Transforming Plastic Bottles into Resources:

“An Innovative Approach to the Design and Operation of Urban Upcycling

Facilities in Cebu City”

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES FOUNDATION, INC.
SALINAS DRIVE, LAHUG, CEBU

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE

ANGEL GABRIEL M. ALDAY

JUNE 2025
 CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

INTRODUCTION

Plastic is a synthetic or semi-synthetic polymer, consisting of numerous repeating

units known as monomers, which combine to form a large molecule. It is produced from raw
materials like cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil. They can be molded, extruded,
cast, or drawn into filaments and used in many products, including paperclips, planes,
electronic equipment cases, compact discs, eyeglasses, security windows, traffic lights, and
plastic bags.

The word "polymer" comes from the Greek word poly, meaning many, and meros,
meaning parts or units made of long chains of molecules. In 1856, Alexander Parkes
invented Parkesine, the first man-made thermoplastic. Then John Wesley Hyatt stands out as
the visionary creator of the first synthetic polymer, a significant development in material
science. This innovative blend produced a substance that was malleable when heated while
maintaining its shape upon cooling. In his innovative experiments, Hyatt expertly combined
cellulose an abundant natural polymer that forms the structural component of plant cell
walls with camphor, a versatile plasticizing agent known for enhancing flexibility and
durability. This pioneering work not only paved the way for the creation of various synthetic
materials but also revolutionized industries by demonstrating the potential of combining
natural substances to produce entirely new, functional materials. Hyatt patented this
groundbreaking thermoplastic, which he named celluloid, in 1869, marking a significant
advancement in material science. He discovered a plastic that could be molded into various
shapes and designed to imitate natural materials such as tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory.
This innovation in celluloid eventually led to the development of fully synthetic plastics like
Bakelite.

Leo Baekeland (1907) developed Bakelite, recognized as the first fully synthetic
plastic. Unlike previous materials, Bakelite was distinguished by its unique composition,
containing no molecules derived from natural sources. This revolutionary composition not
only set a new standard for plastics but also paved the way for the development of a wide
range of durable and versatile products in various industries.

In the 1940s, the groundbreaking development of polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

revolutionized bottle manufacturing with its remarkable qualities. PET, a type of polyester, is
formed by the combination of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid, resulting in a material
that is not only lightweight and strong but also versatile enough to be molded into various
shapes. Its waterproof and chemical-resistant properties make it an excellent choice for
liquid containers, ensuring durability and safety. This practicality and reliability make it a
dependable choice for various applications.

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 Before the introduction of plastic bottles, glass was the primary material used for
storing liquids. While effective, glass bottles were heavier, more fragile, and costlier to
produce and transport. In 1973, Nathaniel Wyeth made a groundbreaking contribution to
the beverage packaging industry with his invention of the first PET (polyethylene
terephthalate) plastic bottle. This remarkable bottle was designed specifically to endure the
internal pressures generated by carbonated beverages, marking a crucial turning point in
packaging technology. Wyeth’s invention greatly improved the safety and convenience of
storing and transporting beverages. This innovation allowed for lightweight, durable, and
cost-effective alternatives to glass. As a result, it laid the groundwork for the extensive use of
plastic bottles, changing the industry forever.

By the early 20th century, fully synthetic materials such as Bakelite had dramatically
transformed modern manufacturing. Synthetic polymers possess unique properties that
make them highly useful, they have become essential to our daily lives. Over the past 50
years, the widespread use of plastic bottles brought significant benefits and contributed to a
growing environmental crisis and challenges, including waste accumulation and recycling
inefficiencies with billions of bottles ending up in landfills or the ocean annually.

Plastic waste management in the Philippines faces several challenges. These include
inadequate infrastructure for waste collection and processing, limited public awareness and
participation in recycling programs, and a lack of effective government policies to enforce
proper waste management practices. Additionally, the rapid increase in plastic consumption,
along with insufficient funding for waste management initiatives, worsens the situation.

Addressing the global issue of plastic waste each year requires a comprehensive
approach. This involves enhancing recycling systems through investments in efficient
infrastructure and advanced technologies, promoting ecological practices, and raising public
awareness about the environmental impacts of plastic waste.

Encouraging corporate responsibility by reducing their plastic footprint can lead to

profound change. International collaboration is essential, as countries unite on shared
initiatives to fight plastic pollution. By promoting innovative waste management strategies
and empowering local communities in cleanup initiatives, we can achieve significant
progress. By adopting these approaches together, we can make a meaningful impact on
reducing plastic waste globally.

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1.0 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Plastic plays a vital role in globalization. Advancements in information technology

and smart packaging have made it essential in today’s world. Rapid urbanization, population
growth, and industrialization have contributed to significant waste management challenges
globally. The high demand for plastic in packaging, agriculture, automobiles, and biomedical
industries has exacerbated these waste management issues.
Since the 1950s, the use of plastic has significantly increased, leading to a surge in
plastic waste. Approximately 400 million tons of single-use plastic waste are generated each
year, and about half of that is discarded within a single year.

The worldwide production of plastics reached a staggering 400.3 million metric tons
in 2022, an increase of about 1.6 percent from the previous year. Plastic production has
soared since the 1950s and the incredible versatility of this group of materials accounts for
the continued growth in production year after year. In tandem with that growth, the market
value of plastics also continues to grow.

The study also examined which countries produce the most single-use plastic waste
per person. Australia is one of the worst-ranked countries. In 2019, the average Australian
generated 59 kg of bottles, packaging, and other plastic waste, while the United States came
second with 53 kg. The problem was not as pronounced in the world's most populous
nations, with China and India only generating 19 kg and 4 kg, respectively.

Fig. 1.0 The Plastic Waste Makers Index by The Mindaroo Foundation

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 Asia is the largest plastics producer in the world. China alone accounted for 32
percent of global production in 2022. In recent years, China produced between six and 12
million metric tons of plastic products each month. North America ranks second worldwide
in plastic production, with a share of 17 percent in 2022.

