A look at the properties of the atomic nucleus
and nuclear reactions
Nuclei are composed to two particles
Protons and Neutrons
Both particles are called “nucleons”
Composed of quarks
Elements are characterized by the number of protons in the
nucleus
The # protons equals the atomic number, Z
The overall number of protons and neutrons is called the mass
number, A
Nuclei are symbolized by:
𝐴
𝑍𝑋
Example: For nucleus 75
33 𝑋
How many protons?
How many neutrons?
What element?
How is this element pronounced?
Some elements have nuclei with varying number of nucleons
Same number of protons
Different number of neutrons
For example, name the following nuclei:
12 13 14
6𝑋 6𝑋 6𝑋
Nuclei with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons are called isotopes
Carbon actually has more than 5 isotopes
11C and 10C also exist + others
Short-lived isotopes
The isotopes of hydrogen have special names
Isotopes are either stable or unstable
The mass of the proton and neutron are similar
neutrons are slightly more massive than protons
The mass of these particles can be expressed in a variety of ways
In kilograms (on formula sheet)
In atomic mass units (u)
1u = mass of 12C nuclei divided by 12
In terms of MeV/c2 (relativistic mass)
The nucleons in a nucleus can be considered as a packed sphere of
particles
Held together by the strong force
The radius of a nucleus increases with more nucleons:
1
𝑟𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 = 𝑟0 𝐴 ൗ3
r0 = 1.2 x 10-15 meters
How does this compare to the Bohr radius?
r = 5.3 x 10-11 m for an H atom
Question: What is the density of a 12C nucleus?
In kg/m3
How does this compare with everyday materials?
How can the nucleus be so dense?
Carbon (diamond) has a density of only 3.2 x 103 kg/m3
Carbon–12 atoms have a diameter of ≈ 0.22 nm
Atoms are composed mostly of empty space
Mass is concentrated in the nucleus
Orbiting electrons takes up most of the volume
The mass of a nucleus is a little bit less than the overall mass of
its constituent protons and neutrons
Some mass has been converted to energy to hold the nucleus together
The Strong Nuclear Force acts over a very short range to keep the protons
and neutrons bundled together
It must overcome the Coulomb Force
This energy is called the binding energy
It is usually given in MeV/nucleon
A high value for more stable nuclei
A lower value for less stable nuclei
Binding energy/nucleon peaks for iron (Fe) nuclei
Above and below this point, energy can be released through
nuclear reactions:
Fusion – combining smaller nuclei
Fission – splitting apart larger nuclei
We will first look at natural radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation from
naturally occurring isotopes
Invisible to human sight
Discovered on photographic plates
Naturally occurring radioactive ores
Led to the discovery of new elements
Unstable nuclei undergo changes
From a parent nuclei to a daughter nuclei
May change the number of protons in a nucleus
Transform into a different element
Different decay processes
3 decay processes
Alpha decay (α)
Occurs for larger nuclei
Emission of a 4He nucleus from the large nucleus
Reduces the mass of a large nucleus
Beta decay (β)
Emission of an electron or a positron from a nucleus
Occurs for element away from the line of stable isotopes
Daughter nucleus is more stable than parent
Gamma decay (γ)
Emission of a high energy photon from an unstable nucleus
Usually associated with beta decay
In all decay processes, mass and charge must be conserved
Alpha decay (α)
𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑍𝑋 ⟹ 𝑍−2𝑌 + 42𝐻𝑒
X is the parent nuclei
Y is the daughter nuclei
4
2𝐻𝑒 is a helium-4 nucleus (alpha particle)
Alpha decay (α)
Example: Polonium-210
210 206
84𝑃𝑜 ⟹ 82𝑌 + 42𝐻𝑒
Question: alpha decay for 226
88𝑋
Write the decay reaction
What isotopes are involved?
Beta decay (β)
Two possibilities:
𝐴 𝐴 0
𝑍𝑋 ⟹ 𝑍+1𝑌 + −1𝑒 + 𝜈ഥ𝑒 electron (e-) emission
𝐴 𝐴 0
𝑍𝑋 ⟹ 𝑍−1𝑌 + +1𝑒 + 𝜈𝑒 positron (e+) emission
Conversion of a neutron (or a proton) in the nucleus into a proton (or a neutron)
Beta decay (β)
Example: Carbon-14
0
14 14
6𝐶 ⟹ 7𝑁 + −1𝑒 + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
12
Question: positron emission for 7𝑋
Write the decay reaction
What isotopes are involved?
Gamma decay (γ)
Usually associated with beta decay
The daughter nucleus from beta decay is excited
High energy state
Quantized states similar to electrons
The excited nucleus(*) releases a photon to return to ground state
Example: Cobalt-60
60 60 ∗ 0
27𝐶𝑜 ⟹ 28𝑁𝑖 + −1𝑒 + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
60 ∗ 60
28𝑁𝑖 ⟹ 28𝑁𝑖 + 𝛾
Gamma decay (γ)
Question: 125𝑋 undergoes
electron emission followed
by gamma emission
Write an expression for the
beta decay
Write an expression for the
gamma decay
Remember that the 3 types of radiation can be
separated using electric or magnetic fields
What about positrons?
