The art of selecting, designing, and constructing the elements that transfer the weight

(Weight may also include horizontal loads in addition to vertical loads) of a structure to the
underlying soil or rock. A foundation is interfacing element between the superstructure and the
underlying soil or rock. The loads transmitted by the foundation to the underling soil must not
cause soil shear failure or damaging settlement of the superstructure.
The term “foundation engineering” is used to include the design of foundations for buildings
and other structures and also for such non foundation problems as designs of retaining walls,
bulkheads, cofferdams, tunnels, and earth dams, as well as the design of natural slopes,
dewatering of soils, and stabilization of soils mechanically and chemically.
The geotechnical engineer is responsible for all geotechnical requirements of all types of
structures. For any construction project, the geotechnical engineer‟s responsibilities include:
 developing a soil exploration plan;
 preparing the Preliminary Geotechnical Report (PGR) to assist in the selection of
foundation type and to perform a preliminary seismic analysis/evaluation;
 identifying the proposed boring locations and anticipated foundation type;
 Assisting the Construction engineers by preparing pile driving criteria, reviewing pile
installation plans and determining acceptance of as-built piles.
 Also assisting bridge designer in determining pile production lengths based on field
load tests.
PROPERTIES OF FOUNDATION
 Strength: Load bearing capacities: Crystalline rocks (very strong - 12,000 ),
sedimentary rocks (intermediate - 6,000 ) and other types of soils (relatively lower -
2,000 to 3,000 )
 Stable under loads (creep, shrinkage and swelling)
 Drainage characteristics: Porosity and permeability
 Soil property estimation: Subsurface exploration (test pits - less than 8 ft in depth;
borings - greater than 8 ft) - Estimate level of water table - Testing of soil sample
in laboratory for various properties: Particle size distribution, Liquid limit, Plastic limit, Water
content, Permeability, Shrinkage/ swelling, Shear/compressive strength, Consolidation (creep
and settlement)

2
CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS
 Some amount of excavation required for every building - Top soil consisting of organic
matter is removed - Below the region of soil erosion (by water and wind) & below the
level of permafrost - To the required depth at which the bearing capacity necessary for
the building is met - A variety of machines used for excavation - The sides of
excavation too be protected from caving in by benching, sheeting (soldier beams and
lagging, sheet piles, slurry walls, etc.) or bracing (cross-slot, rakers or tiebacks) - De-
watering using well-points & sumps, and watertight barriers - Mixing the soil by
rotating paddles
 Bulldozers, Shovel dozers, Back hoes ,Bucket loaders, Scrapers, Trenching machines
Power shovels, Tractor-mounted rippers, Pneumatic hammers, Drop balls, Hydraulic
splitters and Blasting.

Purpose of Foundation:
All engineering structures are provided with foundations at the base to fulfill the following
objectives and purposes;
i. To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring intensity
of loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
ii. To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement.
iii. To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.
iv. To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.
v. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

Factors Affecting the Depth of Foundation

For economic consideration, the depth at which the foundation is located (i.e. Df) is kept as
small as possible. Typically it is in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 m below the ground surface for
buildings that do not have a basement. For those building having a basement, Df can be 3.5
m or more. In determining Df, the soil profile is carefully studied and the influence of the
following factors accounted for.

3
1. Presence of Loose Fill
Often one encounters pockets of loose fill of recently dumped soil or construction waste at or
near the ground surface. Foundations should be placed below such loose fills.
2. Depth of Water Table
Wherein possible, shallow foundations are not placed below the ground water level to avoid
expensive de-watering costs during foundation construction.
3. Lateral Variability
Usually all foundations are placed at the same Df. there are soil profiles that calls for a
different Dffor different footings. For example, consider a profile in which rock exist at
shallow depth and is gently sloping in some direction. In an attempt to take advantage of the
high allowable soil pressure associated with placing the foundation on rock, we will have a
different Df for each footings so that each can be placed on the rock.
4. Zones of Volume Change
In cold regions where temperature changes cause soil near the ground surface to go through
cycles of freezing and thawing with consequent changes in soil volume, foundation are placed
below the zone so affected.Similarly in swelling soils, there is a zone that undergoes volume
change due to wetting and drying cycles. Df is selected such that it is more than the thickness
of this zone.
5. Scour
When shallow foundations are designed to be placed below the river bed for river crossing
structures, one must recognize that the elevation of the river bed changes on account of scour
that occurs when the water flows at high velocity such as during floods.
Soil Exploration
The knowledge of subsoil conditions at a site is a prerequisite for safe and economical design
of substructure elements. The field and laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the
necessary information about the surface and subsurface features of the proposed area including
the position of the ground water table, are termed as soil exploration or site investigation.
The primary objectives of soil exploration are
 Determination of the nature of the deposits of soil.
 Determination of the depth and thickness of the various soil strata and their extent in
the horizontal direction.