A person generates approximately 0.40 kg of waste daily in the Philippines,

contributing to the accumulation of plastic waste, particularly from single-use plastic bottles.
The Philippines generates approximately 7,500 tons of plastic waste each day and an
estimated 2.7 million tons of plastic waste each year, with about 20% ending up in the
ocean.

According to the Commission on Audit (COA), solid waste generation in the

Philippines is projected to reach 19.76 million metric tons by 2030. This is an increase from
2020 when the country's solid waste reached 16.63 million metric tons. The COA also
projects that solid waste production will reach 24.50 million tons by 2045. Every ton of
plastic waste in landfills releases about 3 tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e)
greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to climate change. Plastic waste recovery and
recycling solutions instead of incineration and waste-to-energy approaches, could prevent
approximately 20 million tons of emissions in 2030. Effectively recovering and recycling
plastic waste, rather than incinerating or using waste-to-energy methods, could prevent
approximately 20 million tons of emissions by 2030.

Fig. 1.1 The Climate Benefits of Plastic Waste Management in India and Southeast
Asia by The Circulate Initiative.

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 As urbanization and consumption rates rise, Cebu's waste management system
struggles to keep up with the growing volume of plastic garbage, which is frequently
discarded improperly, causing pollution, obstructing drainage systems, and contributing to
environmental damage. It has become a critical environmental issue, and Cebu City is no
exception.

Due to the growing challenges in plastic bottle waste management, further research
is urgently needed. This includes exploring a comprehensive and innovative approach to
designing and operating urban upcycling facilities to enhance trash management and
recycling efforts effectively contributing to a healthier and more resilient urban
environment.

This study explores various approaches that leverage advanced technologies,

promote community engagement, and different practices to enhance trash management
processes. By analyzing case studies and best practices from existing facilities, that aims to
identify key factors that contribute to their success and promote economic opportunities
that generate jobs in the recycling industry.

1.1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

This study is anchored on the conceptual Behavioral reasoning theory (BRT)

Westaby (2005). This broad theory of behavior can be used to explain the motives
underlying human behaviors. According to this theory, intentions predict behavior, global
motives (e.g., attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control) reasons predict intentions,
and beliefs and values predict reasons. Reasons also become stronger once the behavior is
executed, often through post-decision dissonance and rationalization processes.
In conjunction with, Design Theory Simon (1969) defined design as the changing of
existing conditions into preferred ones. Design thinking, then, is about using the sensibilities
and methodologies that characterize designers to create new ideas, new alternatives, new
choices, and new viabilities that satisfy stakeholder desires that explain how and why design
functions. It provides designers with an understanding of the elements and principles of
visual communication, as well as how they can be applied to solve problems through design
thinking. There are also scientific theories of design, creativity, innovation, methods,
modeling, pedagogy, and management that can be included in the theory of design.
Evolving the Theory of Waste Management to waste minimization by Eva Pongrácz,
Paul S. Phillips, and Riitta L. Keiski (2004), a unified body of knowledge about waste and
waste management. This effort organizes the diverse variables of the current waste
management system. WMT is firmly situated within the framework of Industrial Ecology and
is developed in conjunction with other relevant theories. Most notably Design Theory.
Understanding these theories effectively illuminates behavior by examining the specific
contexts that validate individuals' actions, into design thinking for the researchers to support

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the innovative approach of upcycling plastic bottles into a resource for a healthy
environment.

URBAN UPCYCLING FACILITY

BEHAVIORAL REASONING THEORY

Westaby (2005).

DESIGN THINKING
Simon (1969)

THEORY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

Eva Pongrácz, Paul S. Phillips, and Riitta L. Keiski (2004)

RESILIENT URBAN ENVIRONMENT

Fig. 1.3 Theoretical Framework

1.2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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 This section includes studies and literature on the innovative design of upcycling
facilities for plastic bottles and their impact on the environment and the community. The
data was acquired from articles, papers, and online resources. The investigators collected an
extensive examination of the subject using these resources and the relevant background
data.
To aid in the research.

1.2.1 URBAN PLASTIC WASTE

Urban waste accounts for only a small fraction of global waste production (Matthew
Gandy, 1994). As metropolitan areas often have high populations and consumption rates, the
volume of plastic bottle waste can be particularly significant.
Urban plastic bottle waste refers to the discarded plastic bottles that are generated in
city environments. This waste typically arises from single-use water bottles, soft drink
containers, and other beverage packaging.
According to the UN Environment Program, Around the world, one million plastic
bottles are purchased every minute, while up to five trillion plastic bags are used worldwide
every year. In total, half of all plastic produced is designed for single-use purposes and then
thrown away.
Typically, plastics can be categorized as ‘bio-based/organic polymers’ or ‘engineered’.
Unrefined petroleum, combustible gas, and coal are used in the development of polymers.
In addition, about 4 % of fossil fuel is used to produce plastics. Sustainable raw materials
such as carbs, vegetable fat/oils, microorganisms, and other natural substances are also used
to produce bio-based plastics (Verma et al., 2016; Alhazmi et al., 2021). And because plastic
is not at all biodegradable, it simply breaks apart into smaller and smaller pieces over time,
creating what’s known as micro- or nanoplastics.
Plastics including microplastics are now all over our natural environment. They are
becoming part of the Earth's fossil record and a marker of the Anthropocene, our current
geological era. They have even given their name to a new marine microbial habitat called
the "plastisphere", (UN Environment Program).
It has become a universal problem, as most plastic waste is difficult to degrade
naturally. In particular, most developing countries have no advanced technological facilities
and no proper rules and regulations on plastic production, use, and waste management (Eze
et al., 2021)
Considering their small size, microplastics and nanoplastics are a massive threat to
human health and the health of vital ecosystems. According to (United Nations Foundation
May 2024), more than 18 million health professionals, represented by 63 health
organizations across 88 countries, and more than 1,000 individual signatories, urged to
eliminate unnecessary plastic products including single-use plastic, prioritize detoxification
and ensure transparency of plastic products to protect human and planetary health.

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1.2.2 WHAT IS PLASTIC?

