Part-2 Architecture Development of Ancient India

Sub-Part–6
Art in ancient India boasts a rich and diverse • Social Factors: Communities would often
history encompassing architecture, sculpture, build temples as a means of establishing their
painting, music, and dance. identity. Additionally, temples were erected to
When examining the realm of architecture, pay homage to ancestors. Furthermore, temples
we discover a fascinating evolution influenced were constructed as memorials to honor the
by numerous factors. passing of influential individuals.
• Religion and Philosophy: The construction
Architecture
of temples has always been closely intertwined
with religion and philosophy. People from
Political Economic Social Religious different religious sects would build temples to
Philosophy based
show reverence to their preferred deities.
• Political Factors: Architectural construction
In terms of philosophy, the Stupa or temple
has often been influenced by political
symbolically encompasses the entire world
factors,as described below:
within itself. For example, the dome-like
1. On numerous occasions, kings or rulers structure of the stupa represents Mount Meru,
sought to establish their presence in remote believed to be situated at the center of the world.
areas through architecture, with the The pillar erected atop it symbolizes the division
boundaries of their states being determined between the heavens and the earthly realm.
by these structures.
Similarly, the sanctum-sanctorum of the
2. The construction of temples served as a temple is believed to symbolize Mount Meru,
means for rulers to display their royal pride. which is located at the center of the world. The
For instance, the Brihadisvara temple built circular path around the sanctum, known as the
by the Chola ruler Rajaraja-I and the circumambulatory path, signifies the passage
Gangaikondacholapuram temple of time. Moreover, the towering sikhara(spire)
commissioned by Rajendra-I symbolize their of the temple represents the earthly realm, while
political victories. the idols placed atop the sikhara(spire) serve
3. Starting from the second century, various as abodes for various celestial beings.
dynasties developed the concept of
Mauryan Architecture
Kuladevata, with deities such as Vishnu,
It has a profound connection with Ashoka
Shiva, Surya, and Durga holding significant
importance. Temples were erected as a the Great and possesses two main
means of paying homage to these deities. characteristics. Firstly, it was inspired by
Buddhist concepts, and secondly, it flourished
• Economic Factors: During periods of
under state patronage. The various forms
economic growth, there was a notable emphasis
associated with it are as follows:
on artistic endeavors. For instance, in the post-
Mauryan era, the expansion of Roman trade 1. Pillars of Ashoka: The Pillars of Ashoka are
stimulated economic prosperity, resulting in the crafted from Chunar(lime) stone and are
construction of numerous chaityas, stupas, and monolithic, meaning each pillar is made from a
viharas. Similarly, the Gupta period witnessed single stone. These pillars consist of two parts:
continued economic growth, which led to the the Yashti (Pillar) and the Gavdum Lat (Capital
construction of a significant number of temples. or Head). At the top of the Yashti, there is an
inverted lotus upon which a chowki (Base) is
History By Manikant Singh 1
constructed. In some instances, rows of swans some caves in the Nagarjuna Hills, which were
are depicted on the base. The Ashoka Chakra is also donated to the Ajivikas. Initially, these
inscribed on the abacus at Sarnath. Animal caves had simple and conventional design, but
figures were also carved on the pillar, typically over time, they evolved into more intricate
representing elephants, horses, bulls, and lions. structures.
However, at Sarnath, four lions are depicted The construction of the early caves followed
sitting back-to-back. a straightforward approach. The cave facades
were cut in rectangular shapes, creating living
spaces within. The roofs of these dwellings and
their rectangular entrances were coated with
black paste. This architectural style introduced
by Ashoka later evolved into Buddhist temples
and eventually transformed into Hindu temples
under the rule of the Pallava dynasty.

2. Stupa- An example of Ashoka’s architectural

legacy is the construction of stupas. One notable
stupa from his era is the exquisite stupa at Sanchi,
which exemplifies the early stage of stupa
construction. Generally, a stupa was a semi-
circular structure. Initially, the stupa was built
using bricks, with its upper part being flat and
featuring a chamber called the harmika. This
chamber served as a burial place for the relics of
Buddha or other revered saints. A wooden pillar
used to be erected atop the harmika, although it
has deteriorated over time. Additionally, the stupa
was enclosed by a small boundary wall.