4
  The location of ground water table (GWT).
 Obtaining soil and rock samples from the various strata.
 The determination of the engineering properties of the soil and rock strata that affect
the performance of the structure.
 Determination of the in-situ properties by performing field tests.

Scope of Soil Investigation

The scope of a soils investigation depends on the type, size, and importance of the structure,
the client, the engineer's familiarity with the soils at the site, and local building codes.
Structures that are sensitive to settlement such as machine foundations and high-use buildings
usually require a thorough soils investigation compared to a foundation for a house. A client
may wish to take a greater risk than normal to save money and set limits on the type and extent
of the site investigation. If the geotechnical engineer is familiar with a site, he/she may
undertake a very simple soils investigation to confirm his/her experience. Some local building
codes have provisions that set out the extent of a site investigation. It is mandatory that a visit
be made to the proposed site.In the early stages of a project, the available information is often
inadequate to allow a detailed plan to be made.

A site investigation must be developed in phases.

Phases of a Soils Investigation : The soil investigation is conducted in phases. Each preceding
phase affects the extent of the next phase. The various phases of a soil investigation are given
below:

Phase I. Collection of available information such as a site plan, type, size, and importance of
the structure, loading conditions, previous geotechnical reports, topographic maps, air
photographs, geologic maps, hydrological information and newspaper clippings.

Phase II. Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to provide a general picture of the
topography and geology of the site. It is necessary that you take with you on the site visit all
the information gathered in Phase I to compare with the current conditions of the site. Here
visual inspection is done to gather information on topography, soil stratification, vegetation,

5
water marks, ground water level, and type of construction nearby.

Phase III. Detailed soils exploration. Here we make a detailed planning for soil exploration in
the form trial pits or borings, their spacing and depth. Accordingly, the soil exploration is
carried out. The details of the soils encountered, the type of field tests adopted and the type of
sampling done, presence of water table if met with are recorded in the form of bore log. The
soil samples are properly labeled and sent to laboratory for evaluation of their physical and
engineering properties.

Phase IV. Write a report. The report must contain a clear description of the soils at the site,
methods of exploration, soil profile, test methods and results, and the location of the
groundwater. This should include information and/or explanations of any unusual soil,
waterbearing stratum, and soil and groundwater condition that may be troublesome during
construction.

Soil Exploration Methods

1) Trial pits or test pits
2) Boring
3) probes (in situ test) and geophysical methods
Specific recommendations are made by Indian standards regarding the type, extent and details
of subsurface explorations and the number, depth and spacing of boreholes for the following
civil engineering works. Following is the list of various codes specified for the said purpose:
Foundations of Multi-storeyed Buildings (IS: 1892, 1979)
Earth and rockfill Dams (IS: 6955, 1973)
Power House Sites (IS: 10060, 1981)
Canals and Cross Drainage Works (IS: 11385,
1985) Ports and Harbours (IS: 4651 – Part 1,
1974)

6
The methods available for soil exploration may be classified as follows
 Direct methods ... Test pits, trial pits or trenches
 Semi-direct methods ... Borings
 Indirect methods ... Soundings or penetration tests and geophysical methods