A fundamental requirement for managing plastic waste is knowledge of their

monomer composition and physicochemical properties. This will enable us to understand
their environmental and health impacts, the challenges of recycling, and the search for
alternatives.
The recycling symbol we know today, the chasing arrows symbol was originally
designed in 1970 to inform people that a product was recyclable. A few years later, in the
1980s, plastic manufacturers started using a similar symbol, with a number inside, known as
the Resin Identification Code (RIC). The RIC tells plastic manufacturers what type of plastic a
container is made from, but doesn’t address the product's recyclability.
POLYMERS AND PLASTIC
There are two broad groups of plastics: thermoplastics and thermoset plastics. In
general, thermoplastics melt at lower temperatures and are softer, while thermoset plastics
melt at higher temperatures and are rigid. The other important difference between
thermoplastics is generally recyclable while thermoset plastics are not.
The other important observation is that recyclable polymers make up only a minority
of all polymers produced: there are only six clearly “recyclable” polymers.

Fig. 1.4 Recycling codes of polymers are technically known as resin identification codes (RIC).

The various types of plastics and their major applications are as follows:
Thermoplastics: These types of plastics become soft when heated, they can be molded or
shaped with pressure when in a plastic state, and when cooled, they solidify and retain the
shape or mold. Some common thermoplastics with their uses and properties are as follows:
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET): Some common properties are: i. Tough and clear, good
strength and stiffness, chemical and heat resistant, good barrier properties for oxygen and
carbon dioxide. ii. It is used in packaging, soft drinks and, mineral water bottles, fibers for
clothing, films, food containers, transport, building and appliance industry (as it is fire
resistant), etc.

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High-density polyethylene (HDPE): Some common properties: are good processability,
excellent balance of rigidity and impact strength, excellent chemical resistance, crystalline,
melting point (130-1350C), and excellent water vapor barrier properties. ii. Used for making
blow molded products (various types of containers, water bottles), pipes, injection molded
products (storage bins, caps, buckets, mugs), films (carrier bags), etc.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): Its properties are: i. Versatility, energy saving, adaptability to
changing time and environment, durability, and fire resistance. ii. It is used in industries such
as building and construction, packaging, medical, agriculture, and transport. Also used for
making wires and cables, furniture, footwear, domestic appliances, films and sheets, bottles,
etc.
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE): Characteristics of LDPE are: i. Easy processability, low
density, semi-crystalline nature, low melting range, low softening point, good chemical
resistance, excellent dielectric properties, low moisture barrier, poor abrasion and stretch
resistance. ii. It is used for making carrier bags, heavy-duty bags, nursery bags, and small
squeeze bottles. Also used in milk packaging, wire and cable insulation, etc.
Polypropylene (PP): Properties are: i. Low density, excellent chemical resistance,
environmental stress resistance, high melting point, good processability, dielectric
properties, low cost, and creep resistance. ii. Used for making bottles, medical containers,
pipes, sheets, straws, films, furniture, housewares, luggage, toys, hair dryers, fans, etc.
Polystyrene (PS): Some of the properties of polystyrene are i. Glassy surface, clear to
opaque, rigid, hard, high clarity, affected by fats and solvents. ii. Used for making electrical
and communication equipment e.g. plugs, sockets, switch plates, coil forms, circuit boards,
spacers, and housings. Also used for making containers, toys, wall tiles, baskets, cutlery,
dishes, cups, tumblers, dairy containers, etc.
Other plastics: There are many other types of plastics except these six types, often used in
the engineering sector. Examples include polycarbonate (PC), nylon, and acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS).
Thermosets: Thermosetting materials are those that once set cannot be remolded/softened
by applying heat. It includes phenol, melamine, urea formaldehyde, unsaturated polyester,
epoxy, and polyurethanes. These materials are not recyclable.
POLYMER ADDITIVES
Polymer materials are not directly useful as is. Various chemicals need to be added to
the polymer matrix to improve the processability, impart particular properties, and enhance
the service life of the plastic product. Despite their usefulness, additives can migrate and
lead to human exposure that contaminates the soil, air, water, and food. They can be
released from the plastic material when it is disposed in the environment, during recycling,
and during reuse (Fabian et al. 2019).
Plastic properties and chemical additives. This is only a partial list.
Property Chemical additives
Lubricant to improve processability metallic soaps, fatty acids, paraffin waxes, low
MW polyethylene

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Plasticizer phthalates, benzoic acid esters, adipic acid
esters
Impact modifiers elastomers such as butadiene rubber,
and crosslinked acrylics; block copolymers, rubbers
Fillers/extenders calcium carbonate, talc, silica, clay, mica, kaolin,
calcium sulfate, glass fibers, glass beads, carbon black,
aluminum hydroxide Flame retardants
calcium carbonate, talc, silica, clay, mica, kaolin,
calcium sulfate, glass fibers, glass beads, carbon black,
aluminum hydroxide
Flame retardants aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide,
zinc borate, antimony oxide, polychlorinated and
polybrominated aromatic compounds,
organophosphates and organophosphates
Antioxidants and other stabilizers Salts of barium, cadmium, lead, zinc, hindered
amine light stabilizers (HALS), UV light absorbers
Most synthetic polymers are made from petrochemical feedstocks by refining to
produce the most common raw materials: olefins, such as ethylene, propylene and other
simple alkenes, and aromatics, such as benzene, toluene, and xylenes. About 4% of the
world’s petroleum resources are used in plastics production and petrochemical feedstocks
account for over 99% of plastics raw material (BPF 2019). The alternatives to petrochemical
feedstocks are bio-based materials. Bio-based materials which are produced from biological
renewable resources, such as various types of carbohydrate materials (e.g., starch, wood,
seaweed), plant products (e.g., rubber, terpenes, vegetable oils), and fermentation products
(e.g., polylactic acid) (Liang et al. 2017). The interest in bio-based alternatives is driven by
two objectives: the first objective is the replacement of petroleum with renewable
biomaterials as feedstock, and the second objective is to produce biodegradable plastics.
These are different challenges.
Bio-based polymers are widely seen as an alternative to petroleum-based polymers.
Market trends indicate the growth of biopolymers but whether these will be able to replace
petrochemicals is still uncertain. The biopolymer industry demand is expected to reach only
2% of annual production of global thermoplastics. For example, although polylactic acid can
be used to replace a number of petroleum-based polymers, the fermentation process to
produce polylactic acid is much more expensive (Kuruppalil 2011). One consequence of a
shift to bio-based polymers is the competition for the use of land and food crops to produce
the biopolymers.
Although bio-based polymers are often assumed to be biodegradable, they can also
be made into nonbiodegradable materials. For example, although natural rubber is an
exudate from the rubber tree, vulcanization converts it into a nonbiodegradable material.
Ethanol, a fermentation product from carbohydrate materials, can be converted to ethylene
and produce the same petroleum-based polymers which are not biodegradable. Likewise,
while most of the current petroleum-based polymers are nonbiodegradable, there are
biodegradable polymers that can be produced from petroleum, such as polycaprolactone.

