I.

The Nature of Science

A. Science
B. Scientific Method
II. Evaluating Scientific Claims
A. Battling Rumors
B. Evaluating Scientific Claims
III. Chemistry of Life
A. The Basics
B. Biochemistry
IV. Life is Cellular
A. Intro and Membranes
B. What’s Inside?
V. How Cells Work
A. Photosynthesis
B. Cellular Respiration
VI. Cell Division
A. The Cell Cycle
B. Sex Cells
VII. Chapter 7
A. Mendelian Genetics
B. Complex Traits
VIII. Chapter 8
A. Chromosomes
IX. What Genes Are
A. DNA Structure
B. DNA Replication
C. Mutation and Repair
X. Chapter 10
A. Reading DNA
B. Making Proteins
XI. Chapter 11
A. Evolution & Natural Selection
B. Evidence For Evolution
XII. Chapter 12
A. Evolution & Natural Selection
B. Evolution of Genes & Populations
XIII. Species, Evolutionary Trees, & Taxonomic Classification
 A. Adaptation and Speciation
B. The History of Life
XIV. Single-Celled Life
A. Prokaryotes
B. Eukaryotes
XV. Plants and Fungi
A. Plants
B. Fungi
XVI. Animal Life
A. Invertebrates
B. Vertebrates
XVII. Global Ecology
A. Ecology
B. Climate
XVIII. Community Ecology
XIX. Homeostasis & Organ Systems
A. Homeostasis
B. Organ Systems
XX. Reproductive System
A. General
B. Male
C. Female
XXI. Digestive System
A. Nutrients
B. System
XXII. Circulatory System
XXIII. Respiratory System
XXIV. Chapter 25
 Biology 102 – Fall 2023
I.​ The Nature of Science
A.​Science
1.​ Science
a)​Defined as the body of knowledge we have about the natural world and the
process for acquiring that knowledge
b)​Deals with the natural world, which can be detected, observed and measured
c)​Based on evidence that can be demonstrated through observations/experiments
d)​Subject to independent validation and peer review – scientists can’t just declare
that something is true, they need to review the work and have it accepted by the
scientific community
e)​Open to challenge by anyone at any time on the basis of evidence – scientists will
make ideas, and new ideas will overview and overcome those old ideas – each
idea is based on new evidence that advances science
f)​ A self–correcting enterprise – as time passes on, scientists are improving our
knowledge base
2.​ Biology – The Science of Life
a)​What is life? You can’t define it because it’s very complex
b)​All living things have the following characteristics:
(1)​composed of cells – some are only single cell
(2)​can reproduce/use DNA – DNA is the molecule that makes up all living
things genetic material
(3)​use energy/have metabolism – energy goes on inside the cells and is
necessary for functioning
(4)​interact with their environment – presence of living things has an effect on
their environment
(5)​maintain a constant internal environment (homeostasis) ex. body temperature
is constant for humans, proteins, pH
(6)​populations evolve – individuals don’t involve actively, but living things
evolve as populations grow and emerge
3.​ The Biological Hierarchy
a)​Beings with atoms, which are the building blocks of all matter
b)​2+ atoms held together by strong chemical bonds become a molecule
c)​Molecules make up the cell (living), the basic unit of life – as some organisms,
such as bacteria, consist of only a single cell
d)​Multicellular organisms form tissues – a tissue is a group of cells that performs a
unique set of tasks in the body; cells work together for a common function
 e)​Plants and animals also have organs, which are body parts composed of different
types of tissues functioning in a coordinated manner
f)​ In animals, groups of organism are networked into organ systems, which perform
a wide range of functions
g)​In an individual organism, all components work as a well–knit whole
h)​Each organism is a member of a population, a group of individuals of the same
species living and interacting in a shared environment
i)​ Populations of different species that live and interact with one another in a
particular place are a biological community
j)​ A particular physical environment and all the communities in it together make up
an ecosystem
k)​Biomes are large regions of the world defined by shared physical characteristics,
especially climate, and a distinctive community of organisms
l)​ All biomes are apart of one biosphere, all the world’s living organisms and the
places where they live (Earth)
B.​Scientific Method
1.​ Scientific Method – The practices that produce scientific knowledge
a)​Observation – a description, measurement, or record of any object or
phenomenon; observe and ask questions about the natural world
(1)​Descriptive – reporting information about what is found
(2)​Analytical – looking for patterns in data
b)​Ask a question – your hypothesis is a possible reason/observation, while a
prediction explains how to test that your hypothesis is true
c)​Propose a hypothesis – explain your observations and questions
(1)​A hypothesis is an informed, logical, and plausible explanation for
observations of the natural world
d)​Make a prediction – test your hypothesis
e)​Test the prediction
(1)​Experimentation or repeated observation
(2)​Design tests of the predictions of your hypothesis
(a)​ Test by observing or measuring
(b)​Test by designing and running experiments
(i)​ An experiment is a repeatable manipulation of one or more aspects of
the natural world
f)​ Analysis of data – communicate your results to fellow scientists for their review
and input
g)​Draw conclusions – accept, reject, or modify your hypothesis, prediction or test
according to the results
2.​ Variables and Data
a)​Variables – characteristics that can change
 (1)​Independent Variable – manipulated; this is the variable being tested
(2)​Dependent Variable – measured; responds to the independent variable, this is
the data you will collect
(3)​Controlled Variables – held constant; you make sure these have no impact
on the experiment, the same for all subjects
(4)​The control group is maintained under a standard set of conditions with no
change in the independent variable
(5)​The other group known as the treatment group is under the same set of
conditions, but the independent variable is manipulated
b)​Data – use statistics to summarize the data and test for significance
(1)​Some statistics provide a “p–value” – the probability that the observed
differences were due to chance
(2)​Hypothesis is good if the “p–value” is less than 0.05
c)​Hypotheses must be Falsifiable
(1)​Experiments must be designed so that if the hypothesis is incorrect, it will be
falsified
(a)​ If there is no significant difference between the growths of the
experimental group and control group, then the experiment falsified the
hypothesis
(b)​If the experimental group grew significantly slower than the control, we
say the hypothesis is supported
(2)​Hypotheses can be supported, but no amount of testing can prove a
hypothesis is correct with complete certainty – there might be another factor,
unmeasured or unobserved, that explains why
d)​Theories in Science
(1)​Theory – a hypothesis, or a group of related hypotheses, that has received
substantial confirmation through diverse lines of investigation by
independent researchers
(2)​In the context of science, a theory is:
(a)​ Broader in scope than a hypothesis
(b)​General, a can lead to new testable hypotheses
(c)​ Supported by a large body of evidence
(d)​Theories are trueNOTHING

II.​ Evaluating Scientific Claims

A.​Battling Rumors
1.​ Scientific Literacy – understanding the basics of science and the scientific process;
enables us to make informed decisions about the world; facilitates communicating our
knowledge to others
 2.​ Scientific Claim – a statement about how the world works that can be tested using
the scientific method
a)​Evaluate scientific claims – validate the credibility of scientific claims
(1)​Scientific journals are primary literature and tend to be accurate
(2)​Advertisements are rarely accurate
(3)​It’s important the websites don’t have an agenda
3.​ Scientific Journals
a)​Usually scientists have to publish in specialized journals rather than online
(1)​Primary Research Article – Include some sort of experiment
(2)​Review Article – doesn’t do their own research; looks at other scientific
journal and finds a lot of info and puts it into one article
b)​In order to publish in a journal, they have to send it to a specific journal, and the
publisher has to say it matches their journal, then it has to be fact–checked by
other scientists in their field
c)​Journals are used to help other people advance their own research
4.​ Research
a)​Basic Research – intended to expand the fundamental knowledge base of science
(1)​Funded by the federal government – aka taxpayers
(2)​Is not considered biased, is used to research for further understanding
b)​Applied Research – scientific knowledge is applied to human issues and
commercial applications for specific purposes
c)​Primary Literature – where credible research is first published
d)​Secondary Literature – summarizes and synthesizes an area of research
(1)​Textbooks, review articles, reputable news outlets, gov sites
e)​Meta–analysis – a research paper that combines results from different studies and
works
B.​Evaluating Scientific Claims
1.​ Credentials – the qualifications to be recognized as an authority in the subject
a)​Does the person making a scientific claim have a PhD or MD?
b)​Is the degree in the field in which the claim is being made?
2.​ Bias or Agenda – political, religious, financial, other
a)​Does the person making the claim hold a belief that will be supported by the
claim? (Bias – a prejudice or opinion for or against something)
b)​Do they stand to make money if others accept the claim?
3.​ Peer Review and Publication – always applies to journals
a)​Has the claim been reviewed by practicing scientists and published in a reputable
scientific journal?
4.​ Real Science or Pseudoscience – can look really accurate/true
a)​Does the scientific study trying to support the claim meet the standards of the
scientific method (sounds scientific until then)
 b)​Pseudoscience – characterized by scientific–sounding statements, beliefs or
practices that are not actually based on the scientific method
5.​ Correlation vs Causation
a)​Correlation – when two different aspects of the natural world behave in a similar
manner, and can be used to predict the value for the other aspect
b)​Causation – a statistical relation indicating that a change in one aspect of the
natural world causes a change in another aspect
c)​Just because two aspects are correlated does not mean that a change in one
aspected causes a change in another