The direct method of soil exploration usually consists of sinking a borehole at a

predetermined location to the required depth by a method suitable for the site and to obtain
fairly intact samples of soils from every stratum encountered or at suitably selected depths.
The samples obtained are utilized to get necessary information about the soil characteristics by
means of laboratory tests.
During recent years, indirect methods of soil exploration have also been used for civil
engineering structures. These methods include various sounding and geophysical methods. In
sounding methods, the variation in penetration resistance of sample or cone is utilized to
interpret some of the physical properties of the strata. In geophysical methods, the change in
subsoil strata are identified by measuring certain physical characteristics, e.g. electrical
conductance, wave velocity of subsurface deposits. In addition to these methods, projectiles,
probes, and aerial photographs are also useful in interpreting the soil characteristics.
Trial pits or test pits
Applicable to all types of soils
Provide for visual examination in their natural condition
Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples can be conveniently obtained at different
depths
Depth of investigation: limited to 3 to 3.5 m.

Advantages
i) Cost effective
ii) Provide detailed information of stratigraphy
iii) Large quantities of disturbed soils are available for testing
iv) Large blocks of undisturbed samples can be carved out from the pits
v) Field tests can be conducted at the bottom of the pits

7
Disadvantages
i) Depth limited to about 6m
ii) Deep pits uneconomical
iii) Excavation below groundwater and into rock difficult and
costly iv)Too many pits may scar site and require backfill soils.

Limitations
i) Undisturbed sampling is difficult ii) Collapse in granular soils or below ground water table

Semi Direct Methods –Boring

Boring: Making or drilling bore holes into the ground with a view to obtaining soil or rock
samples from specified or known depths is called „boring‟
The common methods of advancing bore holes are: Auger boring, Wash boring, rotary boring
and Percussion boring.

Exploratory borings
Boring is carried out in the relatively soft and uncemented ground (engineering „soil‟) which is
normally found close to ground surface. The techniques used vary widely across the world.

Location, spacing and depth of borings

It depends on: i) Type of structure ii) Size of the structure iii) Weight coming from the

General guidelines for location and depth of bore holes Boreholes are generally located at
The building corners The centre of the site
Where heavily loaded columns or machinery pads are proposed.
At least one boring should be taken to a deeper stratum, probably up to the bedrock if
practicable other borings may be taken at least to significant stress level.

8
Spacing of Bore Holes – Codal Recommendations

According to IS 1892 (1979) Code of practice for subsurface investigation:

 For a small building one bore hole or test pit at the centre can give necessary data

 For a building covering not more than 4000 sq.m, one bore hole or test pit at each
corner and one at centre is adequate.

 For a large project, the number will depend on its geological features and variation of
strata. Generally a grid of 50 m spacing should be used with a combination of bore
holes and sounding tests.

Depth of Investigation

The depth of investigation depends on the size and type of proposed

structure Sequence of proposed strata.

The depths of boreholes should cover the zone of soil that will be affected by the structural
loads. There is no fixed rule to follow. In most cases, the depths of boreholes are governed by
experience based on the geological character of the ground, the importance of the structure, the
structural loads, and the availability of equipment

Guidelines for depth of investigation:

1. At least one boring should be taken to deeper stratum, probably up to the bedrock if
practicable.
2. Borings should penetrate at least 3 m into rock.
3. Other borings may be taken at least to significant stress level.
4. In compressible soils such as clays, the borings should penetrate at least between I and 3
times the width of the proposed foundation or until the stress increment due to the heaviest
foundation load is less than 10%, whichever is greater.

9
5. In very stiff clays, borings should penetrate 5-7 m to prove that the thickness of the stratum
is adequate.
6. Borings must penetrate below any fills or very soft deposits below the proposed structure.
7. The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6 m unless bedrock or very dense material is
encountered.

Significant depth The investigation shall be carried out to the point at which the vertical stress
due to proposed structure is equal to or less than 10% of original effective stress at the point
before the structure is constructed – significant depth

Methods of borings i) Auger boring – preferred for shallow depths , low ground water table
ii) Wash boring: high water table, deeper soil deposit iii) Rotary drilling: high quality boring,
also for rock drilling iv) Percussion drilling: fast drilling, not taking samples, gravel

Auger boring:-Augers are used in cohesive and other soft soils above water table. They may
either be operated manually or mechanically. Hands augers are used up to a depth up to 6 m.
mechanically operated augers are used for greater depths and they can also be used in gravelly
soils. Augers are of two types: (a) spiral auger and (b) post-hole auger.

