posterior cerebrum

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (16 of 17)
• Arterial supply of the brain and the cerebral arterial circle
(circle of Willis)
– Anterior and posterior blood supplies are united by
small communicating arterial branches
– Result—complete circle of connecting blood vessels
called cerebral arterial circle, or circle of Willis

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.15a Arterial Supply of the Brain

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.15b Arterial Supply of the Brain

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels (17 of 17)
• Hepatic portal circulation is formed by veins draining
the digestive organs, spleen, and pancreas, which
empty into the hepatic portal vein
• Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to the liver,
where it is processed before returning to systemic
circulation
• The hepatic portal vein receives blood from:
– Splenic vein (receives blood from inferior
mesenteric vein)
– Superior mesenteric vein
– Left gastric vein
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Concept Link 2
Like the portal circulation that links the hypothalamus of
the brain and the anterior pituitary gland (Chapter 9, p.
329), the hepatic portal circulation is a unique and
unusual circulation. Normally, arteries feed capillary
beds, which in turn drain into veins. In the hepatic portal
circulation, veins feed the liver circulation (Figure
11.16).

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.16 The Basic Scheme of the
Hepatic Portal System

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.17 The Hepatic Portal
Circulation

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Physiology of Circulation
• Vital signs
– Measurements of arterial pulse, blood pressure,
respiratory rate, and body temperature
• Arterial pulse
– Alternate expansion and recoil of a blood vessel wall
(the pressure wave) that occurs as the heart beats
– Monitored at pressure points in superficial arteries,
where pulse is easily palpated
– Pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per minute at rest, in a
healthy person

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.18 Body Sites Where the
Pulse Is Most Easily Palpated

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (1 of 14)
• Blood pressure
– The pressure the blood exerts against the inner walls
of the blood vessels
– The force that causes blood to continue to flow in the
blood vessels

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Concept Link 3
As you remember, in the passive process of filtration,
substances move from areas of high pressure to areas of
low pressure through a filter (Chapter 3, p. 98). Blood flow
is driven by these same differences in pressure, but
without a filter.

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (2 of 14)
• Blood pressure gradient
– When the ventricles contract:
▪ Blood is forced into elastic arteries close to the
heart
▪ Blood flows along a pressure gradient (from high
to low pressure)
– Pressure decreases in blood vessels as distance
from the heart increases
– Pressure is high in the arteries, lower in the
capillaries, and lowest in the veins

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.19 Blood Pressure in the Systemic
Circuit of the Cardiovascular System

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (3 of 14)
• Measuring blood pressure
– Two arterial blood pressures are measured
▪ Systolic—pressure in the arteries at the peak of
ventricular contraction
▪ Diastolic—pressure when ventricles relax
– Expressed as systolic pressure over diastolic pressure
in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg)
▪ For example,
– Auscultatory method is an indirect method of
measuring systemic arterial blood pressure, most
often in the brachial artery
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 11.20a Measuring Blood
Pressure

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.20b Measuring Blood
Pressure

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.20c Measuring Blood
Pressure

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.20d Measuring Blood
Pressure

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (4 of 14)
• Effects of various factors on blood pressure
– Arterial blood pressure (BP) is directly related to
cardiac output and peripheral resistance
▪ Cardiac output (CO; the amount of blood pumped
out of the left ventricle per minute)
▪ Peripheral resistance (PR; the amount of friction
blood encounters as it flows through vessels)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (5 of 14)
• Effects of various factors on blood pressure
– Neural factors: the autonomic nervous system
▪ Parasympathetic nervous system has little to no
effect on blood pressure
▪ Sympathetic nervous system promotes
vasoconstriction (narrowing of vessels), which
increases blood pressure

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (6 of 14)
• Effects of various factors on blood pressure
– Renal factors: the kidneys
▪ Kidneys regulate blood pressure by altering blood
volume
▪ If blood pressure is too high, the kidneys release water
in the urine
▪ If blood pressure is too low, the kidneys release
renin to trigger formation of angiotensin
a vasoconstrictor
▪ Angiotensin stimulates release of aldosterone,
which enhances sodium (and water) reabsorption by
kidneys
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Blood Pressure (7 of 14)
• Effects of various factors on blood pressure
– Temperature
▪ Heat has a vasodilating effect
▪ Cold has a vasoconstricting effect
– Chemicals
▪ Various substances can cause increases or
decreases in blood pressure
▪ Epinephrine increases heart rate and blood pressure

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Concept Link 4
Recall that epinephrine is the “fight-or-flight” hormone,
which is produced by the adrenal medulla and helps us
deal with short-term stress (Chapter 9, p. 339).