Post Mauryan Architecture

During this period, Buddhism remained the
primary source of artistic inspiration. However,
3. Cave Architecture- The construction of the social support for art expanded significantly.
caves began with the carving of mountains In contrast to the Mauryan era, where art thrived
during Ashoka’s time. The earliest caves were exclusively under state patronage, during this
built in the Barabar Hills in Gaya and were period, art gained support from not only the
generously donated to the Ajivikas. Similarly, ruling class but also from nobles, merchants,
Ashoka’s grandson, Dasaratha, constructed monks, and Bhikshuni (female monks).

History By Manikant Singh 2

 Following forms of architecture emerged significance of a mausoleum.
during this period. The animal and human idols found at the
Stupa- The Stupa experiencing notable artistic entrances of the Stupa also have connections
development in the post-Mauryan period. The to folk life and stories. For instance, the
Stupa displayed the following artistic features, elephant, horse, tiger, monkey, and others are
as outlined - associated with folk tales. However, these forms
1. It possessed a semicircular shape and was were embraced by the Buddhist tradition,
primarily constructed using bricks, while attributing them with idealized symbolism. The
stones were used for the upper section. elephant became a symbol of the Buddha’s entry
into his mother’s womb, the bull represented his
2. The upper part of the Stupa was flat and
youth, and the horse symbolized renunciation.
contained a chamber called the Harmika,
where the relics of revered individuals were Given the prominence of Yaksha-Yakshini as
enshrined. folk deities during this period, their idols were
also incorporated at the entrances of the Stupa,
3. Atop the Harmika, a stone pillar was erected,
assimilated into Buddhist ideals. Similarly,
adorned with three umbrellas symbolizing
serpents(Nag-Nagin) held significance as
compassion, tolerance, and generosity.
deities, and their idols were included as well.
4. A Vedika, or railing, surrounded the Stupa, Notably, the ‘Shalabhanjika’ enjoyed popularity
serving as a path for circumambulation. in folk stories, symbolizing prosperity and good
5. The Stupa was enclosed by a four-sided wall, fortune. It was believed that merely touching the
featuring magnificent entrances on each leaves of the tree she stood beside would
side, adorned with idols depicting humans transform them into flowers. At the entrance of
and animals. the Stupa in Sanchi, one can observe an idol of
Shalabhanjika hanging from a tree branch.
Hence, it is evident that the Buddhist sect
transformed popular stories into Buddhist ideals
to uphold its popularity, incorporating them into
Stupa art.
Question: “Early Buddhist Stupa-Art while
depicting folk motifs and narratives
successfully expounds Buddhist ideals.”
An intriguing aspect of the Stupa is its Elucidate. [UPSC-2016]
representation of popular Buddhist traditions. Answer: A significant aspect of Buddhism is
Folk stories and incidents related to everyday their connection with the common people and
life were assimilated into Stupa art, their widespread acceptance among them. On
transforming them into Buddhist ideals. one hand, Buddhism adopted the folk language
In essence, the concept of the Stupa draws Pali, while on the other hand, it embraced
from tribal elements. It originated from the popular cultural symbols.
practice of constructing mounds over the tombs Stupa art, the renowned architectural style
of tribal leaders. The Buddhist sect adopted this of Buddhism, derived inspiration from folk life
practice, shaping it into the Stupa. The semi- and evolved gradually. In tribal societies, it was
circular architectural form of the Stupa, along customary to create small mounds after the
with the placement of the remains of the cremation of a chief or chieftain. The Buddhist
deceased in its central chamber, symbolizes the sect adopted this tradition, incorporating it into
History By Manikant Singh 3
their practices. Additionally, non-Aryan sects had Under the Satavahanas, numerous stupas
a profound influence on the common people. were constructed by cutting mountains in
One such example was the worship of Yaksha western India. Prominent examples include
and Yakshini. Even during the Mauryan period, Nashik, Bhaja, Kanheri, Karle, and Pitalkhora.
idols of Yaksha-Yakshini were made in folk art.
These elements were later incorporated into
Stupa art by the Buddhist cult. Similarly, the
worship of snakes, animals, and trees was
prevalent among the common people, and these
aspects gradually found their place in Stupa art.
During the Mauryan period, Stupa art thrived
under state patronage. However, in the early  Vihara – The Chaitya served as the place of
centuries AD, its social base expanded widely. worship for Buddhists, while the Vihara served
Ashoka, in his efforts to propagate Buddhism, as the dwelling place for monks. Whenever
discouraged certain folk festivals, social Chaityas were constructed, Viharas were also
