Discuss the genetic improvement process on yield increase,

quality in cotton

Pedgree method
Pedigree breeding starts with the crossing of two genotypes, each of which have one or
more desirable characters lacked by the other.
•If the two original parents do not provide all of the desired characters, a third parent can
be included by crossing it to one of the hybrid progeny of the first generation (F1).
•In the pedigree method superior types are selected in successive generations, and a record
is maintained of parent–progeny relationships.

The F2 generation (progeny of the crossing of two F1 individuals) affords the first
opportunity for selection in pedigree programs.
•In this generation the emphasis is on the elimination of individuals carrying undesirable
major genes.
•In the succeeding generations the hybrid condition gives way to pure breeding as a result
of natural self-pollination, and families derived from different F2 plants begin to display
their unique character.
•Usually one or two superior plants are selected within each superior family in these
generations

By the F5 generation the pure-breeding condition (homozygosity) is extensive, and emphasis

shifts almost entirely to selection between families.
•The pedigree record is useful in making these eliminations.
•At this stage each selected family is usually harvested in mass to obtain the larger amounts
of seed needed to evaluate families for quantitative characters.
•This evaluation is usually carried out in plots grown under conditions that simulate
commercial planting practice as closely as possible.

When the number of families has been reduced to manageable proportions by visual
selection, usually by the F7 or F8 generation, precise evaluation for performance and quality
begins.
•The final evaluation of promising strains involves
•(1) observation, usually in a number of years and locations, to detect weaknesses that may
not have appeared previously;
•(2) precise yield testing; and
•(3) quality testing.
•Many plant breeders test for five years at five representative locations before releasing a
new variety for commercial production
F0 Hybridization
F1 Bulk Plot
F2 Bulk Plot (2000-3000 plants), Selecting F2 plants
F3 Plant Rows, from selected F2 plants, progenies of 25 to 30 plants are grown in plant
rows comparing the standart cultivars in F3.
F4 Plant Rows, Superior plants from the best rows are selected and planted in families of
plant rows comparing the standart cultivars in F4 to F6, with selection being made of best
plants, in best rows.
By F7 genotypes should be relatively uniform.
Preliminary yield trials are planted in F7 and yield trials are continued through F10.
After plants are selected in F3 and F4, remaining plants in row should be bulked and
preliminary yield tests started.
REFERENCES
Poehlman, J.M. and Sleper, D.A. (1995) Breeding Cotton. Breeding Field Crops Fourth Edition ,
Iowa State University Press/Ames, SB 185.7.P63, p 369-387.

Chaudry, M.R. and Guitchounts,A. (2003) Cotton Facts. Technical Paper No.25 of the Common
Fund for Commodities, International Cotton Advisory Committe, ISBN 0-9704918-3-2, 158 p.

Barut, A. 2004. Türkiye’de Uygulanmakta Olan Pamuk Islah Metotları, Bitki Islahı Kursu Notları,
Nazilli Pamuk Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü, 12-16.07.2004, Nazilli/Aydın, 23s.

Harem, E. 2010. Pamuk Islahı ve Tarımı, GAP Toprak-Su Kaynakları ve Tarımsal Araştırma
Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü Yayınları, Şanlıurfa, Yayın No: 164, 136 s.
Here are 20 references for an A-level student's project on the comparative analysis of
organic and inorganic fertilizers on maize growth, development, and yield:

1. Agyarko, K., Dartey, E., & Kwakye, P. K. (2014). Evaluation of organic and inorganic
fertilizers on the growth and yield of maize. International Journal of Agricultural Research,
9(2), 59-66.

2. Amanullah, M. M., Sekar, S., & Muthukrishnan, P. (2010). Prospects and potential of
organic farming in India. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences, 9(6), 328-333.

3. Berhanu, A., Selassie, Y. G., & Amare, T. (2013). Effects of organic and inorganic fertilizers
on the yield and nutrient content of maize (Zea mays L.). International Journal of
Environmental Sciences, 2(4), 2510-2517.

4. Beven, K., & Germann, P. (2013). Macropores and water flow in soils. Water Resources
Research, 18(5), 1311-1325.

5. Biradar, D. P., Aladakatti, Y. R., Rao, M., & Uppar, D. S. (2012). Effect of organics on
growth, yield and economics of maize-chickpea cropping system. Karnataka Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 25(3), 326-329.

