🔍 Q1.

Explain how natural selection and reproductive isolation can lead to the formation of a new
species.

[8 marks]

Mark Scheme:

1. Variation exists within a population due to mutation.

2. Populations become geographically or reproductively isolated (e.g. behavioral, temporal).

3. No gene flow between populations.

4. Different environmental/selective pressures act on each population.

5. Individuals with advantageous traits survive and reproduce.

6. These individuals pass on favorable alleles.

7. Over time, allele frequencies change (evolution occurs).

8. Eventually, the populations can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring →

speciation.

🌍 Q2. Discuss the importance of genetic variation in populations and how it is maintained.

[8 marks]

Mark Scheme:

1. Genetic variation is essential for evolution by natural selection.

2. Arises through mutation, meiosis (crossing over and independent assortment), and random
fertilization.

3. Maintains adaptability to environmental changes.

4. Large gene pools → greater variation.

5. Outbreeding (mating with unrelated individuals) helps maintain variation.

6. Migration introduces new alleles.

7. Balanced polymorphism (e.g. heterozygote advantage) maintains variation.

8. Variation can be reduced by genetic drift and artificial selection.

🧬 Q3. Describe the Hardy-Weinberg principle and explain how it can be used to detect evolution in
a population.

[8 marks]

Mark Scheme:

1. Hardy-Weinberg principle: allele and genotype frequencies remain constant from generation
to generation.
 2. Provided that no mutation, selection, gene flow, genetic drift, or non-random mating occurs.

3. Equation: p2+2pq+q2=1p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1p2+2pq+q2=1 and p+q=1p + q = 1p+q=1.

4. ppp and qqq represent allele frequencies.

5. Used to calculate expected genotype frequencies.

6. Compare expected vs. observed frequencies.

7. Significant differences suggest evolution (e.g. natural selection or gene flow is occurring).

8. Can be tested using chi-squared statistical analysis.

🐾 Q4. Explain how genetic drift differs from natural selection and describe its impact on small
populations.

[8 marks]

Mark Scheme:

1. Genetic drift: random changes in allele frequencies, not due to selection.

2. More significant in small populations.

3. Can cause allele fixation or loss quickly.

4. Reduces genetic variation.

5. Bottleneck effect: large population reduced drastically (e.g. natural disaster).

6. Founder effect: new population started by few individuals.

7. May lead to reduced adaptability or increase in harmful alleles.

8. Unlike natural selection, drift is not directional.

🔎 Q5. Compare and contrast the roles of natural selection and artificial selection in shaping
populations.

[8 marks]

Mark Scheme:

1. Both lead to changes in allele frequencies over time.

2. Natural selection is driven by environmental pressures; artificial selection is guided by

humans.

3. Natural selection increases fitness for survival; artificial may reduce fitness.

4. Natural promotes genetic diversity; artificial often reduces it.

5. Both rely on variation and heritability.

6. Natural selection is slow; artificial can be fast.

 7. Artificial selection can cause health issues (e.g. in dogs/crops).

8. Natural selection occurs in all populations; artificial only where humans intervene.

Explain how natural selection leads to evolution. [8]

Answer:

 Variation exists in a population due to mutation.

 Some individuals have advantageous alleles.

 These individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce.

 They pass on the beneficial alleles to their offspring.

 Allele frequency of advantageous traits increases over generations.

 Less advantageous alleles decrease in frequency.

 This change in allele frequency over time is evolution.

 Leads to adaptations to the environment.

2. Describe and explain the differences between stabilising, directional, and disruptive selection.
[8]

Answer:

 Stabilising selection: favors average phenotype, reduces variation (e.g., human birth weight).

 Directional selection: favors one extreme phenotype, shifts mean (e.g., antibiotic
resistance).

 Disruptive selection: favors both extremes, can lead to speciation (e.g., fur color in patchy
habitats).

 All types affect allele frequency.

 Each type acts under different environmental pressures.