ceremonies, and other practices. However, after built as residential structures. Viharas were
the decline of the Mauryan empire, the influence crafted by excavating stones and exhibited a
of these elements resurfaced and left their higher level of sophistication compared to
impact on both contemporary religion and art. Mauryan cave architecture. In addition to the
The Stupa itself was a semi-circular dome verandahs(Porch), these Viharas encompassed
resembling the funeral mounds of tribal multiple rooms within their premises.
communities. The harmika, located at its center,
housed the remains of the deceased. Surrounding
the Stupa, a Vedika and entrance gates were
constructed. Numerous sculptures depicting
various animals, snakes, and aspects of folk life
adorned the Vedika and entrances. Over time, the
Buddhist sect assimilated these elements into
their religious practices.
Thus, it is evident that the primary style of
Buddhist architecture was intricately linked with
folk life and gradually developed by incorporating
Gupta Architecture
popular elements. During the Gupta period, art and literature
 Chaitya- The Chaitya was a place of worship established classical norms, earning the era the
for Buddhists and was predominantly epithet of the ‘Golden Age’ due to its exceptional
constructed by excavating mountains. These aesthetic sense. Gupta art drew inspiration
structures were evolved forms of Mauryan cave primarily from the Brahmin cult, while also
architecture. Typically, the Chaitya had a incorporating influences from other sects.
rectangular shape with a semicircular rear end. • Religious Architecture: During this period,
A stupa was placed at its center, serving as the
religious architecture is visible in two forms:
focal point for worship. Additionally, a human
(a) Cave Temples (b) Independent Temples.
statue was often included alongside the stupa.
The roof of the stupa was designed in a • Cave Temples: The cave architecture of this
horseshoe shape, allowing light to illuminate the period is predominantly characterized as
stupa through an opening known as the Chaitya Buddhist architecture, with only a few
window (Chaitya khidki). This technological exceptions. One such exception is a
development held significant importance. Brahmanical cave at Udayagiri, which bears
History By Manikant Singh 4
 an inscription dating back to the reign of
Chandragupta II. Notably, the Varaha statue
of V ishnu in this cave stands as an
exceptional creation, exemplifying the
concept of Avatarism. In addition to Vishnu,
there are also caves associated with
Shaivism and Jainism. Udayagiri marks a
transitional stage between cave temples and
Independent temples. Furthermore, the
caves of Ajanta and Bagh, renowned for their
association with Buddhism, can be
considered among the most famous
examples from this period.
• Independent Temple: The Gupta period
holds immense significance in Indian temple
architecture. It marks a crucial phase of
evolution, despite being in its early stages.
The Sanchi temple number 17 stands as the
Dashavatara Temple of Devgarh
earliest example from this period. Alongside,
we find prominent temples like the Vishnu • Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas -Apart from
temple of Tigawa, the Shiva temples of temples, the Gupta period also witnessed
Bhumra and Khoh, the Parvati temple of the construction of stupas, chaityas, and
Nachna Kuthara, the Dah Parvatiya temple viharas. These Buddhist structures were built
in Assam, and the Dashavatara temple of in various places, with notable examples
Deogarh. Notably, the Dashavatara temple found in Jauliya, Charsadda, and Taxila of
of Deogarh is the oldest example of the Gandhara. An elaboration of this period can
Panchayatan style. These temples are be seen in the Dhamekh Stupa located in
primarily crafted from stone. Additionally, a Sarnath, eastern India, which is in a drum-
significant number of brick temples were shaped form.
constructed during this era. Noteworthy Early Medieval Architecture
examples include the temples in Bhitargaon The early medieval period witnessed significant
(Kanpur), Paharpur (Bangladesh), and Sirpur developments in the fields of art and architecture.
(Chhattisgarh). During this time, distinct regional styles of
architecture and sculpture emerged in North India,
including Kashmir, Rajasthan, and Odisha.
Additionally, large-scale temple construction was
undertaken in peninsular India under the
Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Cholas.
Until the early medieval period, India
recognized three independent styles of temple
architecture: Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara. The
Nagara style spanned from Kashmir to the
Vindhyas. The Dravidian style flourished in the
region between the Krishna and Kaveri rivers.
The Vesara style, on the other hand,
encompassed the area between the Vindhya and
Krishna rivers. Each style possessed unique
Ancient Temple of Sanchi
characteristics as follows-
History By Manikant Singh 5
 considered the pinnacle of cave architecture
in the Indian subcontinent.

