Physics
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
OHM’S LAW – IDENTIFICATION
OF R, RESISTIVITY
Adithya R
XII A
TABLE OF CONTENT
S.No Chapter Page No.
1 INTRODUCTION
2 RESISTANCE
3 RESISTIVITY
4 MATERIAL
REQUIRED
5 METHODOLOGY
6 OBSEVERTAION
TABLE
7 CALCULATION
8 RESULT
9 DISCUSSION
AND FUTURE
OUTCOMES
10 CONCLUSION
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF FIGURES
S.No FIGURES PAGE NO.
1 RESISTANCE &
SYMBOL
2 RESISTIVITY
CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION
Ohm’s law states that the current through a conductor between
two points is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the two points. Introducing the constant of
proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual
mathematical equation that describes this relationship.
I=V/R
Where, I is the current through a conductor in units of amperes,
V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in
units of volts, and & R is the resistance of the conductor in units
of ohm’s. More specifically, Ohm’s law states that the R in this
relation is constant, independent of the current.
1.1 OBJECTIVE :
To find the resistivity of wires of different metals using
OHM’S LAW
1.2 ADVANTAGES :
Protection of Components: Resistors are used to limit the
current flowing through sensitive electronic components
(like LEDs, transistors) to prevent them from burning out
due to excessive current.
Control of Operation: By varying resistance (e.g., in a
potentiometer), the current in a circuit can be controlled,
allowing for functionalities like adjusting the brightness of
lights (dimmers) or controlling the speed of motors (fan
regulators).
1.3 APPLICATION:
Heating Appliances: Many common appliances like electric
heaters, toasters, kettles, and electric irons rely on the
heating effect of current through a high-resistance element
to generate heat.
Adjusting Signal Levels: Resistors can attenuate (reduce)
or boost signal levels in audio, radio, and other electronic
circuits. This is crucial for matching signal levels between
different stages of a circuit or for adjusting the output.
CHAPTER – 2
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Battery Plug key
Rheostat
Ammeter
Unknown
resistor
CHAPTER – 2
RESISTANCE
The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the
opposition to the passage of an electric current through that
conductor. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance,
the ease with which an electric current passes. Electrical
resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion
of mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is
the ohm, while electrical conductance is measured in
siemens (S).
An object of uniform cross section has a resistance
proportional to its resistivity and length and inversely
proportional to it's cross-sectional area. All materials show
some resistance, except for superconductors, which have a
resistance of zero.
CHAPTER – 3
RESISTIVITY
The resistance of a given wire depends primarily on two
factors: What material it is made of, and it's shape. For a
given material, the resistance is inversely proportional to
the cross-sectional area; for example, a thick copper wire
has lower resistance than an otherwise - identical thin
copper wire. Also, for a given material, the resistance is
proportional to the length; for example, a long copper wire
has higher resistance than an otherwise - identical short
copper wire. The resistance R of a conductor of uniform
cross-section, therefore, can be computed as
R=1/A
Where, “L” is the length of the conductor, measured in
meter(m), “A”is the cross-sectional area of the conductor
measured in m², “p” is the electrical resistivity (also called
specific resistance) of the material, measured in Q-m. The
resistivity is the proportionality constant, and therefore
depends only on the material of the wire, not the geometry
of the wire. Resistivity and Conductivity are reciprocals:
Ρ=1/σ
Resistivity is measure of the material’s ability to oppose
electric current.
3.1) WHAT DETERMINES RESISTIVITY
The resistivity of different materials varies by an enormous
amount: For example, the conductivity of Teflon is about
1030 times lower than the conductivity of copper. Why is
there such a difference? Loosely speaking, a metal has
large no. of “delocalized” electrons that are not stuck in any
one place, but free to move across large distances, whereas
in an insulator (like Teflon), each electron is tightly bound
to a single molecule, and a great force is required to pull it
away. Semiconductors lie between these two extremes.
Resistivity varies with temperature. In semiconductors,
resistivity also changes when exposed to light.
CHAPTER – 4
MATERIAL REQUIRED
➤ 5 wires of different metals and respective lengths.