III.​ Chemistry of Life

A.​The Basics
1.​ Living things are composed of matter and function by chemical reactions
2.​ Matter – anything that takes up space and has mass (gas/solid/liquid)
a)​Matter is made up of elements (most fundamental type) – substances that cannot
be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions
b)​Some matter is composed of multiple elements
c)​Compounds have characteristics different from those of its elements
(1)​Sodium’s natural form is a metal
(2)​Chlorine’s natural form is a gas
(3)​Sodium Chloride (table salt) is not a metal nor a gas
d)​About 25 of the 94 natural elements are essential to life
e)​96% of living matter is composed of (HONC)
(1)​Hydrogen (H)
(2)​Oxygen (O)
(3)​Nitrogen (N)
(4)​Carbon ©
3.​ Atoms
a)​The smallest unit of an element that retains the element’s distinctive properties;
building blocks of all matter
b)​An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms
(1)​Middle of an atom is called a nucleus (has protons/neutrons)
(2)​Some hydrogen atoms have a neutron or two
(3)​Carbon has 6 protons and electrons, if there’s an uneven amount of either
then it contributes to the change in charge
(4)​An element is defined by the number of protons in its atoms
(a)​ Every atom that has 9 protons would be a nitrogen atom
c)​“Subatomic Particles”
(1)​Protons have a positive charge
 (2)​Neutrons have a neutral charge
(3)​Electrons have a negative charge
(4)​The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus is called its atomic number and
is unique to that element
(5)​Atomic mass is how much an atom weighs (daltons)
4.​ Isotopes
a)​Two atoms of the same element that differ in their number of neutrons
b)​All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons but may differ
each in their number of neutrons
5.​ Molecules – form when two or more atoms come together
a)​Different types of chemical bonds cause molecules to form
(1)​Ionic Bonds – bond between a pos and neg ion
(a)​ Most atoms are neutral – sometimes they lose/gain an electron
(b)​Atoms with charge (pos/neg) are ions – atoms that have lost or gained
valence electrons
(c)​ Positive charged ion = cation
(d)​Negative charged ion = anion
(2)​Covalent Bonds – when two atoms share electrons
(a)​ The electrons go back and forth, sharing their electrons
(b)​Other molecules form by sharing electrons
(c)​ These bonds form biological molecules
(d)​Stronger than an ionic bond
(3)​Hydrogen Bonds – the weak electrical attraction between a hydrogen atom
with a pos charge and a neighboring atom with a neg charge
(a)​ A hydrogen bond forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one
electronegative atom is also “attracted” to another electronegative atom
(b)​Doesn’t occur between atoms but between molecules
(c)​ Electronegative (electron attracter)
(d)​Polar molecule – one is charged but the other is charge differently
(e)​ Hydrogen bonds are easy to break
b)​Organic Molecules – molecules with at least one carbon–hydrogen bond
(1)​Make up most of living matter (“carbon–based life”)
(2)​Many are chains of carbon with H, N and/or O atoms
(3)​Organic compounds – multiple organic molecules bound together
c)​Molecules that contain atoms from at least two different elements are chemical
compounds
d)​Chemical Reactions
(1)​Really important in a cell
(2)​Takes starting material, breaks their covalent bonds, rearranges the atoms,
and then forms new bonds as those atoms
 (3)​Some require energy before they occur
(4)​Some require energy when they occur
B.​Biochemistry
1.​ Biomolecules – a large organic molecule that is critical for living cells
a)​All living things are made up mostly of four classes of large biological molecules:
proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids
b)​Many are composed of thousands of covalently bonded carbon atoms
(1)​No other element is as versatile as carbon in the sheer diversity of complex
molecules that can be assembled from it
c)​Polymer – large molecule composed of smaller repeating building blocks
(1)​Smaller building blocks = monomers
d)​All biomolecules are polymers except lipids
2.​ Proteins – any major class of biomolecules built of amino acids
a)​Most numerous and versatile biomolecules
b)​Account for more than 50% of dry mass of most cells
(1)​Dry mass = removing all water from a living thing
c)​Functions include:
(1)​structural support
(2)​storage (storage molecules)
(3)​transport (moving one thing from a cell into another)
(4)​hormones
(5)​defense (immune system)
(6)​catalyzing chemical reactions (enzymes)
(a)​ Cells are constantly occurring chemical reactions
(i)​ Need help from a catalyst (enzyme)
d)​Protein monomers are called amino acids
(1)​“R” of amino acids is filled–in depending on the amino acid
e)​Protein growth​
(1)​Level 1 – polymer chain of amino acids
(2)​Level 2 – polymers fold and chain because of hydrogen bonding
(3)​Level 3 – chain folds further – caused by carbon/covalent bonding
3.​ Carbohydrates – built of repeating units of C, H and O
a)​Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars
b)​The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or single sugars
c)​Two–monomer sugars are disaccharides
d)​Carbohydrate polymers are polysaccharides composed of many sugar building
blocks
e)​Main functions are in energy storage and structural support
(1)​Glucose is the primary energy cell (breaking down sugars = energy)
(2)​Fructose is produced by plants
 (3)​Sucrose = glucose + fructose
(4)​Glycogen – animals’ stored sugar for energy
(5)​Starch – plants’ stored sugar
(6)​Chitin – exoskeleton of bugs
(7)​Cellulose – outside of plants
4.​ Nucleic Acids – store and transmit hereditary info (built of nucleotides)
a)​There are two types of nucleic acids
(1)​Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
(2)​Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
b)​Genes are made of DNA
(1)​All DNA have the same ribbons but different genetic material to read
c)​RNA has multiple functions, including assisting with protein synthesis
d)​Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides
5.​ Lipids – built of fatty acids and insoluble in water
a)​Lipids are the one class of large biomolecules that do not form polymers
b)​Fats, oils, steroids, phospholipids
c)​Hydrophobic – don’t mix well with water
d)​Functions:
(1)​Energy storage
(2)​Insulation
(3)​Form cell membranes
6.​ Polar vs Nonpolar Molecules
a)​Polar – have a charge somewhere
(1)​Contain O, N and other atoms
(2)​“Hydrophilic”
(3)​Polar molecule – electrical charge is shared unevenly, with some regions
being electrically negative and others electrically positive
(a)​ Molecules with partial positive and partial negative atoms form hydrogen
bonds with each other.
b)​Nonpolar – no charge (neutral)
(1)​Hydrocarbon (mostly hydrogen and carbon)
(2)​“Hydrophobic”
7.​ Water Solutions
a)​A compound that mixes completely with water is said to be soluble
b)​Solution – a liquid with something dissolved in it
c)​Solute – dissolved component (sugar, salt, etc)
(1)​Solutes of water solutions must be hydrophilic
d)​Solvent – liquid component
(1)​In cells this is always water; the polarity of water makes it an excellent
solvent
 8.​ Acids, Bases and pH
a)​Acid – when dissolved in water, they lose hydrogen ions (H+)
(1)​H+ concentrations are high in acid solutions
(2)​H+ is very reactive – it wants to bind with stuff
(3)​Stronger acids > higher H+ concentrations > more reactivity
b)​Bases are the opposite – they remove H+ from solutions
(1)​Accepts hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous surroundings
9.​ The pH Scale
a)​The strength of acids and bases is measured by the pH scale which goes from 0 to
14 (0 representing high H+ ions)
(1)​Acids have pH values < 7
(2)​Bases have pH values > 7
(3)​Pure water is neutral. pH = 7
(4)​Most biological fluids have pH values in the range of 6 to 8

IV.​ Life is Cellular

A.​Intro and Membranes
1.​ Cell
a)​Genome – complete set of genes of an organism
b)​Cell Theory​
(1)​All living things are composed of one or more cells
(2)​All cells come from pre–existing cells
c)​All cells have:
(1)​A plasma membrane – outer layer that separated the contents of the cell
from the outer environment
(a)​ Composed of a phospholipid bilayer
(i)​ Phospholipid – an organic molecule with a hydrophilic head and a
hydrophobic tail
(b)​Acts as a barrier and gatekeeper
(c)​ Mostly impermeable
(d)​Liposome – a sphere formed by a phospholipid bilayer
(2)​Cytoplasm – the liquid (cytosol) contained by the membrane and everything
suspended in it
(3)​DNA – hereditary material of all life
(4)​Ribosomes – protein makers
d)​There are two different major types of cells:
(1)​Prokaryotic
(a)​ Smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells
(b)​Are found in bacteria and archaea
 (c)​ All single celled
(d)​Unbound DNA
(e)​ “Prokaryotes”
(2)​Eukaryotic
(a)​ Have organelles: membrane–enclosed subunits of various function
(i)​ A nucleus where DNA is held
(b)​Found in everything else (animals, plants, fungi, protists)
(c)​ “Eukaryotes” can be single celled or multicellular
2.​ Cell Membrane
a)​Main components are phospholipids
b)​All phospholipids have
(1)​A hydrophobic “tail”
(2)​A hydrophilic “head”
(3)​The “phospholipid bilayer”
3.​ Diffusion – the spread of particles through random motion from regions of higher
concentration to regions of lower concentration
a)​“Equilibrium”
b)​Semipermeable membrane – allows molecules to cross; blocks others
4.​ Osmosis – diffusion of water; only occurs if there is semipermeable membrane
5.​ Crossing the Membrane
a)​Passive Transport = diffusion
(1)​Simple diffusion – substance passes through the phospholipid bilayer
(2)​Facilitated diffusion – substance passes through a transport protein
b)​Active Transport – substance is being moved against its concentration gradient
(low to high)
(1)​Must pass through a transport protein
(2)​Requires energy
(3)​This is not diffusion
c)​Endocytosis –
d)​Exocytosis –
B.​What’s Inside?
1.​ Eukaryotic Organelles
a)​Nucleus
(1)​Nuclear envelope
(2)​Nuclear pores
b)​Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
(1)​Smooth ER
(2)​Rough ER – ribosomes
c)​Ribosomes
d)​Golgi apparatus
 e)​Vesicles
f)​ Lysosomes
g)​Vacuoles
h)​Mitochondria
i)​ Chloroplasts
j)​ Cytoskeleton
k)​Cell Well
2.​ Nucleus – “control center”
a)​DNA storage
b)​Bound by a nuclear envelope
(1)​Double membrane (2 phospholipid bilayers)
c)​Nuclear pores – allow molecules to enter and exit
3.​ Cytoplasm
a)​All contents between the plasma membrane and nuclear envelope
b)​The organelles and anything else suspended in the cytosol
4.​ Endoplasmic Reticulum
a)​Composed of membrane folded into numerous sacs
b)​Continuous with nuclear envelope
c)​Smooth ER – lipid and hormone synthesis
d)​Rough ER – protein synthesis – ribosomes
5.​ Golgi Apparatus – “post office”
a)​Tags and packages proteins for transport
b)​Flattened membrane sacs
c)​Proteins are transported in vesicles
6.​ Lysosomes – “recycling centers”
a)​Contain enzymes that break down biomolecules
b)​Membrane–bound
7.​ Vacuoles
a)​Membrane–bound compartments of various functions
b)​Central vacuole – plant cells – support and storage
c)​Food vacuole – from phagocytosis
8.​ Endomembrane System – wow
9.​ Mitochondria – “power plant”
a)​Sites of cellular respiration
b)​Double membrane
10.​Chloroplasts
a)​Sites of photosynthesis
b)​Double membrane plus membrane–bound sacs
c)​Plants and algae
 11.​Endosymbiosis – mitochondria and chloroplasts are descended from free–living
prokaryotes
12.​Cytoskeleton – framework of tubes and filaments made of protein
a)​Provides support
b)​Assists in transport
13.​Cell Wall – extra layer of protection and support outside the plasma membrane
a)​Plant cells, fungi cells, prokaryotes, may protists
b)​Not in animal cells
c)​In plants, cell walls are composed mainly of cellulose, a polysaccharide