Lingraj Temple, Bhubneshwar

• Rashtrakuta Period Architecture: - The
Rashtrakuta rulers were devout followers of Kailash Temple, Ellora
Shaivism, which resulted in the construction • Elephanta: The most beautiful statue in
of numerous Shiva temples and idols during
Elephanta cave is of Mahesha(God Shiva).
their reign. Centers such as Ellora,
• Chalukya Architecture: In the Deccan
Elephanta, Jageshwari, and Mandapeshwar
region, there are numerous examples of
gained fame for their remarkable
early medieval temple cave architecture and
architectural prowess. Among these centers,
independent architecture, particularly in
Ellora and Elephanta stand prominent.
Karnataka. The towns of Badami and Aihole
• Ellora: The architecture of Ellora showcase the architectural style of the early
encompasses the three major religions of period, spanning from the 6th to the early
Brahmin, Jain, and Buddhist. It is renowned 8th century AD. The second phase of
for its impressive Buddhist and Jain caves, architectural development, which is more
as well as the magnificent Kailashnath grand in nature, is evident in the temples
temple. The Kailashnath temple at Ellora constructed at Pattadakal during the 8th
features intricate iconography, including century. The Chalukya dynasty’s temple
depictions of Shiva, Shiva-Parvati, Ravana architecture exhibits a blend of architectural
shaking Mount Kailasha, Durga, Vishnu, characteristics from both the northern and
Saptamatrikas, Ganga, Ganesha, Yamuna, southern regions. However, during this time,
and Saraswati goddesses. This temple is the Deccan region’s architecture also
established its own unique identity.
History By Manikant Singh 6
• Aihole: Aihole has two remarkable cave • Pallava Architecture:- Stone architecture in
temples, one dedicated to Jainism and the South India emerged during the 7th century
other to Shaivism. Both caves feature with the rise of Bhakti. The Pallava
intricately adorned inner walls. architecture laid the foundation for the
• Badami: The caves of Badami are carved out Dravidian style. It gave birth to three major
of red sandstone. Among the three major components: pavilion (Mandapa), chariot
caves, one is dedicated to Vaishnavism, (Rathas), and grand temple . Percy Brown, a
another to Shaivism, and the third one for renowned architect, divided the
Jainism.
development of Pallava architecture into
• Pattadakal: Pattadakal is home to ten four styles.
temples, with the Virupaksha Temple being
the most exquisite and captivating. • Mahendravarman Style: The
Dedicated to Shiva, it was constructed by Mahendravarman style predominantly
Lokmahadevi. features mandapas, pillared halls where
• Hoysala Architecture: The Hoysala dynasty, music, dance, and rituals were performed.
ruling from Dwarasamudra in southern • Mamalla Style: Developed during the reign
Karnataka, witnessed the second significant of Narasimhavarman I ‘Mahamalla’, this style
phase of temple architecture. Prominent includes both mandapas and monolithic
temples from this period can be found in
temples (raths). Mamallapuram is renowned
Halebid, Belur, and Somnathpur. The
for its monuments, including ten
Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebid, dating
pavilions(Mandapa) on the main mountain,
back to the 12th century, is the grandest,
while the Kesava Temple in Belur consists such as Adivaraha pavilion, Mahishamardini
of pavilions(Mandapa) within a spacious pavilion, and Ramanuja pavilion. The
courtyard. The Keshava Temple in Mamalla style also incorporates monolithic
Somnathpur, constructed in the 13th century, temples designed to resemble wooden
is regarded as the pinnacle of Hoysala chariots, with Mahabalipuram having a total
temple architecture and sculpture. eight chariots, including the largest, the
Yudhishthira chariot, and the smallest, the
Draupadi chariot.
• Rajsingh Style: Mountain-carving
techniques were employed during this
period, exemplified by the Kailasanatha
temple in Kanchipuram. The Shore Temple
in Mahabalipuram is considered the first
independent temple built in this style. It
showcases several features of Dravidian
architectural style, including pillar and
pavilion(Mandapa) construction, segmented
shikhara, and stupa elements.

