BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES AND
TECHNOLOGY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL ON
THERMODYNAMICS 1
Engr. Lyncel S. Celimen
THERMODYNAMICS 1
MODULE 1 (BASIC PRINCIPLES, CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS)
OVERVIEW
It includes clear explanations, formula derivations, and practical examples. The activities are designed
specifically for Mechanical Engineering students but can also be useful for other engineering fields.
These exercises may even serve as reference activities for future engineers in their professional work.
LEARNING OUTCOME
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Identify the different properties of pure substance, ideal gas, and real gas.
2. Apply thermodynamic concepts and principles in analyzing and solving problems.
Thermodynamics is the study of energy—how it is stored, changed from one form to another, and
moved from place to place. The name comes from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power),
because early scientists studied how to turn heat into power. Today, thermodynamics covers all kinds of
energy changes, like in power plants, refrigerators, and engines.
Example 1: Wind Turbine
The wind’s motion energy (kinetic energy) spins the turbine blades. This turns into mechanical energy,
then into electrical energy. The first law of thermodynamics says the total energy before and after must
be the same, but in real life, some energy is lost—often as heat—so we use the second law of
thermodynamics to explain why.
Example 2: Engine
Fuel mixed with air burns inside the engine, making hot gases that push the piston. The piston’s
movement turns the crankshaft, which produces power for wheels or a generator. But not all the fuel’s
energy becomes useful power—some is lost as heat and friction inside the engine.
Before we start learning about thermodynamic properties, we need to understand how we measure
them.
If something can be measured, it has a dimension.
Basic Types of Dimensions
1. Primary (Fundamental) Dimensions – These are the most basic measurements.
o Mass (m)
o Length (L)
o Time (t)
o Temperature (T)
2. Secondary (Derived) Dimensions – These are built from the primary dimensions.
o Velocity (V)
o Energy (E)
o Volume
Units are the numbers or magnitudes we use to tell how much of a dimension we have. For example,
length can be in meters (m) or feet (ft), and time can be in seconds (s) or minutes (min). Units help us
quantify a dimension so it’s easier to compare and calculate.
When we measure something, we need to use a system of units. There are two main ones:
A. English System
• Mostly used in the United States.
• Does not follow a clear numerical pattern—many units are related in ways that don’t seem
systematic (for example: 12 inches in a foot, 3 feet in a yard).
B. SI (Système Internationale) or Metric System
• Used in most countries around the world.
• Simple and logical because it’s based on the decimal system—units are related by powers of 10
(for example: 1 meter = 100 centimeters).
CONVERSION OF UNITS
CONSTANT AIR AND WATER PROPERTIES
Working Substance
- A substance to which heat can be stored and from which heat can be extracted.
Examples:
• Steam in a power plant, which carries heat to run turbines.
• Refrigerant in an air conditioner, which absorbs heat from inside a room and releases it outside.
Type of Working Substances
Type Description Example Key Feature
Pure Chemical composition stays the same Water Can exist in different phases
Substance even if it changes phase (solid, liquid, (H₂O) but remains the same
gas). substance.
Ideal Gas Remains in the gas phase during its Air Behaves according to the Ideal
operation and follows PV=mRT Gas Law.
PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE
1. PRESSURE
- Pressure is the force applied per unit area. You can think of it as how “intense” a force is
spread over a surface.
Key Points:
a. Air has mass and is affected by gravity, so it pushes down and creates
atmospheric pressure.
b. Barometers measure atmospheric pressure.
c. Pressure gauges measure the pressure of fluids inside a closed container.
d. In refrigeration work, two common pressure measuring devices are:
e. Manometer – measures small to moderate pressure differences.
f. Bourdon Tube – a common mechanical device for measuring pressure.
g. Absolute Pressure – the total pressure of a fluid, measured from absolute
vacuum (zero pressure).
h. Gauge Pressure – the pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure.
i. Vacuum Pressure – pressure lower than atmospheric pressure (negative gauge
pressure).
j. Perfect Vacuum – a space with no matter and zero pressure.
FORMULAS:
1. Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
FORCE KN lb kg
P= , , ,
AREA m2 in2 cm2
2. Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
P = P𝑔 + P𝑎𝑡𝑚
1 atm = 0 Kpag
= 101.325 Kpaa
= 14.7 psi
= 29.92 in Hg
= 760 mmHg
1 torr = 1/760 atm
1 Bar = 100 Kpa
= 0.1 Mpa
Type of Pressure What It Means How It's Measured Everyday Example
Atmospheric Pressure The air around us Measured with a Air pressure at sea level
pressing down because barometer. (weather reports).
of gravity.