10
 Hand Augers Sand pump

Samples recovered from the soil brought up by the augers are badly disturbed and are useful for
identification purposes only. Auger boring is fairly satisfactory bore explorations at shallow
depths and for exploratory borrow pits.

Auger and shell boring:- cylindrical augers and shells with cutting edge or teeth at lower end
can be used for making deep borings. Hand operated rigs are used for depths up to 25 m and
mechanized rigs up to 50 m. Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clays, shells for very stiff and
hard clays, and shells or sand pumps for sandy soils. Small boulders, thin soft strata or rock or
cemented gravel can be broken by chisel bits attached to drill rods. The hole usually requires a
casing.

Wash boring:-Wash boring is a fast and simple method for advancing holes in all types of soils.
Boulders and rock cannot be penetrated by this method. The method consists of first driving a
casing through which a hollow drilled rod with a sharp chisel or chopping bit at the lower end is
inserted. Water is forced under pressure through the drill rod which is alternativety raised and
dropped, and also rotated. The resulting chopping and jetting action of the bit and water
disintegrates the soil. The cuttings are forced up to the ground surface in the form of soil-water

slurry through the annular space between the drill rod and the casing. The change in soil

11
stratification could be guessed from the rate of progress and colour of wash water. The samples
recovered from the wash water are almost valueless for interpreting the correct geo-technical
properties of soil.

Percussion drilling:-In this method, soil and rock formations are broken by repeated blows of
heavy chiesel or bit suspended by a cable or drill rod. Water is added to the hole during boring, if
not already present and the slurry of pulverised material is bailed out at intervals. The method is
suitable for advancing a hole in all types of solis, boulders and rock. The formations, however,
get disturbed by the impact.

Rotary boring:- Rotary boring or rotary drilling is a very fast method of advancing hole in both
rocks and soils. A drill bit, fixed to the lower end of the drill rods, is rotated by a suitable chuck,
and is always kept in firm contact with the bottom of the hole. A drilling mud, usually a water
solution of bentonite, with or without other admixtures, is continuously forced down to the
hollow drill rods. The mud returning upwards brings the cuttings to the surface. The method is
also known as mud rotary drilling and the hole usually requires no casing.

Rotary core barrels, provided with commercial diamond-studded bits or a steel bit with shots, are
also used for rotary drilling and simultaneously obtaining the rock cores or samples. The method
is them also known as core boring or core drilling. Water 15 circulated down drill rods during
boring.

12
 Wash boring

Soil Samples and samplers.

Types of Samples
Samples of soil taken out of natural deposits for testing may be classified as:
 Disturbed sample
 Undisturbed sample
A disturbed sample is that in which the natural structure of the soil gets modified partly or fully
during sampling and an undisturbed sample is that in which the natural structure and other
physical properties remain preserved.

Disturbed but representative samples can generally be used for v Grain-size analysis v
Determination of liquid and plastic limits, Specific gravity of soil solids, Organic content
determination and Soil classification

13
Undisturbed samples must be used for -- Consolidation test, Hydraulic conductivity test and
Shear strength test
There is an increasing variety of plant, sampling methods and tools, with particular advantages in
cost, quality of sampling, speed of operation, use in conditions of limited access or headroom,
etc., and the choice of rig is affected by the likely soil conditions to be encountered.
Spacing of Borings
Type of project Spacing (m)
Multistory buildings 10 – 30
One-story industrial plants 20 – 60
Highways 250 – 500
Residential subdivision 250 – 500
Dams and dikes 40 – 80

Soil Sampling

Need for sampling: -Sampling is carried out in order that soil and rock description, and
laboratory testing can be carried out.

Laboratory tests typically consist of:

i). Index tests (for example, specific gravity, water content)
ii). Classification of tests (for example, Atterberg limit tests on clays); and
iii) Tests to determine compressibility, and permeability.