V.​ How Cells Work

A.​Photosynthesis
1.​ Life, Energy, and Matter
a)​Living things use energy to manipulate matter (molecules)
b)​Cells are tiny chemical factories with countless chemical reactions occurring at
any moment
c)​Metabolism – all of an organism’s chemical reactions
2.​ Metabolic Pathways
a)​Many chemical reactions are just one step of a larger metabolic pathway
b)​A metabolic pathway begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product
c)​Each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme
3.​ Enzyme Activity
a)​Substrate – specific molecule that the enzyme acts on
b)​Active site – position on the enzyme where the substrate binds
c)​Induced fit – substrate binding causes enzyme to change shape, this catalyzes the
reaction
d)​After the reaction – the enzyme is intact, it can continue to catalyze others
4.​ Metabolic Pathways
a)​Anabolism – building complex molecules – requires energy
b)​Catabolism – breaking down complex molecules – releases energy
5.​ Energy
a)​Energy – the ability to do work; comes in different forms
b)​Examples:
(1)​Kinetic – energy of motion
(2)​Light – energy from the sun
(3)​Chemical – energy of molecule’s electrons
c)​Energy can be transferred or transformed from one form into another, but it
cannot be created nor destroyed
 (1)​When any energy is transferred or transformed, some of it “leaks” away as
heat
(2)​Heat dissipates into space and can no longer fuel
6.​ Major Metabolic Pathways
a)​Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
b)​ATP – adenosine triphosphate
(1)​“Rechargeable battery” of the cell
(2)​Other “energy carriers” included NADPH, NADH and FADH2
7.​ Photosynthesis – using light energy to make sugars from CO2 and H20
a)​Oxygen is just a byproduct
b)​Energy from sunlight is transformed into chemical energy, this is locked up in the
covalent bonds of glucose
c)​Glucose is used as both a source of energy and as the foundation upon which
other biological molecules are synthesized
d)​We can summarize the pathway with a chemical equation:
(1)​6CO2 + H2 O —> (C6 H12 O6) glucose + O2
e)​Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plants
f)​ Chloroplast:
(1)​Double membrane
(2)​Thylakoids – membranous sacs
(3)​Stroma – fluid filled space outside the thylakoids
(4)​Thylakoids are green due to chlorophyll
g)​Electron transport chain (ETC) –
h)​PS = “photosystem” containing chlorophyll
i)​ Has two major steps:
(1)​Light Reactions:
(a)​ Light energy strikes PS II which splits a water molecule
(i)​ Oxygen from water is released as O2
(ii)​ Hydrogens split into protons and electrons
(a)​ H+ become part of the proton gradient
(b)​e– enter ETC
(b)​ETC: e– are passed to PS I
(i)​ Power proton pumps along the way
(a)​ Active transport of H+
(b)​Diffusion of H+ fuel ATP synthesis
(c)​ Light energy strikes PS I
(i)​ e– are excited and used to make NADPH
(d)​ATP and NADPH go on to fuel the Calvin Cycle
(2)​Calvin Cycle: CO2 goes in, sugar comes out
(a)​ Rubisco – enzyme that fixes carbon
 (b)​Fueled by ATP and NADPH from the light reactions
j)​ Glucose can be:
(1)​Stored as starch
(2)​Incorporated into cellulose (for cell walls)
(3)​Broken down to make other biomolecules
(4)​Broken down for fuel (cellular respiration)
B.​Cellular Respiration
1.​ Cellular respiration is the reciprocal pathway to photosynthesis
a)​It is catabolic
b)​It is the breakdown of glucose back into CO2
c)​Chemical energy in glucose is transferred to ATP
2.​ Glycolysis – “sugar splitting”
a)​Glucose (a 6C) sugar is split into 2 pyruvate (a 3C sugar)
b)​ATP and NADH are produced
c)​Occurs in cytoplasm
(1)​2 ATP ready for cellular work
(2)​2 NADH for oxidative phosphorylation
3.​ Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
a)​Pyruvate is broken down – CO2 is released
b)​ATP, NADH, and FADH2 produced
c)​Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
d)​ATP ready for cellular work
e)​NADH/FADH2 for oxidative phosphorylation
4.​ Oxidative Phosphorylation
a)​NADH and FADH2 transfer their electrons to the ETC
b)​Proton gradient fuels synthesis of ATP
c)​Electrons are transferred to O2 to make water
d)​Occurs in the inner membrane
5.​ Other Catabolic Pathways
a)​Most eukaryotic organisms respire using aerobic respiration
b)​Other catabolic pathways are also used by cells to make ATP
c)​Many prokaryotes can respire without oxygen, they utilize other elements (iron,
sulfur) as final electron acceptors
d)​Most eukaryotes can also rely on backup pathways when oxygen is limited
6.​ Fermentation
(1)​Glycolysis
(2)​Extra chemical reactions that replenish the supply of NAD+
b)​These extra reactions transform the pyruvate
c)​Fermentation produces only 2 ATP per glucose
d)​Less efficient than respiration
 e)​Alcoholic fermentation
f)​ Lactic acid fermentation