Barometric Pressure Another name for Measured with a Used in weather
atmospheric pressure. barometer. forecasting.
Absolute Pressure The total pressure, Gauge reading + Calculating pressures in
starting from a perfect atmospheric pressure. engines or tanks.
vacuum (zero pressure).
Vacuum Pressure Pressure lower than Measured with a Vacuum-sealed food
atmospheric pressure. vacuum gauge. packaging.
Measuring Pressure
a. By using manometers
- Absolute pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure.
- (b) Absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure
PROBLEM:
1. A pressure gauge registers 40 psig in a region where the barometer is 14.5 psia. Find the absolute
pressure in psia and kPa.
SOLUTION:
A. Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
= 14.5 + 40
Pabs = 54.5 psia
B. Convert 54.5 psia to kPa
Therefore;
3. Hydrostatic Pressure, P
- Hydrostatic pressure refers to the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest due to the weight of
the fluid above a certain point.
P = ρh
Where:
ρ = density of fluid
h = height of fluid
P = Hydrostatic pressure, gage
- If the acceleration due to gravity (g) will vary:
𝑃 = (ρ)(g)(h), pascals
Where:
ρ= density, kg/𝑚3
g= acceleration due to gravity, m/𝑠 2
h= height, m
PROBLEM:
1. A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density 1,878 kg/𝑚3 ) is located where g = 9.65
m/𝑠 2 . Find the pressure at the base of the column.
Solution:
𝑃 = ρgh
𝑃=
𝑃=
2. TEMPERATURE
Definitions:
a. Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance or body.
b. Temperature measure the level of the thermal pressure of a body.
c. The most frequently used instrument for measuring temperature is the thermometer.
d. Pyrometer measures the temperature of high temperature gases.
e. Heat will pass from one body to another when and only when a difference in
temperature exists between the two bodies.
f. Boiling temperature of water = 100C̊ = 212F̊
g. Freezing temperature of water = 0C̊ = 32F̊
h. Critical temperature of water is 375C̊
i. Absolute zero temperatures are -460F̊ and -273C̊
j. Latent heat of fusion of water = 335 KJ/kg = 144 Btu/lb
k. Latent heat of vaporization of water = 2257 Kj/kg
= 970 Btu/lb
l. Triple point of water = 0.01C̊
m. Triple point pressure = 0.6113 Kpa
]
Formula:
1. Relation between ˚C and ˚F scales
˚C = 5/9 (F – 32)
˚F = 9/5 C + 32
2. Absolute temperatures:
K = ˚C + 273
R = ˚F +460
3. Relation between R and K
R = 1.8K
K = 0.555R
4. Temperature Difference:
Δ˚C = 5/9 Δ˚F Δ˚F = 9/5 Δ˚C
Δ˚C = Δ˚K Δ˚F = Δ˚R
PROBLEM:
1. A gas in a piston–cylinder device is initially at 27 °C. It is then heated until its absolute
temperature doubles. What is the final temperature in °C?
Solution:
Convert the initial temperature to Kelvin
T1=27+273=300K
Final temperature (since it doubles)
T2=2×T1
=2×300 = 600K
Convert back to Celsius
T2=600−273
T2 =327°C
3.DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
PROBLEM:
ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES/TOOLS
Solve the following problems:
1. A pump shows a suction pressure of 540 mmHg below atmospheric pressure (vacuum). Determine the
absolute pressure in kilopascals (kPa).
2. A concrete mix is prepared using 200 lbs of fine aggregate, 350 lbs of coarse aggregate, 94 lbs of
cement, and 5 gallons of water. The specific gravity of sand and gravel is 2.65, while that of cement is
3.10. Determine the weight of cement needed to produce one cubic yard of concrete.
3. A fluid flows through a rectangular channel with dimensions 0.5 m by 0.3 m at a velocity of 3 m/s. If
the specific volume of the fluid is 0.0012 m³/kg, calculate the mass flow rate in kilograms per second
(kg/s).
4. Find the Rankine temperature corresponding to 400 Kelvin.
5. A mixture is prepared by combining 100 g of water with 150 g of alcohol (density = 790 kg/m³).
Assuming the two fluids mix completely, determine the specific volume of the mixture.