Factors to be considered while sampling soil

i) Samples should be representative of the ground from which they are taken.
ii) ii) They should be large enough t and fissuring and fracturing.
iii) iii) They should be taken in such a way that they have not lost fractions of the situ soil
(for compressibility disturbance as possible.

14
 Type of soil samples
Non-Representative samples:-Non-Representative soil samples are those in which neither the
in-situ soil structure, moisture content nor the soil particles are preserved.
• They are not representative
• They cannot be used for any tests as the soil particles either gets mixed up or some particles
may be lost.
• e.g., Samples that are obtained through wash boring or percussion drilling.

Disturbed soil samples:- Disturbed soil samples are those in which the in-situ soil structure and
moisture content are lost, but the soil particles are intact.
• They are representative
• They can be used for grain size analysis, liquid and plastic limit, specific gravity, compaction
tests, moisture content, organic content determination and soil classification test performed in the
lab
• e.g., obtained through cuttings while auguring, grab, split spoon (SPT), etc.

Undisturbed soil samples:-Undisturbed soil samples are those in which the in-situ soil
structure and moisture content are preserved.
• They are representative and also intact
• These are used for consolidation, permeability or shear strengths test (Engineering properties) •
More complex jobs or where clay exist
• In sand is very difficult to obtain undisturbed sample
• Obtained by using Shelby tube (thin wall), piston sampler, surface (box), vacuum, freezing,
etc.,

Design Features affecting the sample disturbance

 Area ratio
 Inside Clearance
 Outside Clearance
 Recovery Ratio



15

 Inside wall friction
 Design of non-return value
 Method of applying force
 sizes of sampling tubes

𝑫𝒔−𝑫𝒄
Inside clearance ratio Ci = 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝑫𝒄

The soil is under great stress as it enters the sampler and has a tendency to laterally expand.
The inside clearance should be large enough to allow a part of lateral expansion to take place, but
it should not be so large that it permits excessive deformations and causes disturbances of the
sample.
For good sampling process, the inside clearance ratio should be within 0.5 to 3 %.
For sands silts and clays, the ratio should be 0.5 % and for stiff and hard clays (below water
table), it should be 1.5 %.
For stiff expansive type of clays, it should be 3.0 %.

𝟐 𝟐
𝑫 −𝑫 𝒄
Area ratio Ar = 𝑫𝟐𝒄
X 100%

−𝑫𝒓
Outside clearance ratio Co =𝑫𝒘 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑫𝒓

For good sampling process, the ratio should be within 0-2 %. Minimum inside diameter = =
75mm.
The length (L) should be at least equal to (the intended length + 100mm) for residual soils.
The tube should be uniform and should not have any protrusions or irregularities. The inside of
the tube should be clean and smooth.

Recovery ratio R =𝑳 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑯

16
Where, L is the length of the sample within the tube, H is the depth of penetration of the
sampling tube. It represents the disturbance of the soil sample. For good sampling the recovery
ratio should be 96 to 98 %. Wall friction can be reduced by suitable inside clearance, smooth
finish and oiling. The non-returned wall should have large orifice to allow air and water to
escape

Inside wall friction

 The friction on the inside wall of the sampling tube causes disturbances of the sample.
 Therefore the inside surface of the sampler should be as smooth as possible.
 It is usually smeared with oil before use to reduce friction.

Design of non-return value

 The non – return value provided on the sampler should be of proper design.
 It should have an orifice of large area to allow air, water or slurry to escape quickly when
the sampler is driven.
 It should close when the sample is withdrawn.

Method of applying force

The degree of disturbance depends upon the method of applying force during sampling and
depends upon the rate of penetration of the sample.
For obtaining undisturbed samples, the sampler should be pushed and not driven
Requirement of good sampling process

17
 Penetration Tests
These tests involve the measurement of the resistance to penetration of a sampling spoon, a cone
or other shaped tools under dynamic or static loadings. The resistance is empirically correlated
with some of the engineering properties of soil as density index, consistency, bearing capacity,
etc., These tests are useful for general exploration of erratic soil profiles, for finding depth to bed
rock or hard stratum, and to have an approximate indication of the strength and other properties
of soils, particularly the cohesionless soils, from which it is difficult to obtain undisturbed
samples. The two commonly used tests are the standard penetration test and the cone penetration
test.