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (8 of 14)
• Effects of various factors on blood pressure
– Diet
▪ Commonly believed that a diet low in salt,
saturated fats, and cholesterol prevents
hypertension (high blood pressure)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.21 Summary of Factors That
Increase Arterial Blood Pressure

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (9 of 14)
• Variations in blood pressure
– Normal human range is variable
▪ Systolic pressure ranges from 110 to 140 mm Hg
▪ Diastolic pressure ranges from 70 to 80 mm Hg

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (10 of 14)
• Variations in blood pressure
– Hypotension (low blood pressure)
▪ Low systolic (below 100 mm Hg)
▪ Often associated with illness
▪ Acute hypotension is a warning sign for
circulatory shock
– Hypertension (high blood pressure)
▪ Sustained elevated arterial pressure of

▪ Warns of increased peripheral resistance

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (11 of 14)
• Capillary exchange of gases and nutrients
– Interstitial fluid (tissue fluid) is found between cells
– Substances move to and from the blood and tissue
cells through capillary walls
▪ Exchange is due to concentration gradients
– Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood and
move into tissue cells
– Carbon dioxide and other wastes exit tissue
cells and enter the blood

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (12 of 14)
• Capillary exchange of gases and nutrients
– Substances take various routes entering or leaving
the blood
1. Direct diffusion through membranes
2. Diffusion through intercellular clefts (gaps between
cells in the capillary wall)
3. Diffusion through pores of fenestrated capillaries
4. Transport via vesicles

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.22 Capillary Transport
Mechanisms

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (13 of 14)
• Fluid movements at capillary beds
– Fluid movement out of or into a capillary depends on
the difference between the two pressures
1. Blood pressure forces fluid and solutes out of
capillaries
2. Osmotic pressure draws fluid into capillaries

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Blood Pressure (14 of 14)
• Fluid movements at capillary beds
– Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure at the
arterial end of the capillary bed
– Blood pressure is lower than osmotic pressure at the
venous end of the capillary bed
– Thus, fluid moves out of the capillary at the beginning
of the bed and is reclaimed at the opposite (venule)
end

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.23 Bulk Fluid Flow Across
Capillary Walls

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Developmental Aspects of the
Cardiovascular System (1 of 4)
• In an embryo
– The heart develops as a simple tube and pumps
blood by week 4 of pregnancy
– The heart becomes a four-chambered organ capable
of acting as a double pump over the next 3 weeks

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Developmental Aspects of the
Cardiovascular System (2 of 4)
• Umbilical cord
– Carries nutrients and oxygen from maternal blood to
fetal blood
– Fetal wastes move from fetal blood to maternal blood
– Houses:
▪ One umbilical vein, which carries nutrient- and
oxygen-rich blood to the fetus
▪ Two umbilical arteries, which carry wastes and
carbon dioxide–rich blood from the fetus to placenta

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.24 Schematic of the Fetal
Circulation

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Developmental Aspects of the
Cardiovascular System (3 of 4)
• Shunts bypassing the lungs and liver are present in a
fetus
– Blood flow bypasses the liver through the ductus
venosus and enters the inferior vena cava
atrium of heart
– Blood flow bypasses the lungs
▪ Blood entering right atrium is shunted directly into
left atrium through foramen ovale (becomes fossa
ovalis at or after birth)
▪ Ductus arteriosus connects aorta and pulmonary
trunk (becomes ligamentum arteriosum at birth)
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 11.3a Gross Anatomy of the
Heart (5 of 5)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 11.3b Gross Anatomy of the
Heart (3 of 3)

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Developmental Aspects of the
Cardiovascular System (4 of 4)
• Age-related problems associated with the cardiovascular
system include:
– Weakening of venous valves
– Varicose veins
– Progressive arteriosclerosis
– Hypertension resulting from loss of elasticity of
vessels
– Coronary artery disease resulting from fatty, calcified
deposits in the vessels

Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.