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Thus, bio-based polymers are not necessarily biodegradable, and petroleum can be used to
produce biodegradable polymers. Biodegradable materials are defined as those which can
be degraded into CO2 and H2 O. The process of biodegradation depends on the
environmental conditions, such as temperature, and availability of water and oxygen
(European Bioplastics 2018). However, because biodegradable plastics are not suitable for
recycling, these wastes must be separated from recyclable waste. Currently, most
biodegradable plastics are utilized for nondurable goods, such as packaging, disposable cups,
and food utensils (Kuruppalil 2011). Recently, carrageenan was successfully blended with
starch to produce a bioplastic with higher elastic modulus and tensile strength giving a
product with higher mechanical strength (Suryanto et al. 2019).
The green plastics industry is still in its infancy and is not ready to replace
petrochemical based plastics. At the same time this sector is preparing for growth and
getting ready to meet increased demand. There are numerous challenges of improving
material properties and processing before they can replace petroleum based plastics
(Kuruppalil 2011).

Polymers and their applications. Many polymers can be used for a particular
application depending on the requirements of the product. This is only a partial list.

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1.2.3 URBAN PLASTIC WASTE IN THE PHILIPPINES

The global community recognizes the urgent need for Solid Waste Management in
developing countries like the Philippines due to environmental degradation and climate
change caused by economic growth. This is heavily manifested in the frequent and intense
floods the country is experiencing from devastating typhoons which, many claim, are due to
climate change. Along with the country’s economic progress, the rapid population growth
has also made waste management a major environmental challenge for the country. The
Philippine National Stat population in 2012 was around 97 million with an annual growth
rate of 1.87%. According to this figure, the Philippines is the 12th largest country in the
world today.
Waste generation by residents in the Philippines, especially in the urban areas, has
accelerated recently due to fast-paced industrialization, urbanization, and population
growth. Since incineration of solid waste is not allowed under Republic Act 9003 for the
safety of human health and protection of the environment, landfilling and the 3 integrated
waste management methods (Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle) are the main types of SWM in
the country.
To address this significant issue, The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000
(Republic Act 9003) was approved on January 26, 2001, and came into effect on February 16,
2001. Ecological Solid Waste Management under the law refers to the “systematic
administration of activities which provide for segregation at source, segregated
transportation, storage, transfer, processing, treatment, and disposal of solid waste and all
other waste management activities which do not harm the environment”. Despite this law,
however, poor solid waste management in the Philippines is still prevalent since open and
controlled dumps are being used in the country. This poses great threats to the country’s
environment and public health that include: a) alteration of physical and chemical properties
of soil due to percolation of landfill gases (CO2 and CH4) and leachates from unsanitary
landfills and open dumps; b) objectionable odor; and c) soil and groundwater pollution.
MSW Generation:
About 35,580 tons of garbage is generated every day in the Philippines. On average,
each person in the country produces about 0.5 kg and 0.3 kg of garbage every day in the
urban and rural areas, respectively. Cebu City produces about 500 tons of MSW per day, it
was estimated that only 315 tons of MSW per day 114, or 500 tons of MSW per year ends up
being actually dumped into the Inayawan sanitary landfill. According to the city officials, the
rest is recycled by the formal and informal sectors. Only 5% is made up of residuals (4%) and

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special/hazardous waste (1%) that are no longer usable or biodegradable (JICA Waste
Characterization Study, 1997).
While the Philippines faces challenges in waste management of numerous types of
polymers, only six are clearly recyclable polymers. Because of its volume of use and visibility,
particular attention has been focused on single-use plastics, in particular thin plastic bags
and sachets. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly increased the consumption
of single-use plastic, in particular for medical applications. The other large group of polymers
called thermosets, are not recyclable. The major campaign to address plastic waste the 3Rs,
reduce, reuse, and recycle has been unsuccessful in addressing this problem because this
campaign has been focused mainly on the consumer, and plastics were not designed to be
recyclable. producer responsibility (EPR), the circular economy, and the addition of recover
and redesign to give the 5Rs shown in Figure 1.5. Recently, several approaches have been
proposed, such as extended these approaches can be used to strengthen the Ecological Solid
Waste Management Act (RA 9003) and prepare the Philippines for a circular economy.

Fig. 1.5 The Concept of the 5Rs.

The management of plastic waste is to be planned in such a manner that the plastic
waste generated from various sources is suitably taken care of. The various sources of plastic
waste in Cebu City are shown in Figure 1. 6 and waste composition in Figure 1.7

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 Fig. 1.6 Summary of waste generated in each other sector.

Fig. 1.7 Waste composition and assessment of Cebu City.