VI.​ Cell Division

A.​The Cell Cycle
1.​ Cell Cycle – the life of a cell from formation to its own division
a)​The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or cell division
b)​In unicellular organi, division of one cell reproduces the entire organism
c)​Multicellular organisms depend on cell division for:
(1)​Development from a fertilized egg (zygote)
(2)​Growth
(3)​Injury repair
(4)​Asexual reproduction (in some)
d)​2 Major stages:
(1)​Interphase – 90% of the cycle.
(a)​ Cell grows, takes in nutrients, produces biomolecules, performs special
functions
(2)​Cell division – cells go through the steps necessary to divide in two
e)​Interphase is further divided into three phrases:
(1)​G1 (gap 1)
(a)​ First phase of a new cell
(b)​Grows to full size
(c)​ Normal cell functions
(2)​S (synthesis)
(a)​ Cells begin preparations for division
(b)​DNA is copied (synthesized)
(3)​G2 (gap 2)
(a)​ Final preparations for division
f)​ Not all cells complete the cycle
(1)​Some cells may “step out” of the cycle during G1
(2)​These cells are said to be in the G0 – a nondividing state
(3)​The time cells spend in the G0 varies
(a)​ Some cells never leave it (muscle cells/neurons)
2.​ Cell Division and DNA
a)​Most cell division results in daughter cells with identical DNA
b)​DNA is associated with special proteins to form chromatin
c)​A eukaryotic cells’ chromatin is divided among several chromosomes
d)​Prokaryotes have a singular circular chromosome
3.​ Eukaryotic Chromosomes
 a)​Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell
nucleus
b)​Humans have 46 (23 pairs)
c)​In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and chromosomes condense
d)​Each duplicated chromosome has 2 sister chromatids that separate during cell
division
e)​The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the duplicated chromosome, where the
two chromatids are attached
4.​ Cell Division Steps
a)​Mitosis – division of the nucleus
(1)​4 major steps:
(a)​Prophase
(b)​Metaphase
(c)​ Anaphase
(d)​Telophase
b)​Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm and plasma membrane
(1)​Begins in late telophase
c)​Before Mitosis:
(1)​Nuclear envelope is still in place
(2)​Chromosomes are replicated by remain uncondensed
5.​ Mitosis
a)​Prophase
(1)​Chromosomes begin to condense into distinct units
(2)​Each chromosome consists of two identical “sister chromatids”
(3)​Mitotic spindle begins to form
(4)​Nuclear envelope breaks down
b)​Metaphase
(1)​Nuclear envelope is gone
(2)​Spindle fibers attached to chromosomes
(3)​Chromosomes are lined up at the metaphase “plate”
(4)​For each chromosome, each sister chromatid is attached to an opposite pole
by spindle fibers
c)​Anaphase
(1)​Sister chromatids separate – are now considered daughter chromosomes
(2)​Spindle fibers shorten – pulling the chromosomes toward the poles
(3)​Phase ends with a complete complement of chromosomes at each poles
d)​Telophase
(1)​Nuclear envelopes reform around the two new nuclei
(2)​Chromosomes begin to decondense
(3)​Spindle disappears
 (4)​Cytokinesis begins
6.​ Cytokinesis
a)​Cytoplasm, including organelles, is divided equally
b)​Plasma membrane pinches in two
c)​Each cell is genetically identical to each other and the original parent cell
7.​ Binary Fission
a)​Prokaryotes (bacteria) reproduce by a type of cell division called BF
b)​In BF, the chromosome replicates and the two daughter chromosomes separate as
the cell is dividing in two
8.​ Regulation of the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
a)​The timing and rates of cell division in different parts of an organism are crucial
for normal growth, development and maintenance
b)​The frequency of cell division varies with cell type
(1)​Some human cells divide frequently through life (skin cells)
(2)​Other human cells have the ability to divide but keep it in reserve (liver cells)
(3)​Mature nerve and muscle cells don’t appear to divide after maturity
9.​ The Cell Cycle Checkpoints
a)​The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct cell cycle control
system regulated by both internal and external signs
b)​The system has specific checkpoints where the cell cycle stops until a go–ahead
signal is received at that point
(1)​G1/S checkpoint – pauses if cell size or nutrition is inadequate
(2)​G2/M checkpoint – pauses if cell size or nutrition is not good, DNA is
damaged or DNA replication is incomplete
(3)​Spindle checkpoint – pauses if all chromosome centromeres aren’t attached
to spindle fiber
10.​Cancer cells
a)​Don’t obey the checkpoints and divide uncontrollably – forming tumors
b)​Mutations may accumulate rapidly
c)​Tumors that remain at their original location are termed benign and can usually
be safely removed
d)​Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize, exporting
cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form additional tumors.
B.​Sex Cells
1.​ Mitotic Cell Division
a)​During the S phase, mitosis begins, ends in the G1 phase
b)​The cell has been cloned, all are genetically identical
2.​ Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
a)​In asexual reproduction, one parent produces genetically identical offspring by
mitosis
 b)​A clone is an individual genetically identical to a single parent
c)​In sexual reproduction, two parents give rise to offspring that have unique
combinations of genes inherited from the two parents
3.​ Heredity – the transmission of traits from one generation to the next
a)​Children do not literally inherit particular physical traits from their parents, they
inherit genes
b)​Genes – units of heredity; made up of segments of DNA
(1)​Passed to the next generation through reproductive cells called gametes
(sperm and eggs)
4.​ Sets of Chromosomes
a)​Genes are located on chromosomes
b)​Human somatic cells (any cell other than a gamete (reproductive)) have 23 pairs
of chromosomes (46 chromosomes total)
c)​The two chromosomes in each pair are called homologous chromosomes, or
homologs
d)​Homologous chromosomes are the same length and carry the same genes in the
same position which control the same inherited characters
e)​Alleles – different versions of the same gene
f)​ A person’s blood type is determined by which 2 alleles they have
(1)​If both copies are the same – homozygous
(2)​If they are different – heterozygous
5.​ Ploidy – refers to the number of chromosome sets a cell has
a)​A diploid cell (2n) has 2 sets of chromosomes
b)​For humans, the diploid number is 46 (2n = 46)
(1)​Somatic cells
c)​A haploid cell (n) contains a single set of chromosomes
d)​For humans, the haploid number is 23 (n = 23)
(1)​Gametes
(2)​Formed by a type of cell division called meiosis
6.​ Ploidy in the Human Life Cycle
a)​At sexual maturity, the diploid ovaries and testes produce haploid gametes
(meiosis)
b)​Fertilization is the union of gametes (the sperm and the egg)
c)​The fertilized egg is called a zygote and has one set of chromosomes from each
parent. It is diploid
d)​The diploid zygote produces somatic cells by mitosis and develops into a baby
human and grows into an adult
7.​ Meiosis
a)​Cell division that results in gametes
b)​Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by the replication of chromosomes
 c)​Meiosis has 2 rounds of cell division: meiosis I and meiosis II
d)​The result is 4 daughter cells
e)​Each daughter cell has only half as many chromosomes as the parent cell
8.​ The Stages of Meiosis
a)​Meiosis I – separation of homologous chromosomes
(1)​Results in 2 haploid daughter cells with replicated chromosomes
b)​Meiosis II – sister chromatids separate
(1)​Results in 4 haploid daughter cells with unreplicated chromosomes

9.​ Meiosis I – preceded by DNA synthesis, in which chromosomes are replicated to

form sister chromatids
a)​Division in meiosis I occurs in 4 phases:
(1)​Prophase I
(a)​ Typically occupies more than 90% of the time required for meiosis
(b)​Chromosomes begin to condense
(c)​ Homologous chromosomes pair up (4 chromatids)
(2)​Metaphase I
(a)​ Paired homologous chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate
(3)​Anaphase I
(a)​ Homologous chromosomes separate from each other and are pulled to
opposite poles by spindle fibers
(4)​Telophase I and Cytokinesis
(a)​ Two haploid cells are formed
(b)​Each chromosomes consists of 2 chromatids
10.​Meiosis II
a)​There is no DNA replication between meiosis I and meiosis II
b)​Division in meiosis II also occurs in 4 phases:
(1)​Prophase II
(2)​Metaphase II
(3)​Anaphase II
(4)​Telophase II and Cytokinesis
c)​Same as mitosis, just with half the number of chromosomes
11.​Genetic Variation – genetic traits come in many different forms
 a)​Not just in appearance:
(1)​Behavior
(2)​Physiology
(3)​Biochemistry
b)​More capable of adapting to change
12.​Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring
a)​Meiosis and fertilization –> responsible for most of the genetic variation that
arises in each generation
b)​3 mechanisms contribute to genetic variation
(1)​Independent assortment of chromosomes
(a)​ Homologous pairs of chromosomes orient randomly during metaphase I
(b)​Each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologues into
daughter cells independently of other parts
(c)​ So, a cell with a haploid number of 2 can make a total of 4 different
chromosome combinations in the gametes
(d)​For humans (n = 23), there are more than 8 million (2^23) possible
combinations of chromosomes
(2)​Crossing over
(a)​ In crossing over, non–sister chromatids exchange DNA segments
(b)​Contributes to genetic variation by combining DNA from both parents into
a single chromosome (recombination)
(c)​ Recombinants – new combinations of traits on the same chromo
(3)​Random fertilization
(a)​ Adds to genetic variation because any sperm can fuse with any egg
(b)​Two humans can generate over 70 trillion possible chromosome
combinations in an offspring just because of independent assortment and
random fertilization
(c)​ Crossing over adds even more variation
(d)​Each zygote has a unique genetic identity

VII.​ Chapter 7
A.​Mendelian Genetics
1.​ Genetics
a)​Gregor Mendel
(1)​Augustinian friar
(2)​1850’s and 60’s in modern day Czech Republic
(3)​Conducted observational experiments with pea plants
b)​How are traits transferred from one generation to the next?
c)​Trait – any inherited characteristic of an organism (physical, behavioral)
 d)​Mendel had access to different pea varieties – that differed in some trait
e)​Typical experiment of Mendel:
(1)​Start with true–breeding plants that differ in one trait. These are designated
to the “P” generation
(2)​Cross the two different varieties – hybridization
(3)​Collect and plant the seeds – “F1” (first filial) generation
(4)​Cross (or self) F1 individuals to produce an “F2”
(5)​Keep meticulous notes about the plant’s traits
(6)​F1 – all purple
(7)​White flowers returned in the F2
(8)​Heritable factor for white flowers was never lost
(9)​It was masked by the purple factor
(10)​Purple trait is dominant; white trait is recessive
f)​ Furthermore, no matter which trait he was experimenting with, the F2 consistently
resulted in: (3:1 ratio)
(1)​¾ with the dominant trait
(2)​¼ with the recessive trait
2.​ Mendel’s Model
a)​Alt versions of heritable factors account for the variation in inherited traits
b)​For each trait, an organism inherits two copies of the factor, one from each parent
c)​If the two copies are different, one is dominant and the other is recessive
d)​In modern terms:
(1)​Genes = heritable factors
(2)​Alleles = alternative versions
(3)​Locus – a gene’s position on the chromosome
3.​ Mendel’s First Law
a)​Law of Segregation – during gamete formation (meiosis), the two copies of a
gene segregate from each other and end up in different gametes
b)​Today we know exactly why this happens (anaphase I)
4.​ Genetics Terminology
a)​Genotype – the specific alleles/genetic makeup of an organism
b)​Phenotype – the trait the organism has due to its genotype
c)​Homozygous – both copies of a gene are the same allele
d)​Heterozygous – two different alleles
B.​Complex Traits
1.​ Back to Mendel…
a)​The F1’s of such a cross (DdDd) are monohybrids - individuals heterozygous for
a single trait; a cross between monohybrids is called a monohybrid cross
 b)​His second “law of inheritance” would come from following two different traits at
the same time; a dihybrid cross can determine if two traits are transmitted to an
offspring together or independently (both possible)
2.​ Example of Dihybrid
a)​Imagine there is a Yellow (Y) and green (y) color; as well as Round ® and
wrinkled (r) texture. YyRr would be the F1 dihybrid (gametes Yr, Yr, yR, yr)
b)​A pure-bred dihybrid cross results in offspring forming a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio
c)​Mendel’s 2nd law: Law of Independent Assortment
(1)​Segregating alleles separate independently of other genes
3.​ Extending Mendelian Genetics
a)​Mendel was lucky by his choice of plant
(1)​Peas are genetically simple
(2)​The traits he chose are controlled by a single gene
(3)​Each gene has only 2 alleles, 1 of which is completely dominant to the other
(4)​Each gene was on a different chromosome
b)​The relationship between genotype & phenotype is rarely that simple
4.​ Multiple Alleles
a)​Most genes have more than just 2 alleles
b)​For example, the ABO blood type system in humans is determined by 3 alleles:
(1)​IA
(2)​IB
(3)​i
c)​Notice they are represented by the same letter
d)​An individual’s phenotype (blood type) is determined by which two alleles they
have and how those alleles interact
5.​ Codominance - alleles are expressed equally in heterozygotes
a)​Are expressed at the same time
b)​IA and IB are codominant with each other; dominant to i
(1)​Blood | Genotype
A IAIA or IAi