Standard Penetration Test

 Test is performed in a clean hole,55 OD to 150 IDmm in diameter
 A thick all split tube sampler,50.8 mm and 35 mm is driven into the undistributed soil at
the bottom of the hole
 A 65kgdrive weight with 75cm free fall is used to drive the sampler
 The sampler is first driven through 15cm as a seating drive



18
  It is further driven through 3cm
 The number of blows required to drive the sampler 30cm beyond the seating drive is
termed as penetration resistance N.
 In very fine silty saturated sand an apparent increase in resistance occurs
 For overburden pressure on the value of N(Terzaghi and Peck)
No = 15+ 1 (N-15)
2

 For air-dry or moist sand, No =N 50

1.42𝜎 ′+10

Where,Ne= corrected value for overburden effect

N= actual value of blows
𝜎′=effective overburden pressure in t/m2 (not to exceed 28.2 t/m2)
Meyerhoff∅= 25 + 0.15 ID fines greater than 5 %
Ф= 20 + 0.15 ID fines less than 5 %

Dutch Cone Test

 Test is used for getting a continuous record of the resistance of soil by penetrating
steadily under static pressure
 A cone with a base of 10cm2 and an angle of 60 ºat the vertex
 The cone is carried at the lower end of a steel driving rod
 To know the cone resistance,the cone alone is first forced down upto 8cm and resistance
is recorded
 The steel tube is then pushed down upto the cone,and both together are furher penetrated
upto 20cm
 Cone test is useful in determaining the bearing capacity of pits in
cohesionlesssoils,particularly fine sands
 The cone resistance(kg/cm2) is approximately equal to 10 times the penetration resistance
N

19
 Soil investigation is required for the following purposes –
 To know the allowable bearing capacity of foundation for proposed building. 
 To know the depth and type of foundation for the proposed building. 
 To know the allowable passive resistance for the foundation of proposed building.
 To know the type, grading and nature of soil. 
 To know the ground water level. 
Methods of soil investigation

The common methods of soil investigation are –

 Inspection
 Test pits
 Probing, and
 Boring.


Inspection: In some places you don't have to investigate much. You'll get enough data to design
the foundation of the proposed building by just inspecting the plot. This method of soil
investigation includes know the geological condition of the plot, getting data about neighbor
buildings, their foundation type and depth, etc.

Test pits: This is done to collect soil samples for detail analysis. In this method several pits are
dug by hand or excavator. The depth of pit is below 5 feet so that one can have visual inspection.
Several samples are collected from the pit of both disturbed and undisturbed soil.

Probing: In this method a 25 mm or 40 mm diameter steel bar is driven into the ground till solid
soil strata is found. It is normally driven by hammer. The penetration and withdrawal of the steel
rod is closely observed to know the nature of soil layer.

Boring: In this method several bore holes are made for the purpose of collecting soil sample
from below the ground. Then the collected sample is analyzed for preparing the soil report.

20
 Typical steps of soil investigation

Soil investigation involves following steps -

 Details planning for the sequence of operations

 Collecting the samples of soil from the plot.
 Determining the soil characteristics by conducting field tests.
 Study the condition of ground water level. 
 Collecting ground water sample for chemical analysis.
 Soil exploration.
 Testing all collected samples in the laboratory.
 Analysis the test results.
 Preparing report.

 
A recommended procedure is as follows:
 Collect data, categorize it and rough out a preliminary draft.
 Edit the draft and seek methods of visual presentation and tabulation.
 Polish re-draft and check for improvements in presentation check for typing errors and
appearance.

Factors affecting quality of report.

There are other factors which can affect the quality of the investigation, recommendations and
the engineering judgment. Among those which may affect some engineers are:
(1) Uncritical acceptance of well-presented opinion, results of sophisticated (but not necessarily
relevant) tests and over- and unqualified respect for some specialists.
(2) Allowing site difficulties to dictate the investigation in an attempt to keep the investigation
simple and cheap.
(3) Lack of recognition that piling and other foundation techniques can be used to economic
advantage even on good sites.
(4) Lack of recognition that some fills, possibly upgraded by ground improvement techniques,
can provide an adequate and economic bearing strata.