Collection Coverage and Type:

Waste collection in the city operates 24 h in three shifts and the service is provided
by the Department of Public Services (DPS) in the form of garbage trucks and barangay
trucks. Two popular collection methods are practiced for waste collection, including
communal method where common waste receptacles are strategically located in public
places, while the household collection is carried out by garbage trucks across the Cebu City.
The above two methods are supplemented with private initiatives, which collect MSW from
commercial establishments such as shopping malls. Starting on April 1, 2011, MSW
collection in the city is done based on the following schedule:

• Biodegradable – Mondays, Wednesday, Fridays, Saturdays

• Non-biodegradable – Tuesdays, Thursdays, Sundays

Three years since its implementation, Cebu City is yet to perfect the implementation
of its segregated garbage collection system. Barangay residents continue to mix
biodegradable with their non-biodegradable wastes. According to city data, MSW collection
coverage is 100%. However, in some instances, uncollected garbage is left to pile up on city
streets, in the interior of barangays and even left floating on water bodies because of the
lack of garbage trucks that will bring these to the city's transfer station at the Inayawan
landfill.

Waste Management Practice:

The city has involved in promoting waste separation at source and recycling. There
are three private companies are involved in formal recycling activities. These private plants
have signed a contract with city government and received P700 per tonne as a tipping fee. In
addition, each barangay or clusters of barangays are required to have their own Material

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Recovery facility (MRF) according to the RA 9003. It was estimated that about 58 barangays,
out of 80 barangays in the city, has their own MRF, though there is a high level of disparity
concerning effectiveness amongst them.

Informal Waste Sector:

The informal sector also plays a major role in the waste recycling in the city. There
are now about 300 waste pickers who earn a living by picking up recyclables from the
Inayawan Sanitary Landfill on a daily basis. Most of these families occupy shanties built close
to the landfill compound making it easier for them to have access to the facility. The city also
has a number of street pickers which include children who carry sacks to pick up recyclables
like water and juice bottles, scrap iron, and other items which they sell in junk shops that are
now proliferating in various parts of the city.

Financing of MSW:

The Cebu City government collects garbage fees from about 26,000 duly registered
businesses using City Ordinance No. 2018 or “An Ordinance Establishing a System of Garbage
Collection and Imposing Fee” as the basis. Garbage fees are based the nature of the business
and its floor area. Manufacturers and producers, for example are charged an annual garbage
fee ranging from P6,000 to P10,000 while bakeshops and pharmacies are asked to pay
P2,000 to P4,000. Financial institutions are charged P730 to P4,000 while hospitals pay
P1,500 to P9,000. Funeral parlors are imposed garbage fees ranging from P1,200 to P5,000.
It was estimated that City Hall collected P72.3 million in garbage fees in 2012 but this was
not enough to take care of the cost of implementation of the city's garbage disposal system
whose costs amount to more than P100 million. The city government is hoping to raise the
same amount or even more this year to form part of its P5.9 billion annual budget and take
care of its garbage management needs.

1.2.4 CHALLENGES FACED BY UPCYCLING IN THE PHILIPPINES FACILITY SETTINGS

While recycling through the establishment of Municipal Recovery Facilities (MRF),

that includes waste transfer station, and composting and recycling facilities, is mandated
under RA 9003, most Local Government Units (LGUs) do not comply with this mandate. Even
though the law requires the establishment of an MRF in every barangay or cluster of
barangays, only about 21% or 8,843 barangays are being serviced by MRFs in the country. In
Metro Manila, though, compliance rate is slightly higher at 56% which is more than the
national average. The “study on Recycling Industry Development in the Philippines (2006-
2008)” by JICA and Bureau of Industry-Board of Investment (BOI) showed that the limiting
factors to the recovery of recyclables materials are the concentration of recycling industries
in selected areas, i.e., high cost of transporting recyclable materials, and weakness of local
recycling industries due to high operating costs.

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 With regards to the disposal facilities, only about 4% or 56 local government units
are now using sanitary landfills (SLF). The low compliance of LGUs to establish sanitary
landfills were being attributed to the high cost needed to close dumpsites, and limited
financial and technical assistance to implement the law. Hence, some LGUs are still using
common sanitary landfills. Of the 946 open and controlled dumps, 68 of these are being
rehabilitated for closure. This apparent use of unlined unsanitary landfills and open dumps
places the Philippines in a precarious condition, since such pitiful state implies a condition
that permit the mixture of precipitation with degradable organic matter from MSW to form
leachate percolation into the soil that may eventually contaminate surface and groundwater
in the country.

While it is apparent that there are many LGUs that are having difficulty in complying
to RA 9003’s integrated waste management method of establishing sanitary landfills and
MRFs, there are some LGUs like the municipality of Los Banos that was able to successfully
address the problem of solid waste through innovative ways of participation, community
mobilization and highly motivated and political will of the highest LGU official in the
community. The Mayor Antonio F. Genuino used participation and community mobilization
in a three dimensional approach of social, political and technical aspects to resolve the solid
waste management problem. On social dimension he involved the people and various
sectors of the community through multi-Information Education Campaign (IEC) approaches
of dialogues and consultations. The LGU also promoted the use of alternative eco-friendly
containers to replace plastics and Styrofoam. He then instilled to the people that solid waste
management is not only the responsibility of the LGU but also the responsibility of every
individual in the community. On the political dimension, he passed an ordinance on waste
segregation and anti-littering law to complement the community initiatives. Lastly, technical
dimensions were instituted, by means of organizing collection schedule, segregation at
source, unloading of bio-wastes, shredding & composting of residual wastes, distribution of
composting drums, and composting at household level. Coordination was also done by the
LGU with plastic and polystyrene industries on recovery and recycling systems. And the LGU
also established an informal Peoples Organization composed of waste pickers, buyers and
scavengers that successfully achieved the twin objectives of minimizing solid waste in the
municipality and uplifting the economic status of this vulnerable group

In general, the reduction, reuse, and recycling system, and ultimate disposal in
environmentally sanitary landfills in the Philippines, unfortunately, could still be considered
as not effective and efficient in attaining a clean environment and in decreasing the
country’s GHG emissions and its effects on local and global climate change. This is

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manifested by the low compliance of LGUs to Republic Act 9003 rampant littering and
unhealthy practice of burning wastes in some open dumps and areas. Hence, we believe that
the key to effective solid waste management in the Philippines is firstly the political will of
the LGUs to innovatively comply with RA 9003, through mobilization and participation of
community, private, and informal waste sectors towards minimizing solid waste and uplifting
the economic status of the vulnerable groups of waste pickers, buyers and scavengers.