B IBIB or IBi

AB IAIB

O ii
 c)​In cattle, roan coat (red and white speckled) is caused by the codominant alleles
for red and white hair color
6.​ Incomplete dominance
a)​Heterozygote shows an intermediate, blended phenotype
b)​Not a true dominant- recessive situation
c)​Monohybrid crosses result in a 1:2:1 ratio
7.​ Pleiotropy
a)​Most genes are pleiotropic
(1)​One gene affects more than one phenotypic character
(a)​ Ex. sickle cell disease - a single gene can cause blindness, liver failure,
heart attack, etc
8.​ Epistasis
a)​Expression of one gene masks expression of another
(1)​Pigment present: E (yes), e (no)
(2)​Color of pigment: B (black), b (chocolate)
(3)​When no pigment is present, you get a golden dog
9.​ Polygenic inheritance
a)​Traits can vary in the population along a continuum
b)​Usually indicates polygenic inheritance
(1)​An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotype
(2)​Ex. skin color

VIII.​ Chapter 8
A.​Chromosomes
1.​ Chromosomal system of sex determination
a)​Sex and Gender
(1)​Sex is assigned at birth and is the result of specific chromosome
combinations and the expression of genes on those chromosomes.
(2)​Certain atypical conditions during development can result in babies with
“intersex” characteristics.
(3)​As an introductory biology class, our focus will be on the issue of sex
b)​Biological definitions:
(1)​Males are individuals with testes that produce sperm
(2)​Females are individuals with ovaries that produce eggs
c)​Human karyotype - someone’s complete set of chromosomes
(1)​The main 22 autosomal chromosomes - autosomes
(2)​The two sex chromosomes (XY)
2.​ Human X chromosome
a)​Many genes like an autosome
 (1)​Mutations:
(a)​ Hemophilia
(b)​Duchenne muscular dystrophy
(c)​ Color-blindness
b)​Sex-linked traits:
(1)​Usually means “x-linked”
(2)​More than 60 diseases traced to genes on X chromosome
3.​ Human Y chromosome
a)​SRY: sex-determining region Y
(1)​Turns on genes for production of male hormones
b)​PAR: pseudoautosomal region
(1)​Helps pairing up with the X chromosome during prophase I
c)​A few dozen other genes
4.​ Sex-linked (human) traits
a)​X-linked (gene is on the X chromosome)
(1)​Since males have only one X chromosome
(a)​ That single allele determines their phenotype
(b)​There is nothing to be dominant to it
(2)​Males get their X from their mother
(3)​Trait is never passed from father to son
b)​Y-linked
(1)​Very few genes/traits
(2)​Trait is only passed from father to son
(3)​Females cannot inherit trait
5.​ Recessive traits:
a)​Genes code for proteins
b)​Recessive alleles often code for either a malfunctioning protein or no protein at all
(1)​Why are brown eyes dominant to blue?
(2)​B allele codes for an enzyme that makes brown pigment
(3)​b allele is null allele - it doesn’t do anything
(4)​Heterozygotes (Bb) have the normal phenotype because on “normal” allele
produces enough of the required protein
(a)​ Referred to as “carriers”
6.​ Genetic Disorders:
a)​Diseases caused by defective genes
(1)​Usually caused by recessive alleles
(2)​If both parents are carriers - 25% chance of having a child with disorder
b)​Disorders caused by dominant alleles are less common
(1)​These individuals rarely live long enough to pass on the allele
(2)​Many result from new mutations
 7.​ Chromosome Abnormalities
a)​Change in chromosomes number
(1)​The whole set
(2)​One pair
b)​Change in chromosome structure
c)​Locus - position on the chromosome of a particular gene (plural: loci)
8.​ Changes in Chromosome Number
a)​Polyploidy
(1)​More than two complete set of chromosomes (triploid or tetraploid)
(2)​Common in pants, but not animals
(3)​Many food plants are polyploid
b)​Aneuploidy
(1)​Incorrect number of a single chromosome (more or less) - 3 instead of 2
(2)​Caused by errors in meiosis called nondisjunctions
(a)​ Nondisjunction - error in anaphase 1 or 2
(b)​Can result in baby having the wrong chromosome number
(i)​ Trisomy - cells have 3 copies of a chromosome
(ii)​ Monosomy - cells only have 1 copy of a chromosome
9.​ Down Syndrome
a)​Trisomy 21
(1)​3 copies of chromosome 21
(2)​1 in 700 children born in the U.S>
10.​Sex Chromosomes Abnormalities
a)​Human development is more tolerant of aneuploidy in the sex chromosomes
b)​These produce a variety of distinct syndromes
(1)​XXY = Klinefelter’s syndrome
(2)​XXX = Trisomy X
(3)​XO = Turner syndrome
(4)​XXY = Jacob’s syndrome
11.​Changes in Chromosome Structure
a)​Deletion – loss of a chromosomal segment
b)​Duplication – repeat a segment
c)​Inversion – reverses a segment
d)​Translocation – move segment from one chromosome to another

IX.​ What Genes Are

A.​DNA Structure
1.​ What are genes made of?
a)​Chromosomes follow the same patterns of segregation and assortment as Mendel
 b)​Chromosomes are composed of nucleic acids and protein
2.​ DNA is the hereditary material
a)​DNA must be present for transformation​
(1)​Protein and RNA didn’t matter for transformation
b)​Therefore, DNA must be the hereditary material
3.​ Nucleotides - the building blocks of DNA
a)​Nitrogenous bases
(1)​Pyrimidines
(a)​Cytosine (C)
(b)​Thymine (T) - DNA
(2)​Purines
(a)​Adenine (A)
(b)​Guanine (G)
b)​Sugars
(1)​Deoxyribose (DNA)
4.​ Chargaff’s rules
a)​In 1950, Erwin Chargaff studied the DNA of different organisms- the amounts of
the different nitrogenous bases (A, C, G, T) in an organism
b)​Two findings became known as Chargaff’s rules
(1)​The base composition of DNA varies among species
(2)​In any species, the number of A and T bases are equal, and the number of G
and C bases are equal as well
5.​ The DNA polymer “strand”
a)​Has a sugar-phosphate backbone
b)​Nucleotides are connected through covalent bonds
c)​The two DNA polymers run antiparallel (5’ end to 3’ end) to each other and are
connected by hydrogen bonds between the bases (double helix)
6.​ Base Pairing
a)​Pyrimidine - Purine: hydrogen bond
b)​Thymine - Adenine: 2 bonds
c)​Cytosine - Guanine: 3 bonds
7.​ Importance of the Double Helix
a)​Explains DNA replication
b)​Existing strands of DNA could serve as a template for production of new strands
c)​Bases would be added to the new strands according to commentary base pairing
d)​DNA structure allows DNA to replicate itself
e)​DNA replication is semiconservative
8.​ RNA (ribonucleic acid)
a)​Nitrogenous bases
(1)​Pyrimidines
 (a)​ Cytosine (C)
(b)​Uracil (U) - RNA
(2)​Purines
(a)​ Adenine (A)
(b)​Guanine (G)
b)​Sugars
(1)​Ribose (RNA) - extra oxygen
c)​RNA polymers are single stranded (no double helix)
d)​They fold up on themselves ia base-pairing into various complex structures
e)​RNA structures play several roles in gene expression and other cellular activities
B.​DNA Replication
1.​ DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid
a)​Base Pairs:
(1)​A-T
(2)​C-G
b)​The 2 strands are held together by hydrogen-bonding between the bases
c)​The strands are oriented antiparallel to each other
2.​ DNA Replication
a)​S phase of the cell cycle
(1)​Results in sister chromatids
b)​Also occurs when viruses hijack cells
(1)​Use the cell’s machinery to duplicate their viral genome
(2)​New viruses are produced
3.​ Origins of Replication - A DNA sequence where DNA replication is initiated
(The proteins then break the hydrogen bonds connecting the two strands of DNA)
a)​DNA polymerase - enzyme that adds new nucleotides
b)​RNA primer - starting point for polymerization
c)​Helicase - “unzips” the double helix
(1)​Each separated strand is then used as a template for the construction of a new
strand of DNA. DNA polymerase - a key enzyme in the replication of DNA
- builds a new strand of DNA by first connecting to a primer, and then
adding one complementary nucleotide after another
d)​Primer - A short chain of nucleotides near the origin of replication
e)​Semiconservative replication - each replicated DNA molecule is half old and
half newly synthesized (adjusts to modifications, repairs DNA); the template
strand is retained in each new double helix
f)​ Since the template strands are antiparallel to each other, polymerization of one of
the strands is more complex and must be done in multiple short fragments
g)​Leading strand -
h)​Lagging strand -
 4.​ PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) - a laboratory procedure that amplifies specific
DNA sequences; can produce millions of copies in just a few hours
Ex. A small blood sample from a crime scene will have some, but very little DNA
in it. Investigators can focus on a small part (sequence) of one chromosome that
is highly variable among people. Using PCR, they can amplify that sequence,
turning a few dozen copies into several billion.
a)​Primers - target the specific sequence to be amplified
b)​Taq polymerase - DNA polymerase harvested from thermophilic bacteria
c)​Thermocycler - can change the temperature of the reaction very fast
d)​Each PCR cycle →→→→→→→→→→→→→→→→
(1)​2 DNA strands separate
(2)​Primers attach
(3)​Polymerase make a new strand
C.​Mutation and Repair
1.​ Proofreading and Repairing DNA
a)​Occasionally an incorrect nucleotide pair is made (mismatch)
(1)​E.g. A-C pair, or G-T pair
(2)​1 in 100,000 base pairs are mismatch
b)​Fortunately, most mismatches are caught by DNA polymerase which proofreads
as it synthesis. But still, DNA poly doesn’t catch every mistake
(1)​1 in 100 million base pair errors make it through
(2)​Other repair mechanisms reduce the number of errors to 1 per 1 billion
2.​ Repairing DNA
a)​Special proteins inspect the newly synthesized DNA strands
b)​Errors are tagged to attract repair enzymes
c)​The damaged sequence is cut out
d)​A repair polymerase fills in the missing nucleotides
3.​ Mutations - Errors that escape proofreading and mismatch repair become permanent
a)​Mutations - a change in one or more nucleotides
b)​Can affect the expression of genes
c)​Source of new alleles when they precede meiosis
4.​ Point Mutations - affect a single nucleotide
a)​Substitution - nucleotide is changed
b)​Insertion - a new nucleotide in inserted
c)​Deletion - a nucleotide is deleted
d)​Other types of mutations can occur which affect multiple nucleotides and even
whole chromosomes at once