The 3 types can also be separated by their ability
to penetrate materials (relative absorption)
Unstable nuclei do not all decay at the same time
The moment when a particular nucleus will decay cannot be
predicted
Random event
Could happen at any time
With a large number of nuclei (N), the rate of decay of parent
nuclei is proportional to the existing number of parent nuclei:
Δ𝑁
𝛼𝑁
Δ𝑡
This leads to an exponential decrease in the number of nuclei
Δ𝑁
= −𝜆𝑁
Δ𝑡
is the decay constant for a given isotope
The - sign means N is decreasing with time
At a point in time, the decay rate of the isotope is:
∆𝑁
Decay Rate, R = = 𝜆𝑁
∆𝑡
R decreases with N
slows down over time
R has units of decays/s
1 decay/second = 1 Bq
Bq are Becquerels
Rearranging the decay rate
formula gives:
∆𝑁
= −𝜆Δ𝑡
𝑁
With a bit of calculus magic, this N ( t ) = N 0 e − t
yields an exponential relation:
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
N0 = number of nuclei at time, t = 0.
N decreases with time and approaches
zero at t = ∞
The decay constant, is related to the half-life of the radioactive
isotope
1/2 the time required for one half of the parent nuclei to decay
to daughter nuclei
The half-life, 1/2 is the quantity usually specified for each
isotope, not the decay constant,
The decay constant is found from the half-life:
ln 2 0.693
Τ1/2 = =
𝜆 𝜆
Example 1:
A sample initially contains 4.82 x 1016 atoms of 222
86𝑅𝑛
What is the decay constant, ?
What is the decay rate, R at t = 0 (in Becquerels)?
How many 222 86𝑅𝑛 nuclei remain after 7 days?
How many new nuclei of 218 84𝑃𝑜 have been produced in 7 days?
What is the decay rate, R at t = 7 days (in Bq)?
How much time must pass before only 9.06 x 1015 nuclei of 222
86𝑅𝑛 remain?
Example 2:
60Co decays into 60Ni which is stable
60Co has T
1/2 = 5.27 years
A moon rock now contains 0.126 grams of
60Co
How much 60Co did it contain 40 years ago?
What happens to the relative amounts of
60Co and 60Ni as time goes on?
As time passes, the number of parent
nuclei decreases, and the number of
daughter nuclei increases
The ratio between parent/daughter
nuclei is a clue in the finding the age
of a sample
Radiometric dating carbon-14 decay curve
Carbon-14 is used to date biologic
materials
Larger unstable nuclei undergo a series of decays
called a decay chain
The 3 different types of radiation (α, β, γ) have different
penetrating abilities
α particles are absorbed quickly by any barrier (including air)
β particles are absorbed by plastics and metals
γ particles are the most penetrating
The intensity of radiation passing through a material decreases
exponentially with the absorber thickness
Similar to decay rate
Shielding is often worn by people working with radioactivity
The absorber in the shield is designed to protect from exposure to active
sources
Example: Lead is often used in X-ray clinics and at the dentist office
Types of radiation damage
Somatic damage is radiation damage to any tissue in the body except
reproductive cells
Genetic damage involves reproductive cells and may be passed on to
offspring
The absorbed dose of radiation is measured in units of Grays (Gy)
1 Gy is equal to 1 Joule of energy absorbed by 1 kg of tissue
Example
You spend 6 hours in the afternoon sun being irradiated with some UV
rays
The UV energy has a power of about 5 W.
If you have a mass of around 80-kg, what is the absorbed dose in Grays
acquired by your whole body?
The 3 types of radiation also have
different effects on the human body
α particles do much more damage than
β or γ rays
Each type of radiation is gauged by its
relative biological effectiveness (RBE)
This factor is used when calculating the
equivalent dose for humans
Thankfully, UV and visible light have
RBEs far less than 1
Equivalent dose is a measure of the dose received that is weighted
for the type of radiation:
Equivalent dose = RBE x Absorbed dose
Equivalent dose has units of Sieverts (Sv)
Example
Beams of pi-mesons (“pions” for short) are created in a
particle accelerator and used to treat a cancerous
tumour
Several beams of pions are directed at a tumour with as
mass of 150 grams
The pion beams combine to hit the tumour with 0.066 J
of energy in a treatment session
Pions have an RBE of 4.
What is the absorbed dose of pions?
What is the equivalent dose?
Equivalent dose is the regulated
quantity used for radiological
protection
About half the radiation we receive comes from natural sources
(mostly radon)
The average amount of radiation has increased in the last few years
Different sources for a technological society
2023
Be safe out
there
Thanx for
attending
Phys 1200
this semester