1.2.5 INTERNATIONAL FACILITIES DESIGN SOLUTIONS FOR UPCYCLING PLASTIC BOTTLES

Plastic Recycling
Since the use of plastic is so integrated into our lives, completely replacing it is
incredibly difficult, if not impossible. That’s why scientists have tried to find ways to make
our use of plastic more environmentally friendly, and they’ve come up with a few
innovations that, while still in their infancy, could decide the future of plastic.

 Chemical recycling: There are projects in the works to design specialized recycling
facilities able to break down plastic into its constituent parts, allowing it to be used to
make new plastic products. Chemical recycling can process a wider variety of plastics
than traditional mechanical recycling, which is limited to plastics of the same type.
This means that chemical recycling could potentially handle a greater percentage of
plastic waste. A reusable bottle will tax the environment much less than single-use
plastic bottles.
 Environmentally friendly plastic: If the problem is that plastic doesn’t degrade
naturally, why not change that? Scientists have asked the same question, and that’s
how biodegradable plastic was invented. Biodegradable plastics break down more
quickly than traditional plastics, reducing the amount of time they spend in landfills
or the environment.
Commercial and government initiatives
1988 – Resin identification codes (RICs)
Society of the Plastics Industry introduces the voluntary resin identification coding
system. The system uses a triangular symbol and number to help people identify and
sort plastics for recycling.

1989 – Basel Convention

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal is adopted. The convention is in response to first-world countries
dumping toxic waste in Africa and other parts of the developing world.

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The map shows the countries that signed the convention in red and the countries that
signed and ratified in blue. Countries in grey did not sign.

1993 – EnviroPouch
David and James Stoddard create EnviroPouch, a tightly woven fabric that holds sterilised
dental tools, eliminating the need for single use plastic wrap.

2002 – Bangladesh bans plastic bags

It is discovered that plastic bags are blocking the drainage systems in Bangladesh,
causing major flooding especially during the monsoon season. As a result, it becomes
the first country to ban single-use plastic bags.

2005 – Golden Bay Bag Ladies

Golden Bay launches the Plastic Shopping Bag-Free Campaign and becomes the first New
Zealand community to say no to plastic bags. Golden Bay Bag Ladies launch the initiative
on 1 January by handing out hundreds of cloth bags to visitors and locals.

2006 – Agrecovery Rural Recycling Programme

An industry-funded programme is created to provide New Zealand farmers and growers
with free container recycling, drum recovery and chemical collection.

2010 – Voluntary BPA phase out

The Australian Government introduces a voluntary phase-out of BPA use in
polycarbonate baby bottles.

2014 – Netherlands microbead ban

The Netherlands becomes the first country to ban microbeads in cosmetics and wash-off
cleaning products.

2015 – Operation Clean Sweep

Plastics NZ joins Operation Clean Sweep – an industry initiative/best-practice
accreditation scheme that aims to prevent resin pellet, flake and powder loss. New
Zealand is one of 84 countries in the programme, 59 of which have achieved best
practice in stormwater protection.

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2016 – Parley Ocean Plastic
Parley – a global movement that highlights the perils of ocean plastic – removes over
670,000 tonnes of plastic from the Indian Ocean. Sportswear company adidas uses the
plastic to make a line of footwear and clothing. It uses 11 plastic bottles in each pair of
shoes.

2017 – Flight Plastics

Flight Plastics opens New Zealand’s first PET wash plant. Used PET plastic is collected
locally, baled and sent to Flight Plastics for processing and recycled into new packaging.

Find out more about the technology that Flight Plastics uses to sort and recycle PET
plastics.

2018 – Plastic fence posts

New Zealand farmers Jerome Wenzlick and Bindi Ground use waste plastic to create
premium fencing products. Their business, Future Posts creates a market for soft plastics.

2018 – China enacts National Sword policy

China bans the import of most plastics and other materials that previously went to the
country’s recycling processors. Prior to the ban, China had accepted about 50% of the
world’s recyclable waste. Shipments of recovered plastic to China drop by 99%.

2018 – Plastic packaging declaration

International and local businesses make a joint declaration committing to use 100%
reusable, recyclable or compostable packaging in their New Zealand-based operations by
2025 or earlier.

2018 – Microbeads banned in New Zealand

The New Zealand Government uses the Waste Minimisation Act 2008 to prohibit the sale
and manufacture of wash-off products that contain plastic microbeads.

2018 – Microplastics research

The New Zealand Government funds a major study to investigate the extent of
microplastic contamination in water. The $12.5 million fund is awarded to deepen
knowledge of the amount of microplastic waste, its distribution and the risks it poses to
humans and the environment.

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2018 – New Plastics Economy Global Commitment
The New Zealand Government signs an international declaration – the New Plastics
Economy Global Commitment – designed to address plastic waste and pollution at its
source. The Global Commitment is led by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation and the
United Nations.

2109 – All Blacks and Parley

The New Zealand All Blacks join with Parley Ocean Plastic to produce the first-ever adidas
Parley rugby uniform collection made from recycled ocean plastic.

2019 – Plastic bag ban

New Zealand bans single-use plastic shopping bags.

2019 – Coca-Cola Amatil moves to recycled bottles

Coca-Cola Amatil announces a New Zealand initiative that, by the end of 2019, all bottles
less than 1 L and all water bottles of any size will be made from recycled plastic.

2019 – Basel Convention Amendment

The Basel Convention, which prohibits the export of hazardous waste to developing
countries, is amended to better regulate global trade in plastic waste. New Zealand is
one of around 180 countries supporting the action.

2019 – Beverage container return scheme

The New Zealand Government begins work to develop a beverage container return
scheme. Containers will carry a refundable deposit to be redeemed when the container
is returned to a collection depot or drop-off point.