X.​ Chapter 10
 A.​Reading DNA
1.​
B.​Making Proteins

XI.​ Chapter 11
A.​Evolution & Natural Selection
1.​ Biological Evolution - changes in the characteristics of a population over time
a)​Changes occur between generations
b)​Changes are typically very minor and indetectable
c)​Over thousands/millions of generations, these changes accumulate to produce
extreme phenotypic differences between ancestors and their descendants
d)​Populations evolve - individuals do not
e)​The subject of evolution can be approached at different scales
(1)​Small scale - from generation to generation
(a)​Microevolution
(b)​Allele frequencies
(2)​Large scale - ancestor and descendent species
(a)​Macroevolution
(b)​Phylogenetic trees
2.​ Microevolution
a)​Think of a population as a gene pool
(1)​All the different genes
(2)​All the different alleles of those genes
(3)​The relative frequencies of the alleles
3.​ Macroevolution
a)​What causes it?
(1)​Many, many years of microevolution
(2)​Some alleles going extinct
(3)​New alleles arising through mutation
4.​ Mechanisms of Evolution
a)​What causes the shift in allele frequencies?
(1)​There are a few different mechanisms
(2)​The main one is natural selection
b)​The environment “selects” who gets to reproduce and pass on their genes
c)​Survival of the fittest
d)​Fitness - ability to survive AND reproduce
 5.​ Natural selection - the process by which individuals with advantageous genetic
characteristics for a particular environment survive and reproduce at a higher rate
than do individuals with other
B.​Evidence For Evolution
1.​ Evolution - change in the overall inherited characteristics of a group of organisms
over multiple generations
a)​Artificial Selection - humans decide which individuals contribute to future
generations (such as dog breeds - aka selective breeding)
b)​Adaptation - an evolutionary process by which a population becomes better
matched to its environment over time
2.​ Fossil Evidence
a)​Fossils - mineralized remains of organisms or impressions made by them
b)​Transitional fossils - organisms that exhibit traits of both ancestral and
descendant groups present to relation
c)​Biogeography - the geographic locations where organisms (fossils) are found
3.​ Shared Characteristics
a)​Homologous Trait - trait shared by different species because they both inherited
it from their common ancestor.
(1)​Identifying homologous traits helps us to determine the relationships of
different organisms throughout history
b)​Analogous Trait - trait shared by different species because they both evolved a
similar adaption (not due to common ancestry)
(1)​These traits do not help us determine relationships and can even be
misleading. (Bat, eagle and bee all have wing shapes but are not related)
c)​Vestigial Traits - inherited remnants of formerly used characteristics, but not now
(1)​Pelvic bones in some whales and snakes
(2)​Eyes of cave fish
(3)​Human tail bone
d)​Embryonic Development - common patterns of embryonic development

XII.​ Chapter 12
A.​Evolution & Natural Selection
1.​ Natural Selection​
a)​Genetic Variation - traits under selection must be variable and heritable
b)​Selective Pressure - environmental conditions that make some individuals more
fit than others
c)​Differential Reproduction - individuals with the best traits pass them onto the
next generation, more so than individuals with lesser traits
2.​ Charles Darwin
 a)​Developed the idea of natural selection as the mechanisms for evolution
b)​Published his ideas in 1859: “On the Origin of Species”
c)​Influenced by:
(1)​Observations of nature all over the world
(2)​Domestic plants and animals
(3)​Geology
(4)​Economics
3.​ Other notable evolutionary thinkers
a)​Jean Baptiste Lamarck - proposed a different mechanisms for evolution
(1)​“Inheritance of acquired characteristics”
(2)​We now know that this is mechanism is incorrect
(3)​Individuals do NOT evolve
b)​Alfred Russel Wallace - developed the idea of natural selection independently
4.​ Patterns of Natural Selection
a)​Directional selection - Individuals at one extreme of an inherited phenotypic trait
have an advantage over other individual in the population (go to one extreme)
b)​Disruptive selection - Individuals with either extreme of an inherited trait have
an advantage over individuals with an intermediate phenotype
c)​Stabilizing selection - Individuals with intermediate values of an inherited
phenotypic trait have an advantage (aka birth weight)
B.​Evolution of Genes & Populations
1.​ Mechanics of Evolution
a)​Mutation - ultimate source of new alleles; variation for natural selection
b)​Gene Flow
(1)​We think of a population as a gene pool
(2)​Migrants from one population to another alter the allele frequencies
c)​Genetic Drift
(1)​Changes in allele frequencies due to random chance
(2)​Selection plays no role
(3)​Impacts smaller populations more than larger ones
(4)​Two special cases of genetic drift:
(a)​Genetic bottleneck
(i)​ Drastic drop in population size due to random event
(ii)​ Results in lower genetic diversity
(b)​Founder effect
(i)​ Small subset of the population colonizes a new area
(ii)​ New population has lower genetic diversity
(5)​These special cases can have detrimental effects on populations:
(a)​ Lower genetic diversity
(b)​Higher frequency of harmful alleles
 (c)​ Higher frequency of homozygous recessive genotypes
2.​ Adaptations
a)​Of all the mechanisms for evolution, only natural selection is adaptive
b)​Changes that occur via natural selection to make the average individual better
suited to their environment.
c)​Changes that occur via mutation, gene flow and drift not as much, but they
provide the diversity that natural selection acts on
3.​ Sexual Selection - selection for traits that improve reproductive success
a)​Male competition
(1)​Direct or indirect
(2)​Whoever fathers the most is the most fit
b)​Female choice
(1)​Invest more into reproduction
(2)​Larger but fewer gametes
c)​Sexual dimorphism - differences in male and female appearance

XIII.​ Species, Evolutionary Trees, & Taxonomic Classification

A.​Adaptation and Speciation
1.​ Species - a group of individuals:
a)​Descend from a common ancestral population
b)​Can successfully breed with each other, but not with individuals of other species
c)​Maintain phenotypic/genotypic cohesion (they look similar/have the same genes)
2.​ Biological Species Concept: a group of natural populations capable of interbreeding
and producing fertile offspring but cannot breed with other such groups
a)​Doesn’t work with asexual organisms
b)​Doesn’t work with fossils
3.​ Species come from preexisting species
a)​Populations can also split into 2 species via speciation
4.​ Speciation
a)​If gene flow stops between two populations, new species arise
b)​Reproductive isolation - barriers prevent populations from interbreeding
c)​Allopatric speciation - The formation of new species from geographically
isolated populations
B.​The History of Life
1.​ Taxonomy - science of classifying living things
a)​Current system is based on that developed by Linnaes in the 1700’s
(1)​Binomial nomenclature
(a)​ A species is identified by its genus and species
(b)​Genus being homo but us being sapiens
 (2)​Nested categories - the linnaean hierarchy
(a)​ Species is the smallest category of the Linnaean system of classification
2.​ Phylogenetic Trees - show evolutionary relationships of different organisms
a)​Clade - an ancestor and all its descendants
b)​Node - the moment in time when an ancestral group split into two separate
lineages; represents the most recent common ancestor of two lineages

c)​Shared derived trait - a unique feature common to all members of a group

3.​ Three domains of life:

a)​Bacteria - harmless inhabitants of our intestines and the environment
b)​Archaea - single-celled organisms, some in harsh environments
c)​Eukarya - other living organisms, from amoebas to plants to fungi to animals; are
split into three distinct kingdoms and protists (not belonging to kingdoms)
(1)​Plantae - plants
(2)​Fungi - mushrooms, molds, yeasts
(3)​Animalia - all animals