Virupaksha and Papnath Temple, Pattadakal

History By Manikant Singh 7
 of Aditya I and Parantaka I. The
Koranganatha temple is Srinivasanallur,
constructed during the rule of Parantaka I,
stands as a prime example of this phase.
• The third phase of Chola temple architecture
corresponds to the early period of Sembiyan
Madevi and Rajaraja-I’s reign. The
Brihadisvara temple in Tanjore exemplifies
the pinnacle of Chola architecture during this
phase. With its 60-meter-long vimana and
impressive Sikhara(pinnacles), this Shiva
temple is considered the grandest of its time.
• In the later phase of Chola temple
architecture, Gopurams (grand gateways)
Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram and
gained more prominence compared to the
Yudhishthira Ratha
vimanas. This transition is evident in the
• Nandivarman Style: The Nandivarman style Shiva temple at Chidambaram.
focuses on relatively smaller temples.
Examples include the Mukteshwar and
Matangeshwar temples in Kanchi and the
Parasurameswara temple in Gudimallam.
Dharmaraja temple appears to imitate the
chariot style.
• Chola Architecture: During the reign of the
Chola dynasty, the rulers displayed great
enthusiasm for construction, leading to
significant advancements in art and
architecture. This era, known as the Chola Birahadeshwara Temple, Tanjore
period, is considered the golden age of South Question: Chola architecture represents a high
Indian art. The evolution of Chola watermark in the evolution of temple
architecture can be divided into three architecture. Discuss [UPSC-2013]
distinct phases: the early period (850-985
Answer: The foundation of Dravidian temple
AD), the middle period (985-1070 AD), and
architecture was laid by the Pallava rulers, but
the later period (1070-1270 AD).
its zenith was reached during the Chola period.
• The earliest phase of Chola architecture is Chola architecture witnessed the evolution of
exemplified by the Shiva temple at various architectural elements, including the
Narattamalai. Another significant temple mandapa, shikhara, vimana, and gopuram.
from this period is the Balasubramanya
The mandapa, a pillared hall, served as a
Temple in Kannur, built by Aditya I.
space for conducting rituals and ceremonies. The
Additionally, the Nageshwar temple in
shikhara, a segmented tower, adorned the
Kumbakonam is another notable temple
sanctum and gradually decreased in size as it
belonging to this era.
ascended, culminating in a Stupika. These
• The second phase of Chola temple towering shikharas symbolized the magnificence
architecture can be attributed to the reign of Chola kingship. The vertical structure
History By Manikant Singh 8
connecting the sanctum-sanctorum to the Temples were often built to commemorate
Stupika is known as the vimana. victorious events, symbolizing the power and
During this era, temples underwent influence of the ruling dynasty. For instance,
horizontal expansion, leading to the construction Rajendra I constructed the Gangaikonda
of magnificent entrances called gopurams. Cholapuram temple to celebrate his triumph.
These majestic gateways added to the splendor Rulers of the time sought to enhance their power
of the temples. The Brihadeshwara temple, and prestige by associating themselves closely
commissioned by Rajaraja I, and the temple at with the deities worshiped in the temples. As a
Gangaikondacholapuram, built by Rajendra I, demonstration of their authority, Chola rulers
epitomize the advanced stage of temple even had their own images installed within the
architecture during the Chola reign. temple premises.
Question- Explain the role of political, Economic Factors- Land grants gave rise to a
economic, social and religious factors in class of landholders, alongside the
motivating the development of architecture establishment of regional dynasties. These
in ancient times. dynasties, in turn, built temples. Similarly, a
prosperous merchant class, fueled by
Answer: In ancient times, architecture
commercial activities, constructed chaityas,
underwent multiple phases of development,
viharas, and temples.
eventually leading to its classification into three
distinct styles based on geography: Nagar style, Social factor- In order to enhance their social
Dravidian style, and Vesara style. Temples were standing, various emerging social classes took
constructed abundantly in each of these styles. on the task of building temples. The Rajput
dynasty, for example, embarked on ambitious
Political factors temple construction projects on a grand scale.
• Political factors played a significant role in Religious factor- Temples were built out of deep
motivating the development of ancient religious devotion, with the installation of deity
architecture. Many dynasties rose from lower idols aligned with specific beliefs. Notably, the
segments of society, and to establish their Chola rulers erected grand Shiva temples, while
dynasty’s prestige, they would align themselves the Vijayanagara rulers focused on constructing
with Brahmins and support temple patronage. magnificent Vaishnava temples.
The religious beliefs of the ruling dynasty also
Practice Questions:The rock-cut architecture
influenced the construction of temples, as they
represents one of the most important sources
sought to honor and worship their chosen
of our knowledge of early Indian art and
deities.
history. Discuss [UPSC-2020, 150 words]

History By Manikant Singh 9

History By Manikant Singh 10