2019 – Rethinking Plastics in Aotearoa, New Zealand

The Office for the Prime Minister’s Chief Science Advisor (OPMCSA) brought together a
panel of experts to work on a synthesis of approaches to reduce the impact of plastic
and explore the opportunities of alternatives in Aotearoa New Zealand. The result was
the report Rethinking Plastics in Aotearoa, New Zealand published in December 2019.

The report can be downloaded from here.

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 Information and updates on the project can be found on the #rethinkplastic project
page. Prime Minister’s Chief Science Advisor, Juliet Gerrard has written about the plastics
project and the panel.

2021 – Plan to tackle problem plastics

The New Zealand government reveals it's plan to phase out hard-to-recycle plastic
products, including single-use plastic products such as takeaway cutlery, polystyrene
meat trays and takeaway packaging. A new Plastics Innovation Fund is announced to help
support projects that reimagine how we make, use and dispose of plastics.

2022 – Plastic phase-out starts

From 1 October polystyrene takeaway containers, plastic cotton buds and drink-stirrers
are among single-use plastics now banned from sale or manufacture in New Zealand.
If all plastic waste in the ocean were collected, it would fill 5 million shipping
containers. Put another way, there is enough plastic in the ocean to stretch 30,000
kilometers (18,640 miles) if placed end to end. That’s the equivalent of a trip from New York
City to Sydney, Australia.

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 Escalation of plastic waste around the world from 1950 to 2050 (Ritchie and Roser 2018;
Zhang et al. 2021; Jankowska et al. 2022; Luan et al. 2022)

From the 1950s to the 1970s, only a small amount of plastic was produced, and as a
result, plastic waste was relatively manageable. However, between the 1970s and the 1990s,
plastic waste generation more than tripled, reflecting a similar rise in plastic production. In
the early 2000s, the amount of plastic waste we generated rose more in a single decade
than it had in the previous 40 years.
1.2.6 PHILIPPINE FACILITIES DESIGN SOLUTION FOR UPCYCLING PLASTIC BOTTLES
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956053X19301643
Recycling of used plastic bottles is an important measure to protect the environment and
save energy. Usually, bottles in different colors have different value for recycling.
Classification of plastic bottles recycling based on image recognition during recycling is an
effective way, where the position and color recognition are the key technologies. To classify
the plastic bottles on the conveyor belt, their position relationships are firstly defined as
three categories, i.e. disjoint, adjacent and overlapping. The disjoint ones can be easily
identified by the ratio of concave and convex area based on their image. For the adjacent
and overlapping bottles, a combination method called distance transformation and
threshold segmentation is proposed to distinguish their position relationships. Once the
adjacent bottles are identified, the method of concave point search based on convex hull will
be used to separate the adjacent recycled bottles further. Then, the color of both the disjoint
and adjacent bottles is identified because it is too complex and difficult to recognize color of
and separate the overlapping bottles. In the aspect of color recognition, the colors of

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recycled bottles are divided into seven categories in the sorting process. Color features of
the bottom section are used to represent the one of the recycled bottle because there may
be a bottle cap and a label on the top and in the middle of the bottle, respectively, resulting
in the wrong recognition. ReliefF algorithm is applied to select color features of recycled
bottles and the color is identified by support vector machine (SVM) algorithm. The influence
of training sample size on classification model is studied and the experimental results show
that the accuracy of color recognition of recycled bottles reach 94.7%.

1.2.7 LOCAL CASE STUDIES

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 Life Cycle Impact Analysis (LCIA) is an important and modern scientific tool to analyze
the total environmental impact of a product or activity on the earth. Its production,
transportation to the marketplace, usage, reusing, recycling, and disposal for the
disintegration or recovery of energy or the basic constituents of the material for producing
the same or other materials of use. It indicates whether or not it is environmentally friendly.
Numerous life cycle assessment (LCA) studies carried out by reputable academic
institutions and independent professional associations have demonstrated that plastics have
significantly lower negative effects on environmental pollution than their alternatives.

SCIENCE HISTORY INSTITUTE. Plastic’s reputation fell further in the 1970s and 1980s
as anxiety about waste increased. Plastic became a special target because, while so many
plastic products are disposable, plastic lasts forever in the environment. It was the plastics
industry that offered recycling as a solution. In the 1980s the plastics industry led an
influential drive encouraging municipalities to collect and process recyclable materials as
part of their waste-management systems. However, recycling is far from perfect, and most
plastics still end up in landfills or the environment.
Despite growing mistrust, plastics are critical to modern life. Plastics made possible
the development of computers, cell phones, and most of the lifesaving advances of modern
medicine. Lightweight and good for insulation, plastics help save fossil fuels used in heating
and transportation. Perhaps most importantly, inexpensive plastics raised the standard of
living and made material abundance more readily available. Without plastics, many
possessions that we take for granted might be out of reach for all but the richest Americans.
Replacing natural materials with plastic has made many of our possessions cheaper, lighter,
safer, and stronger.
Since it’s clear that plastics have a valuable place in our lives, some scientists are
attempting to make plastics safer and more sustainable. Some innovators are developing
bioplastics, which are made from plant crops instead of fossil fuels, to create substances that
are more environmentally friendly than conventional plastics. Others are working to make
truly biodegradable plastics. Some innovators are searching for ways to make recycling more
efficient, and they even hope to perfect a process that converts plastics back into the fossil
fuels from which they were derived.

 The Five Stages of Design Thinking

 Stage 1: Empathize—Research Users' Needs
 Stage 2: Define—State Users' Needs and Problems

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  Stage 3: Ideate—Challenge Assumptions and Create Ideas
 Stage 4: Prototype—Start to Create Solutions
 Stage 5: Test—Try the Solutions Out

There are multiple theories about recycling, including the 3R theory, the Theory of
Planned Behavior, and the Balance Theory:
 The 3R theory
This theory states that waste minimization can be achieved by reducing, reusing, and
recycling. The theory suggests that reducing the amount of waste produced is the most
important step, followed by reusing, and then recycling.
 The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
This theory explains why people make decisions about recycling by using attitude,
subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control as predictors of behavioral intention.
 The Balance Theory
This theory states that the amount of construction and demolition waste generated
should be proportional to the amount of recycled construction and demolition products
used. The theory also suggests that construction workers should be educated on how to
reduce waste and separate it into collection spots.
 Behavioral reasoning theory (BRT)
This theory helps explain behavior by including context-specific reasons that help
people justify their actions. BRT can also help distinguish between reasons for and against an
action.