XIV.​ Single-Celled Life

A.​Prokaryotes
1.​ Prokaryotes
a)​Bacteria and Archaea
(1)​Microscopic (microbes are microscopic organisms)
(2)​Simple cells - no membrane-bound organelles
(3)​DNA in a single loop
b)​Most abundant life forms
(1)​Number of species (2/3)
(2)​Number of individuals (5 nonillion)
c)​Very high reproductive rate (10-30 minutes)
d)​Contain:
(1)​Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes
 (2)​DNA - small genome, no introns
(3)​Cell wall - extra protective layer
(4)​Capsule - helps elude immune systems
(5)​Pili - for sticking to things/each other
(6)​Flagellum - motility
e)​Come in a variety of different shapes
2.​ Archaea
a)​Differ from bacteria in a few significan ways
b)​Share traits with eukaryotes (chromosome structure)
c)​Many are extremophiles (organism in extreme environments)
(1)​Thermophiles - can live in extremely hot environments
(2)​Halophiles - can live in salty environments
3.​ Many bacteria and archaean species are anaerobic
a)​Don’t require oxygen - it may even be poisonous to them
b)​Respiration with a different final electron acceptor
c)​Fermentation
d)​They also have quorum sensing
4.​ Metabolism - living things can be categorized as either:
a)​Autotrophs - can produce their own food
(1)​Get carbon from CO2
(2)​Photosynthesis in plants
b)​Heterotrophs - must eat
(1)​Get carbon from organic matter
(2)​Animals, fungi
5.​ Some types of bacteria can undergo sporulation - the formation of thick-walled
dormant structures called spores (bomb shelters, can survive boiling/freezing)
B.​Eukaryotes
1.​ Eukaryotic Cells
a)​DNA enclosed in a membrane-bound nucleus
b)​Multiple other specialized organelles
c)​10 times larger diameter than prokaryotic cells
d)​1000 times more volume
2.​ Protists do not form a single group. They come from several groups, defined simply
as not being animals, plants or fungi.
a)​Most protists are single-celled
b)​Some actually take multicellular form but not as complex as plants and animals
c)​Grouped together because they are not plants, animals or fungi but include
amoebas and algae (are not in the three kingdoms of eukarya)
3.​ Protozoans - heterotrophic and motile
a)​Eat by engulfing smaller cells
 b)​Move by
(1)​Flagellum - long whiplike structures which spin like a propeller to push the
bacterium through liquid.
(2)​Cilia - a carpet of tiny hairlike extensions
(3)​Pseudopodia - false feet
c)​Algae - autotrophic (photosynthetic)
(1)​Some are multicellular (colonial)
(2)​Some are motile
d)​Choanoflagellates - closest living relatives of the animal kingdom

XV.​ Plants and Fungi

A.​Plants
1.​ Plants - multicellular autotrophs that are mostly terrestrial (plantae kingdom)
a)​Multicellular -
b)​Eukaryotic -
c)​Autotrophic -
d)​Terrestrial -
e)​Plant cells have walls composed of cellulose, strengthened by lignin
2.​ Anatomy of a typical plant
a)​Made up of two main body parts:
(1)​A shoot system - above ground, composed of stems and leaves
(2)​A root system - below ground, composed of roots
b)​Roots, stems and leaves are considered the 3 basic plant organs
(1)​Roots, major functions:
(a)​ Anchor the plant in the ground
(b)​Absorb minerals and water
(c)​ Store organic nutrients
(2)​Stems, main function is to elongate and orient the shoot to maximize:
(a)​ Photosynthesis - positioning leaves towards the sun above neighbor plants
(b)​Reproduction - facilitating dispersal of pollen and seeds ;
(3)​Leaves, usually very broad and flat; main function is photosynthesis
(a)​ Capture light - broad surface area maximizes light capture
(b)​Exchange gas with atmosphere - allow easy diffusion of gasses
3.​ Plant diversity - the different groups of plants alive today still illustrate some of the
evolutionary steps taken since plants arose
4.​ Plants are evolved from green algae and are split into 4 major groups
(1)​Bryophytes - group of nonflowering plants including liverworts and moss
(a)​ Small
(b)​Leaves have no veins
 (c)​ Rhizoids - root-like structures anchor the plant
(i)​ Water absorption is mostly through the leaves
(d)​Rely on diffusion to move water and nutrients
b)​Vascular plants - All plants except bryophytes
(a)​ Vascular tissue - leaf veins (stems and roots)
(b)​Xylem - water and minerals
(c)​ Phloem - sugar and other organic products
(2)​Ferns - seedless vascular plant
(a)​ Over 10,000 different fern species
(b)​Reproduced with spores
c)​Seed plants - most plants produce seeds
(1)​Seed - plant embryo + nutrient supply in protective coating
(a)​ A seed forms from an ovule that has been fertilized
(i)​ Ovule - part of the plant that contains the egg cell
(b)​Sperm is transported by pollen grains
(c)​ Pollen and seeds are more resilient than spores
(2)​Seed plants are divided into two major groups:
(3)​Gymnosperms - naked-seeded plants
(a)​ Bear “naked” seeds, typically on cones
(i)​ Ovules are not enclosed by a fruit but lie exposed
(b)​Most gymnosperms are conifers
(i)​ Mostly evergreen
(ii)​ Mostly large trees
(iii)​ Dominate boreal forests
(4)​Angiosperms - flowering plants
(a)​ Plants that produce flowers and fruit
(i)​ Flowers - aid in pollination
(ii)​ Fruit - the thickened ovary of a flower - aids in seed dispersal
(b)​There are over 250,000 species - 90% of living plants
B.​Fungi
1.​ Fungi - distinguished by their modes of reproduction; absorptive heterotrophs
a)​Multicellular (some unicellular) -
b)​Eukaryotic -
c)​Heterotrophic - must find food and eat
(1)​Many feed by secreting enzymes that break down organic matter
d)​May be decomposers, parasites, and/or symbionts
2.​ Fungi Structure
a)​Hairlike threads make up the fungi called hyphae - long chains of connected cells
b)​The bundle of hyphae composing of the main body of the fungus (usually
underground) is called mycelium
 c)​The fruiting body is at the top of the fungi (mushroom shape), releases offspring
as sexual spores (will sprout to produce more organisms)
d)​Cells are haploid
e)​Cell walls composed of a strong, flexible polysaccharide
f)​ Some fungi known as yeasts grow as single cells
3.​ Mycorrhizae - fungi and plant roots
4.​ Lichens (Endophytic) - fungi and algae
5.​ There are three main groups of fungi
a)​Zygomycetes - Molds
b)​Ascomycetes - Sac fungi
c)​Basidiomycetes - Club fungi

XVI.​ Animal Life

A.​Invertebrates
1.​ Animals are multicellular heterotrophs
a)​Ingest food
b)​Mostly mobile
c)​No cell wall
d)​Diploid
e)​Mostly insects!
2.​ Body Symmetry
a)​Radial symmetry - An animal body plan in which the body can be sliced along
any number of vertical plants that pass through the center of the animal
b)​Bilateral symmetry - An animal body plan in which the body can be divided by
just one plan passing vertically from the top to the bottom of the animal in two
halves that mirror each other
3.​ Sponges
a)​Sedentary - Not migrating; sitting
b)​Aquatic - in water
c)​Filter feeders - water passes through their bodies, and food particles are filtered
d)​Very simple body plan compared to other animals
4.​ Cnidarians - jellyfish, anemones, corals
a)​Sedentary or mobile
b)​Predatory
c)​Cnidocytes - stinging cells
d)​Medusa (free floating) or polyp (attached to a surface) form
5.​ Mollusks
a)​Bivalves (oysters, clams, mussels)
b)​Snails and slugs
 c)​Octopuses and squids
d)​Most have a shell, a foot, and a mantle
6.​ Arthropods
a)​Largest animal phylum
b)​Many jointed appendages
(1)​Body parts with specialized functions that develop in pairs
c)​Body segments grouped into distinct parts
(1)​Repeated units that make up the body
d)​Exoskeleton
e)​Four Major Arthropod Groups
(1)​Spiders and relatives
(2)​Crustaceans
(3)​Millipedes/Centipedes
(4)​Insects
f)​ CONTINUE NOTES HERE
B.​Vertebrates
1.​ Chordates - animals with a notochord and a dorsal nerve cord
a)​Notochord - a flexible yet rigid rod along the center of the body
b)​Dorsal nerve cord - a solid strand of nervous tissue (spinal cord)
2.​ Lampreys and Hagfish (jawless fish)
a)​No jaws
b)​No paired appendages (no finds)
c)​No scales
3.​ Sharks and Rays
a)​Skeleton - still made of cartilage like the jawless fish
4.​ All remaining vertebrates are called tetrapods - vertebrates adapted to terrestrial life
a)​Amphibians - Frogs and salamanders - still live in close association with
aquatic environments
(1)​Have an aquatic, gill-breathing larval stage
(2)​Have a terrestrial, gill-less adult stage
b)​Reptiles - First vertebrates adapted to 100% terrestrial life
(1)​Lizards and snakes
(2)​Turtles
(3)​Crocodilians
c)​Birds - Highly modified reptiles - anatomy designed around flight
(1)​All birds have feathers; all living animals with feathers are birds
d)​Mammals - Animals with hair, sweat glands, and mammary glands
(1)​Eutherians - have a placenta and produce offspring that are born in a
well-developed state (are nourished inside the mother’s body)
 (2)​Marsupials - have a simple placenta and offspring born early and then
complete development in an external pocket or pouch
(3)​Monotremes - egg-laying mammals with no placenta (platypus)
5.​ Primates - the order of mammals to which humans belong
a)​Hominids - the ape family (humans and chimpanzees); are capable of tool use,
symbolic language, and deliberate acts of deception
b)​Hominins - the “human” branch of hominids, including neanderthals