21
(5) Lack of appreciation that advances in structural design can accommodate relatively high
settlements.
(6) Under-estimation of the importance of the designer, at least, visiting the site during the
investigation or dismissal of trial pits as unscientific or out-dated.

Sequence of report
Foundation reports follow the normal sequence of items of engineering reports in having a title,
contents list, and synopsis, and introduction, body of the report, conclusions and
recommendations. Lengthy descriptions of tests and similar matters are best dealt with in
appendices and the test results tabulated in the body of the report. The client tends to read the
synopsis and recommendations; the main and sub-contractors concentrate on the body of the
report and the design office on its conclusions and recommendations.

Site description
This, as far as possible, should be given on small-scale plans showing site location, access and
surrounding area. The proposed position of the buildings and access roads should be shown. The
site plan should also show the general layout and surface features, note presence of existing
buildings, old foundations and previous usage, services, vegetation, surface water, any
subsidence or unstable slopes, etc.

Written description of the site exposure (for wind speed regulations) should be given together
with records of any flooding, erosion and other geographical and hydrographic information.

Geological maps and sections should, when they are necessary, be provided, noting mines,
shafts, quarries, swallow holes and other geological features affecting design and construction.

Photographs taken on the site, preferably color ones, can be very helpful and should be
supplemented by aerial photographs if considered necessary.

22
The ground investigation

(1) Background study and location of holes. This should give a full account of the desk-top
study, examination of old records, information from local authorities, public utilities and the
like, and the field survey. It should detail the position and depth of trial pits and boreholes,
equipment used and in situ testing and information.

(2) Boreholes, trial pits and soil profiles. This section will be mainly a visual presentation of the
logs and profiles together with colour photographs of the trial pits.Where possible, written
information should be given in note form on the soil profiles.

(3) Soil tests. This should list the site and laboratory tests drawing attention to any unusual,
unexpected or special results. The results of the tests should be tabulated, for ease of reference,
and diagrams of such information as particle size distribution, pressure–void ratio curves and
Mohr‟s circles should be given.

Results
This must give details of ground conditions, previous use of site, present conditions, groundwater
and drainage pattern
The tests must give adequate information to determine the soil‟s bearing capacity, settlement
characteristics, behavior during and after foundation construction and, where necessary, its
chemical make-up and condition
Recommendations This is both comment on the facts and also opinions based on experience;
the difference should be made clear. Since the discussion is usually a major part of the report it
should be broken down into sections for ease of reference and readability.
The final section should give firm recommendations on the foundation type or types to be
adopted

Objectives of Site Investigation

 To access the general suitability of the site.
 To achieve safe and economical design of foundations and temporary works.

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  To know the nature of each stratum and engineering properties of the soil and rock,
which may affect the design and mode of construction of proposed structure and
foundation.
 To foresee and provide against difficulties that may arise during construction due to
ground and other local conditions.
 To find out the sources of construction material and selection of sites for disposal of
water or surplus material.
 To investigate the occurrence or causes of all natural and man made changes in
conditions and the results arising from such changes.
 To ensure the safety of surrounding existing structures.
 To design for the failed structures or remedial measures for the structures deemed to be
unsafe.
 To locate the ground water level and possible corrosive effect of soil and water on
foundation material.
Methods of site exploration

The various types of site investigation are:

Open excavation, Boring, Subsurface Sounding and Geophysical Methods
Geophysical exploration

Geophysical exploration may be used with advantage to locate boundaries between different
elements of the subsoil as these procedures are based on the fact that the gravitational, magnetic,
electrical, radioactive or elastic properties of the different elements of the subsoil may be
different. Differences in the gravitational, magnetic and radioactive properties of deposits near
the surface of the earth are seldom large enough to permit the use of these properties in
exploration work for civil engineering projects. However, the resistivity method based on the
electrical properties and the seismic refraction methods based on the elastic properties of the
deposits have been used widely in large civil engineering projects. Different methods of
geophysical explorations

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Electrical resistivity method
Electrical resistivity method is based on the difference in the electrical conductivity or the
electrical resistivity of different soils. Resistivity is defined as resistance in ohms between the
opposite phases of a unit cube of a material.