Previous studies have confirmed that individual waste management behavior is

influenced by both rational-based and altruistic-oriented beliefs and attitudes.

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 This study is supported by the theory of

This study is founded on the theory of

The theoretical underpinning of this study is

In the mid-1960s, Horst Rittel wrote and spoke extensively on the subject of problem-solving
in design… so much so that he’s known as the design theorist who coined the term “wicked
problem” to describe problems that are multidimensional and extremely complex. Rittel
specifically focused on how design methodologies could be used to tackle wicked
problems and how these methodologies were influential to the work of many design
practitioners and academics of the time.

BRT is a theoretical framework that enables scholars and prac

petitioners to investigate the relative influence of both ‘reasons
for’ and ‘reasons against’ the intentions towards any innovation
(Westaby, 2005; Sahu et al., 2020).

H1a: Subjective norms positively predict waste management behavior.

H1b: Attitude positively predicts waste management behavior.

H1c: Perceived behavioral control positively predicts waste management behavior.

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 In 2000, the waste sector released 11,556 G of CO2 into the atmosphere.
Approximately 47% of the total emissions come from solid waste which generated 259 Gg of
CH4.

The NSWMC calculated that from 37,427.46 tons per day in 2012, the country’s
waste generation steadily increased to 40,087.45 tons in 2016. (AAG_Philippine Solid
Wastes_Nov2017.pdf (senate.gov.ph)

The World Bank (2012) estimates that solid waste being produced by Philippine cities
will go up by 165 percent to 77,776 tons per day from 29,315 tons as a consequence of a
projected 47.3-percent hike in urban population by 2025.

The ecological solid waste management (ESWM) policy is based on the management
of waste in the following hierarchy,

• Source reduction (avoidance) and minimization of waste generated at source

• Reuse, recycling, and resource recovery of wastes at the barangay level

• Efficient collection, proper transfer, and transport of wastes by city/municipality

• Efficient management of residuals and final disposal sites and/or any other related
technologies for the destruction/reuse of residuals

Institutional Arrangement mandated by the ESWMA

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 Local Solid Waste Management Plans

• The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act requires the preparation of 10-year
SWM plans by provinces, cities, and municipalities consistent with the national SWM
Framework.

• The plans are subject to annual review and updating by the provincial, city, or
municipal SWM boards.

• All plans must be approved by the NSWMC.

3CITATIONS

RESEARCH PROBLEM (TRENDS, ISSUES, OBJECTIVES, CONTRIBUTIONS)

STUDIES THAT HAVE ADDRESSED THE PROBLEM

DEFICIENCIES IN THE STUDIES

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY FOR AN AUDIENCE AND

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 THE PURPOSE STATEMENT

GENERAL TOPIC BACKGROUND INFO

DEFINE MAJOR VARIABLES

FACTS PREVIOUS TOPICS STATISTICS, LEGAL BASE,

REASON OF CONDUCTING THE STUDY

 Research design

Case studies are a research design that typically uses qualitative methods, but can also
include quantitative methods.

 Subject

Case studies can be used to examine a person, group, event, organization, or phenomenon.

 Purpose

Case studies are used to answer questions about how or why something happened, and to
describe, compare, evaluate, and understand a research problem.

 Data collection

Case studies gather data through various methods, such as interviews, questionnaires, and
observations.

 Credibility

Case studies use multiple sources of information to establish the credibility of the research.

 Limitations

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Case studies cannot be generalized to a larger population, and they may not be scientifically
rigorous. The insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect
relationships.

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Problem Statement
The core problem is the inefficient recycling of plastic bottles in Cebu City due to a lack of
proper urban recycling facilities, public awareness, and systemic design flaws in waste
collection and management. Despite global initiatives pushing for a circular economy, Cebu’s
recycling infrastructure remains underdeveloped. Urban recycling facilities lack the capacity,
technology, and operational efficiency to turn plastic waste into valuable resources.
Impact of the Problem
This inefficiency has various consequences:
1. Environmental Degradation: Plastic bottles accumulate in landfills and oceans,
contributing to pollution and harm to marine life.
2. Economic Losses: Plastics that could be recycled and transformed into useful
resources are wasted, leading to missed economic opportunities for creating jobs
and reducing the costs of raw materials.
3. Public Health Risks: Accumulated plastic waste contributes to flooding and water
contamination, increasing health risks for the population.
4. Social and Urban Planning Challenges: Poor waste management reflects poorly on
urban planning, creating a perception of inefficiency and lack of innovation in
addressing the city's waste problem.

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Scope of the Study
This study focuses on designing and implementing an innovative approach to the
development and operation of urban recycling facilities in Cebu City, specifically targeting
the transformation of plastic bottles into valuable resources. The study encompasses:
1. Analysis of the Current System: Understanding the
existing waste management and recycling processes,
including their challenges and limitations.
2. Facility Design: Proposing new, innovative designs for
urban recycling facilities that can efficiently handle plastic
bottles and turn them into valuable materials.
3. Technological Integration: Incorporating modern
recycling technologies that can process plastic bottles
more efficiently.
4. Operational Strategies: Develop strategies to improve
the collection, sorting, and processing of plastic bottles,
ensuring that facilities operate at optimal efficiency.
5. Community Engagement and Education: Identifying ways
to involve the community in recycling efforts, raising
awareness, and promoting responsible waste disposal
practices.
Limitations
The scope of this study is limited to Cebu City, specifically targeting urban recycling facilities
for plastic bottles. While broader environmental and waste management issues will be
acknowledged, the focus will remain on innovative recycling solutions. Additionally, the
study will primarily address the transformation of plastic bottles, rather than all types of
plastic waste.

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