XVII.​ Global Ecology

A.​Ecology
1.​ Ecology - study of living things and their interactions with their environment
a)​Data collection
b)​Statistics
c)​Modeling
2.​ Levels of ecological research
a)​Organism - a single living thing
b)​Population - all the individuals of the same species living in the same area
c)​Community - all the populations of a given area
d)​Ecosystem - a community plus all the nonliving factors of the area
e)​Biosphere - all Earth’s ecosystems
3.​ Ecological research can involve both biotic and abiotic factors
a)​Biotic refers to living things and derivatives of living things:
(1)​Plants, animals, fungi, protists, prokaryotes
(2)​Dead, decaying organisms
(3)​Organic waste
b)​Abiotic refers to non-living, inorganic components of an ecosystem
(1)​Gasses in the air
(2)​Water
(3)​Soil minerals
(4)​Sunlight
B.​Climate
1.​ Weather and Climate
a)​Weather - short term/small scale conditions
(1)​Day to day changes in temperature, rain, wind etc
b)​Climate - long term/broad scale conditions
(1)​Determines the type of ecosystem
(a)​ Desert
(b)​Tropical
(c)​ Temperate
 (d)​Boreal
(e)​ Polar
(2)​Climate has a much larger impact on how ecosystems function
2.​ Global Cycles
a)​Many of the atoms and molecules that make up different biotic and abiotic factors
cycle from one form or place to another
(1)​Cycles range from smaller ecosystem and scales up to a global scale
(2)​Switches between biotic and abiotic forms
b)​Hydrologic (water) Cycle
(1)​Transpiration - water absorbed by plant roots is transported up the plant via
the xylem and evaporates into the air through pores in the leaves.
c)​Carbon Cycle
(1)​Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and algae use energy from
sunlight to convert water and CO2 into sugars and O2.
(2)​Respiration is the process by which organisms take up O2 and release CO2
during energy metabolism.
3.​ Climate Change
a)​Mainly temperature (global warming)
b)​This leads to other changes:
(1)​Changes in rainfall patterns
(a)​ Flood
(b)​Drought
(2)​Melting ice
(a)​ Increased sea level
(3)​Changes in plant/animal behavior
(4)​Increased wildfire frequency
c)​Why does the temperature increase?
(1)​Many things can contribute to this.
(a)​ Many are natural
(2)​The main culprit is fossil fuels
4.​ Greenhouse Gasses
a)​Carbon dioxide
b)​Water vapor
c)​Methane
d)​Nitrous oxide
5.​ Fossil Fuels
a)​Literally fossils
(1)​The remains of living organisms (mostly plants) from millions of years of
Earth’s history
b)​What are living things made from? Carbon.
 (1)​When burned, carbon reacts with oxygen in the air to produce CO2
6.​ Carbon Sinks and Sources
a)​Sinks - all natural
(1)​Oceans
(2)​Forests
(3)​Grasslands
(4)​Soil
b)​Sources - natural and human-created
(1)​Volcanoes
(2)​Forest fires
(3)​Tilling for crops
(4)​Deforestation
(5)​Energy use
(6)​Transport

XVIII.​ Community Ecology

A.​Community
1.​ Community Ecology - interactions of different population living in the same area
2.​ Community Structure
a)​Three fundamental features of a community are
(1)​Species diversity
(2)​Feeding relationships
(3)​Interspecific interactions
3.​ Species Diversity
a)​Species diversity of a community is the variety of organisms that make up the
community
b)​It has two components: species richness and relative abundance
(1)​Species richness is the number of different species in the community
(a)​ Both these communities have the same species richness
(2)​Relative abundance is the proportion each species represents of all
individuals in the community
4.​ Community Stability
a)​Typically, the higher the diversity, the healthier the community
b)​Low diversity communities are more vulnerable to environmental change
c)​Sometimes, small change in diversity lead to large changes in community stability
5.​ Trophic Structure is the feeding relationships between organisms in a community
a)​Food chains link trophic levels from the producers to the top carnivores
(1)​Producers - autotrophs of a community; all organisms rely on them
(2)​Consumers - the different levels of heterotrophic organisms
 b)​A food web is a branching food chain with complex trophic interactions
c)​Species may play a role at more than one trophic level
d)​Ultimately, all biomass is recycled by decomposers
(1)​Bacteria
(2)​Fungi
6.​ Species with a Large Impact
a)​Certain species have a large impact on community structure
b)​Keystone species exert strong control on a community because they play a
pivotal role in community dynamics
(1)​Without their main predator, mussels grew in number and outcompeted the
other species
c)​They are not necessarily abundant in a community
7.​ Interactions within a community
a)​Ecologists call relationships between populations in a community interspecific
interactions
(1)​Competition
(2)​Predation
(3)​Mutualism
(4)​Commensalism
b)​An interspecific interaction is categorized by its effect on the survival and
reproduction of each species
(1)​Positive (+), negative (-) or no effect (0)
B.​Competition
1.​

XIX.​ Homeostasis & Organ Systems

A.​Homeostasis
1.​ Anatomy - study of the structures that make up a complex multicellular body
2.​ Physiology - the science that focuses on the functions of anatomical structures
3.​ Homeostasis - the process of maintaining constant thermal conditions
a)​Processes that keep internal body conditions constant:
(1)​Body temperature
(2)​pH of body fluids
(3)​Blood sugar
(4)​Heartbeat rate
(5)​Protein production
(6)​Water balance
b)​Maintained by nervous and endocrine systems
 c)​Involves feedback loops - the steps of a process that either decrease or increase
the output of that process
4.​ Feedback Loops
a)​Negative - process causes itself to slow down and maybe stop
(1)​Like a thermostat
(2)​Our bodies have their own thermostat
b)​Positive - process causes itself to speed up until something else stops it
(1)​Like blood clotting
(2)​Not as common as negative feedback
B.​Organ Systems
1.​ Tissues - A group of cells that function in an integrated manner to perform a unique
set of tasks in the body
a)​Epithelial - A tissue that covers organs and lines body cavities
(1)​Epithelium - layer of cells that forms a surface
(2)​Glands are formed from modified epithelial tissue
b)​Connective - A tissue that binds and supports tissues and organs
(1)​Areolar tissue - makes up the space between/connects various other tissues
(2)​Fat (adipose) - story energy; protection; insulation
(3)​Tendons and ligaments - attach muscle to bone/bone to bone
(4)​Blood - transport gasses and nutrients
(5)​Bone and cartilage - supports; protection
c)​Muscle - A tissue that generates force by contracting; responsible for different
types of movement; composed of long fibers
(1)​Skeletal muscle - voluntary movement
(2)​Smooth muscle - involuntary movement of internal organ functions
(3)​Cardiac muscle - involuntary movement (found only in the heart)
d)​Nervous - A tissue that communicates and processes information
(1)​Neurons and associated cells
(2)​Receive stimuli and conduct impulses to and from various parts of the body
2.​ Organ - a collection of different types of tissues that form a functional unit with a
distinctive shape and location in the body
3.​ Organ System - A network of organs that work in a closely coordinated manner to
perform a distinct set of functions in the body
4.​ Human Organ Systems
a)​Integumentary System - protects against injury, infection and fluid loss; helps
regulate body temperature (skin, nails, hair)
b)​Skeletal System - protects and supports body and organs (bones, cartilage, joints)
c)​Muscular System - moves limbs and trunk, moves substances through body,
provides structure and support (skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle tissue)
d)​Reproductive System - produces gametes and offspring (testes, ovaries)
 e)​Digestive System - extract and absorbs nutrients from food; removes wastes;
maintains water and chemical balance (esophagus, stomach, liver, intestines)
f)​ Circulatory System - transports nutrients, wastes, hormones and gases
(1)​Cardiovascular (heart, blood vessels, blood)
(2)​Lymphatic (lymph nodes and vessels, lymph)
g)​Respiratory System - movement of air; gas exchange (lungs, trachea, mouth)
h)​Urinary (Excretory) System - removes waste from the blood; regulates body
fluids (kidneys, urinary bladder)
i)​ Nervous System - regulates behavior; regulates other organ systems; controls
sensory and motor functions (brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs)
j)​ Endocrine System - regulates body temperature, metabolism, development, and
reproduction; regulates other organ systems (glands)
k)​Immune System - defends against pathogens and disease (white blood cells, skin)

XX.​ Reproductive System

A.​General
1.​ Reproductive System - the organ system that generates gametes and may also support
fertilization and prenatal development
2.​ Gonads are organs that are the site of gamete production (gametogenesis)
a)​Spermatocytes and oocytes go through meiosis to become sperm and eggs
B.​Male
1.​ Male gonads are testes and contain cells called spermatocytes
2.​ Gametogenesis with spermatogenesis
a)​Primary spermatocyte
(1)​Meiosis 1
b)​Secondary spermatocytes
(1)​Meiosis II
c)​Sperm
C.​Female
1.​ Female gonads are ovaries and contain cells called oocytes
2.​ Gametogenesis with oogenesis
a)​At birth, all the primary oocytes a female will ever have are present and paused in
meiosis I
b)​After puberty, primary oocytes finish meiosis I on a monthly cycle
c)​Polar body forms - this can not be fertilized
d)​Secondary oocyte stops halfway through meiosis II, and leaves the ovary
(1)​Entry of a sperm nucleus induces completing of meiosis II
3.​ Ovarian (Menstrual) Cycle
 a)​Follicle - sac which contains an oocyte
b)​Ovulation - release of oocyte from follicle into fallopian tube
c)​Corpus luteum - empty remains of the follicle
d)​Hormones from the pituitary gland, follicles and corpus luteum regulate this cycle
on a monthly schedule
4.​ Gestation
a)​Fertilization - forms a zygote
b)​Cleavage - multiple cells divisions divide the zygote into a many-celled embryo -
the blastula
c)​Gastrulation - blastula rearranges into an embryo called a gastrula
d)​Development - human forms over 9 months
e)​Birth
5.​ Cleavage
a)​Fertilization is followed by cleavage, a period of rapid cell division without
growth
b)​Cleavage partitions the cytoplasm of one large cell into many smaller cells
c)​The blastula is a ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity
d)​The blastula is produced after about five to seven cleavage divisions
6.​ Gastrulation
a)​After cleavage, the rate of cell division shows
b)​During gastrulation, a set of cells at the surface of the blastula moves inward and
a primitive digestive tube forms
c)​The hollow blastula is reorganized into a new embryonic structure called a
gastrula

XXI.​ Digestive System

A.​Nutrients
1.​ Macronutrients - carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids
a)​For energy - chemical energy stored in macronutrients is released and used to fuel
ATP synthesis
b)​For raw material - carbon, nitrogen and other elements that make up our cells,
tissues and organs
2.​ Micronutrients - compounds needed in small amounts
a)​Vitamins - organic
b)​Minerals - inorganic
B.​System
1.​
XXII.​ Circulatory System
XXIII.​ Respiratory System
XXIV.​ Chapter 25