𝐑𝐀
𝛒=
𝐋

𝜌 is resistivity in ohm-cm, R is resistance in ohms, A is the cross sectional area (cm 2), L is
length of the conductor (cm).

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Applications of resistivity soundings are:
Characterize subsurface hydrogeology, Determine depth to bedrock/overburden thickness,
Determine depth to groundwater, Map stratigraphy, clay aquitards, salt-water intrusion and
vertical extent of certain types of soil and groundwater contamination .Estimate landfill thickness

Resistivity profiling is used to:

Map faults, Map lateral extent of conductive contaminant plumes, Locate voids, Map heavy
metals soil contamination ,Delineate disposal areas ,Map paleochannels, Explore for sand and
gravel ,Map archaeological sites

Seismic Method

Seismic refraction is a geophysical method used for investigating subsurface ground conditions
utilizing surface-sourced seismic waves. The methods depend on the fact that seismic waves
have differing velocities in different types of soil (or rock): in addition, the waves are refracted
when they cross the boundary between different types (or conditions) of soil or rock. The
methods enable the general soil types and the approximate depth to strata boundaries, or to
bedrock, to be determined.

Operation

Pulses of low frequency seismic energy are emitted by a seismic source such as a hammer-plate,
weight drop or buffalo gun. The type of source is dependent on local ground conditions and
required depth penetration. Explosives are best for deeper applications but are constrained by
environmental regulations.

The seismic waves propagate downward through the ground until they are reflected or refracted
off subsurface layers. Refracted waves are detected by arrays of 24 or 48 geophones spaced at
regular intervals of 1 - 10 metres, depending on the desired depth penetration of the survey.
Sources are positioned at each end of the geophone array to produce forward and reverse wave
arrivals along the array. Additional sources may be used at intermediate or off-line positions for
full coverage at all geophone positions.

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A geophone is a device that converts ground movement (velocity) into voltage, which may be
recorded at a recording station. The deviation of this measured voltage from the base line is
called the seismic response and is analyzed for structure of the earth.

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APPLICATIONS
 Measures Bedrock Depth & Overburden Thickness
 Determines Rip ability Parameters
 Investigates Pipeline Routes
 Locates Geological Structures
 Evaluates Sand & Gravel Deposits
 Defines Ancient Landfill Sites

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Boring Log
During soil exploration all suitable details are recorded and presented in a boring log. Additional
information consisting mainly of lab and field test result is added to complete the boring log.

Details of Boring Log

The ground conditions discovered in each borehole are summarised in the form of a bore log.
The method of investigation and details of the equipment used should be stated on each log. The
location, ground level and diameter of the hole should be specified. The names of the client and
the project should be mentioned.

Other Details of Boring Log

 The soil profile with elevations of different strata.
 Ground water level.
 Termination level of the bore hole.
 The depth at which samples were taken or at which in-situ tests were performed.
 The type of soil samples.
 N-values at the measured elevation.
 The results of important laboratory tests

Soil Exploration Report

At the end of the soil exploration program, the soil and rock samples, collected from the field are
subjected to visual observation and laboratory tests. Then, a soil exploration report is prepared
for use by the planning and design office. Any soil exploration report should contain the
following information:
1. Scope of investigation
2. General description of the proposed structure for which the exploration has been conducted
3. Geological conditions of the site
4. Drainage facilities at the site
5. Details of boring

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6. Description of subsoil conditions as determined from the soil and rock samples collected
7. Ground water table as observed from the boreholes
8. Details of foundation recommendations and alternatives
9. Any anticipated construction problems
10. Limitations of the investigation

The following graphic presentations also need to be attached to the soil exploration
report:

1. Site location map

2. Location of borings with respect to the proposed structure
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special presentations

The boring log is the graphic representation of the details gathered from each bore hole.

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