 Can be illustrated by changes in normal distribution curves.

3. Explain how antibiotic resistance evolves in bacterial populations. [6]

Answer:

 Mutation leads to a resistant bacterium.

 Antibiotic acts as a selection pressure.

 Non-resistant bacteria die.

 Resistant bacteria survive and reproduce.

 Resistance allele passed on to offspring.

  Allele frequency for resistance increases in population.

4. Describe how reproductive isolation can lead to speciation. [8]

Answer:

 Reproductive isolation prevents gene flow.

 Can be geographical (allopatric) or behavioral/temporal/mechanical (sympatric).

 Mutations accumulate in isolated populations.

 Leads to genetic divergence.

 Allele frequencies change independently.

 Eventually, groups can no longer interbreed.

 New species is formed.

5. Explain the effects of genetic drift on small populations. [6]

Answer:

 Genetic drift is random change in allele frequency.

 More pronounced in small populations.

 Some alleles may disappear by chance.

 Others become fixed, even if not advantageous.

 Reduces genetic diversity.

 Can make population more vulnerable to disease/extinction.

6. Describe and explain the founder effect and bottleneck effect. [6]

Answer:

 Founder effect: small group separates from a population.

 Carries only a fraction of the genetic diversity.

 Allele frequencies may differ from original population.

 Bottleneck effect: drastic reduction in population size.

 Caused by disasters/disease.

 Survivors’ alleles become basis of new population.

 Both lead to reduced genetic variation.

7. Use Hardy-Weinberg principle to determine if a population is evolving. [6]

Answer:

 Hardy-Weinberg: p² + 2pq + q² = 1; p + q = 1.

 Predicts genotype frequencies under no evolution.

 Conditions: large population, random mating, no mutation/migration/selection.

 Compare observed frequencies to expected ones.

 If different, evolution is occurring.

 Use chi-square test to determine significance.

8. Compare natural selection with artificial selection. [8]

Answer:

Natural Selection Artificial Selection

Occurs in nature Controlled by humans

Driven by environment Driven by desired traits

Increases fitness May reduce fitness

Slow process Faster process

Maintains variation May reduce variation

Leads to adaptation Leads to desirable traits

 Both change allele frequency.

 Both cause evolution.

9. Explain the importance of genetic variation to evolution. [6]

Answer:

 Genetic variation provides raw material for natural selection.

 Allows survival under environmental change.

 Increases chance of beneficial mutations.

 Without variation, evolution cannot occur.

 Maintains population stability.

 Reduces risk of extinction.

10. Describe how selection can lead to the maintenance of polymorphism (e.g. sickle-cell trait). [6]

Answer:

 Polymorphism = presence of two or more phenotypes.

 Sickle cell allele (HbS) causes disease in homozygous state.

 Heterozygotes (HbA/HbS) resistant to malaria.

 Selection favors heterozygotes in malaria-endemic areas.

 Both alleles maintained in population.

 Balancing selection maintains variation.

1. Define the term ‘natural selection’. [2]

Answer:
Natural selection is the process where individuals with advantageous characteristics survive and
reproduce, passing on their alleles to the next generation.

2. What is meant by ‘allele frequency’? [2]

Answer:
Allele frequency is the proportion of a specific allele among all alleles of a gene in a population.

3. State two sources of genetic variation. [2]

Answer:

 Mutation

 Meiosis (crossing over and independent assortment)

4. Explain why small populations are more affected by genetic drift. [2]

Answer:
In small populations, random events can significantly change allele frequencies because each
individual represents a larger proportion of the gene pool.

5. Distinguish between genotype and phenotype. [2]

Answer:

 Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism (e.g., AA, Aa).

 Phenotype: The observable characteristics resulting from the genotype.

6. Describe the role of mutation in evolution. [3]

Answer:
Mutation introduces new alleles into a population, increasing genetic variation. Beneficial mutations
may provide a survival advantage and be passed on by natural selection.