➤ A battery eliminator
➤d.c. Voltmeter (range 3V)
➤d.c. Ammeter (range about500mA)
➤ A rheostat
➤ One plug key
➤ Thick connecting wires
➤ Sand paper…
CHAPTER – 5
METHODOLOGY
1) Arrange the various components of the circuit accordingly
with plug out of one-way key.
2) Rub the ends of the connecting wires with a sand paper to
remove any oxidized insulating coating. Study the circuit
carefully and make tight connections accordingly using thick
connecting wires.
3) Ensure that the ammeter is connected in series with the
resistance wire with it's positive terminal towards the positive of
the battery. Also ensure that the voltmeter is connected in
parallel to resistance coil R in such manner that the current
enters at it's positive end.
4) Connect rheostat such that one of its lower terminals and the
upper terminals are used.
5) Insert the plug in key K.
6) Adjust the rheostat so that small current flows through the
circuit. Record the readings of the ammeter and the voltmeter.
7) Shift the rheostat contact to shift the current and take the
readings again.
8) Cut the resistance wire at the ends just coming out of
voltmeter. Stretch it along the meter scale and measure it's
length I.
9) Record your observations.
10) Connection should be tight and short circuit should be
avoided
11) The plug should be inserted only while taking observations
otherwise current would cause unnecessary heating in this
current.
CHAPTER – 6
OBSEVERTAION TABLE
CHAPTER – 7
CALCULATION
For Iron wire:
Length of wire= 21cm
Thickness = 0.54 * 10 ^ - 2 * m
Area= 0.22 ×10^-6 m²
Mean resistance = (1.3 + 1.001 + 1) / 3 = 1.1 Ω
Resistivity= RA/L= 10.5×10^-8 Ωm
For Aluminium wire:
Length of wire= 68cm
Thickness = 0.66 * 10 ^ - 2 * m
Area=0.28×10^-6m²
Mean Resistance = (0.5 + 0.66 + 0.75) / 3 = 0.63 Ω
Resistivity r = RA / L = 2.7 * 10 ^ - 8 Ωm
For manganim wire:
Length of wire=57cm
Thickness = 0.66 * 10 ^ - 2
Area = 0.19 * 10 ^ - 6 * m ^ 2
Mean Resistance = (1.3 + 1.5 + 1.3) / 3 = 1.36 Ω
Resistivity = RA / L = 48.2 * 10 ^ - 8 Ωm
For aluminium wire:
Length of wire=42cm
Thickness = 0.49 * 10 ^ - 2 * m
Area = 0.7703 * 10 ^ - 6 * m ^ 2
Mean resistance = (0.5 + 0.54 + 0.6) / 3 = 0.54 Ω
Resistivity = RA / L = 1.7 * 10 ^ - 8 Ωm
CHAPTER – 8
RESULT
The resistivity of wires are:
1) For iron wire- 10.5 ×10^-8 Ωm
2) For aluminium wire- 2.7×10^-8 ΩΜ
3) For manganim wire- 48.2×10^-8 ΩΜ
4) For copper wire- 1.7×10^-8 Ωm
CHAPTER – 9
DISCUSSION AND FUTURE OUTCOMES
A resistor is a fundamental passive electrical component that
limits or regulates the flow of electric current in an electronic
circuit. Its primary function is to introduce resistance into the
circuit, which is measured in ohms (Ω).
Think of it like a narrow section in a water pipe: the narrower
the section, the more it restricts the water flow. Similarly, a
resistor with higher resistance will restrict more current flow.
How Resistors Work:
Resistors work by converting electrical energy into heat as
current flows through them. This heat dissipation is a natural
consequence of the opposition to electron flow. The resistance
value is determined by the material used, its length, and its
cross-sectional area.
Key Characteristics and Concepts:
* Resistance (Ω): The opposition to current flow. The higher
the ohmic value, the more it opposes current.
* Ohm’s Law: This fundamental law describes the relationship
between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance ®: V = I \times
R. This means that for a given voltage, a higher resistance will
result in a lower current.