7. What is the Hardy-Weinberg equation and what does it predict? [3]

Answer:
p2+2pq+q2=1p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1p2+2pq+q2=1 predicts genotype frequencies.
It assumes no mutation, migration, selection, or genetic drift in a large, randomly mating population.

8. Give two examples of selection pressures in the natural environment. [2]

Answer:

 Predation

 Disease
(also acceptable: climate, competition, food availability)

9. Outline how artificial selection differs from natural selection. [3]

Answer:

 Artificial selection is guided by humans; natural selection is driven by environmental

pressures.

 Artificial selection selects for desired traits, which may not improve survival.

 Natural selection increases fitness in a natural environment.

10. State the difference between directional and stabilising selection. [3]

Answer:

 Directional: favors one extreme of phenotype.

 Stabilising: favors average phenotype and eliminates extremes.

 Directional shifts the mean; stabilising maintains it.

11. What is meant by ‘reproductive isolation’? [2]

Answer:
Reproductive isolation occurs when groups of organisms can no longer interbreed to produce fertile
offspring, preventing gene flow.
12. What is the founder effect? [2]

Answer:
The founder effect is a loss of genetic variation that occurs when a small number of individuals
establish a new population.

13. What is polymorphism? Give an example. [2]

Answer:
Polymorphism is the existence of two or more distinct phenotypes in a population, e.g., blood groups
or sickle cell trait.

14. Explain why antibiotic resistance in bacteria is an example of directional selection. [3]

Answer:
Bacteria with resistance genes survive antibiotic treatment. These reproduce and increase the
frequency of resistance alleles, shifting the population toward the resistant phenotype.

15. Define speciation. [2]

Answer:
Speciation is the formation of a new species through the process of reproductive isolation and
genetic divergence.
Questions:

1. MCQ (1 pt): Which of the following is not a source of genetic variation?

o A. Crossing over

o B. Mitosis (Correct)

o C. Independent assortment

o D. Mutation

2. MCQ (1 pt): In stabilising selection:

o A. One extreme is favoured

o B. Average phenotype is favoured (Correct)

o C. Two extremes are favoured

o D. New alleles are introduced

3. MCQ (1 pt): Which increases in frequency through natural selection?

o A. Deleterious alleles

o B. Mutations

o C. Beneficial alleles (Correct)

o D. Chromosome number

4. MCQ (1 pt): Which equation is part of the Hardy–Weinberg principle?

o A. a² + b² = c²

o B. p² + 2pq + q² = 1 (Correct)

o C. p² + pq = 1

o D. p + q + r = 1

5. Short answer (2 pts): Define natural selection.

(Correct answer: Individuals with beneficial traits survive & reproduce, passing traits to
offspring.)

6. Short answer (2 pts): State any two assumptions of the Hardy–Weinberg principle.
(Sample correct answers: large population, random mating, no mutation, no migration, no
selection.)

7. Short answer (1 pt): What is allele frequency?

(Sample correct answer: Proportion of a specific allele in a population.)

8. Short answer (1 pt): Give one example of directional selection.

(Sample correct answer: Antibiotic resistance in bacteria.)

9. Short answer (2 pts): Explain difference between founder effect and bottleneck effect.
(Sample correct: Founder = small group starts new population; bottleneck = sharp reduction
in population size.)
10. Short answer (2 pts): What is reproductive isolation? Give an example.
(Sample correct: When groups can’t interbreed; e.g. frogs breeding at different times.)

11. True/False (1 pt): Genetic drift has more effect on large populations.

o ▶ False (Correct)

12. True/False (1 pt): Artificial selection always increases genetic diversity.

o ▶ False (Correct)

13. True/False (1 pt): Evolution occurs when allele frequencies change over time.

o ▶ True (Correct)

14. True/False (1 pt): Speciation cannot occur without geographical isolation.

o ▶ False (Correct)

15. True/False (1 pt): The sickle-cell allele is maintained in some populations due to malaria
resistance.

o ▶ True (Correct)