* Power Dissipation (P): Resistors dissipate power as heat,
calculated by P = I^2 \times R or P = V^2 / R. Resistors have a
power rating that indicates the maximum power they can safely
dissipate without being damaged.
Types of Resistors:
Resistors come in various types, each suited for different
applications:
1. Fixed Resistors: These have a constant resistance value that
cannot be changed.
* Carbon Composition Resistors: Made from a mixture of
carbon dust and a binder. Older type, less precise.
* Carbon Film Resistors: Formed by depositing a carbon film on
a ceramic former. More precise than carbon composition.
* Metal Film Resistors: Similar to carbon film but use a metal
(or metal alloy) film. Offer higher precision and stability.
* Wire-wound Resistors: Made by winding a resistive wire
around an insulating core. Often used for high-power
applications due to their ability to dissipate heat.
* Surface Mount Devices (SMD) Resistors: Tiny, rectangular
components designed for automated assembly on printed circuit
boards.
2. Variable Resistors: These allow their resistance value to be
adjusted.
* Potentiometers: Three-terminal devices used to vary voltage,
often acting as volume controls in audio equipment or dimmers
in lighting.
* Rheostats: Two or three-terminal devices primarily used for
current limiting.
* Trimmer Potentiometers (Trimpots): Smaller versions of
potentiometers, often used for fine-tuning circuits during
manufacturing.
3. Special Purpose Resistors:
* Thermistors: Resistance changes significantly with
temperature. Used in temperature sensing and control.
* Photoresistors (LDRs – Light-Dependent Resistors):
Resistance changes with the intensity of light falling on them.
Used in light sensors.
* Varistors (VDRs – Voltage-Dependent Resistors): Resistance
changes with the applied voltage, used for surge protection.
Resistor Color Code:
Since resistors are often very small, their resistance value is
typically indicated by a series of colored bands on their body.
Each color corresponds to a specific digit, multiplier, and
tolerance. Learning the resistor color code is essential for
identifying resistor values in electronic circuits.
Common Applications of Resistors:
Resistors are ubiquitous in electronic circuits and have
numerous applications, including:
* Current Limiting: Protecting sensitive components (like
LEDs) from excessive current.
* Voltage Division: Creating specific voltage levels from a
higher source voltage using a voltage divider circuit.
* Signal Level Adjustment: Attenuating or boosting signal
levels.
* Biasing: Setting the operating conditions for active
components like transistors.
* Timing Circuits: In combination with capacitors, they can
create time delays (RC circuits).
* Heating Elements: In applications where heat is desired, such
as toasters or electric heaters.
* Filtering: Used with capacitors and inductors to create filter
circuits that remove unwanted frequencies.
* Sensing: Special resistors like thermistors and LDRs are used
as sensors.
In summary, resistors are essential components in electronics,
playing a crucial role in controlling current, manipulating
voltage, and shaping the behavior of electrical circuits.
CHAPTER – 10
CONCLUSION
Ohm’s law, in the form above, is an extremely useful equation in
the field of electrical/electronic engineering because it describes
how voltage, current and resistance are interrelated on a
“macroscopic” level, that is commonly, as circuit elements in an
electrical circuit. Physicist who study the electrical properties of
matter at the microscopic level use a closely related and more
general vector equation, sometimes also referred to as OHM’S
law, having variables that are closely related to the V, I and R
scalar variables of Ohm’s law, but which are each functions of
positions within the conductor. Physicists often use this
continuum form of Ohm’s law-
(E = p) where “E” is the electric field vector with units of
volt /meter, “J” is the current density vector with units of
amperes/unit area, and “p” is the resistivity with units of Q-m.
The above equations is sometimes written as J=σΕ where “σ” is
the conductivity which is reciprocal of “p”.
CHAPTER – 11
BIBLIOGRAPHY
www.google.com
https://en.wikipedia.org
https://www.scribd.com
www.bartleby.com
https://www.studocu.com
https://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com
https://www.xy-resistor.com
https://www.vedantu.com
www.studysmarter.com
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org