6. Burnett, S. E., Mattson, N. S., & Williams, K. A. (2016). Substrates and fertilizers for
organic container production of herbs, vegetables, and herbaceous ornamental plants
grown in greenhouses in the United States. HortScience, 51(6), 632-645.
7. Dhillon, J. S., Eickhoff, E. M., Mullen, R. W., & Raun, W. R. (2019). World phosphorus use
efficiency in cereal crops. Agronomy Journal, 111(4), 1670-1678.

8. Garai, S., & Mazumdar, D. (2018). Effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on growth and
yield of maize (Zea mays L.). Journal of Crop and Weed, 14(2), 116-120.

9. Garg, S., & Bahl, G. S. (2008). Phosphorus availability to maize as influenced by organic
manures and fertilizer P associated phosphatase activity in soils. Bioresource Technology,
99(13), 5773-5777.

10. Ghaley, B. B., Rusu, T., Lafond, G., Hernandez-Ramirez, G., Fruergaard Astrup, R., Lezak,
G., ... & Porter, J. R. (2018). Assessment of the magnitude and sources of variability in crop
production, water use and water productivity in smallholder farming systems in Southern
Africa. Science of the Total Environment, 601, 1160-1170.

11. Gilley, J. E., Risse, L. M., & Eghball, B. (2002). Managing runoff following manure
application. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 57(6), 530-533.

12. Iheshiulo, E. M., Srivastava, A. K., & Ajayi, S. A. (2020). Organic and inorganic fertilizer
effects on maize (Zea mays L.) growth, yield and nutritional quality. Communications in Soil
Science and Plant Analysis, 51(11), 1477-1489.

13. Kamal, B. B., Ullah, H., Khan, F. U., Lal, R., & Mehmood, S. (2017). Impact of organic and
inorganic fertilizers on maize crop productivity, profitability and soil health. Pure and
Applied Biology, 6(3), 950-960.

14. Khan, Z. H., Qasim, M., Iqbal, M., Khaliq, A., & Jamil, M. (2014). Effect of organic and
inorganic fertilizers on maize productivity, profitability and soil fertility in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. International Journal of Farming and Allied Sciences, 3(2), 141-145.

15. Kundu, S., Kundu, A. L., Mazumdar, S. P., Saha, M. N., Hazra, G. C., & Mandal, B. (2019).
Effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on growth, yield, and quality of maize (Zea mays
L.). Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 50(8), 983-994.
16. Malav, L. C., Malav, J. K., Sharma, A., Patel, A. K., & Rameshwar, L. (2018). Effect of
organic and inorganic fertilizers on growth and yield of sweet corn (Zea mays saccharata).
International Journal of Chemical Studies, 6(2), 1450-1454.

17. Panwar, A. S., Kharwara, P. C., & Bhardwaj, A. K. (2006). Effect of organic, inorganic, and
integrated nutrient management on productivity of maize (Zea mays)–wheat (Triticum
aestivum) cropping system. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 51(2), 83-86.

18. Rusinamhodzi, L., Corbeels, M., Nyamangara, J., & Giller, K. E. (2012). Maize–grain
legume intercropping is an attractive option for ecological intensification that reduces
climatic risk for smallholder farmers in central Mozambique. Field Crops Research, 136, 12-
22.

19. Schröder, J. J., Neeteson, J. J., Oenema, O., & Struik, P. C. (2000). Does the crop or the
soil indicate how to save nitrogen in maize production? Reviewing the state of the art. Field
Crops Research, 66(2), 151-164.

20. Tully, K., Sullivan, C., Weil, R., & Sanchez, P. (2015). The state of soil degradation in sub-
Saharan Africa: Baselines, trajectories, and solutions. Sustainability, 7(6), 6523-6552.

Here is a 100-word acknowledgment for the A-level student's project on the comparative
analysis of organic and inorganic fertilizers on maize growth, development, and yield:

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who has supported me throughout
this project. First and foremost, I would like to thank my teacher, [Teacher's Name], for their
guidance, encouragement, and invaluable feedback. I am also grateful to the staff at the
[School/Institution Name] library for their assistance in locating relevant research materials.
Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the contributions of my peers, [Peer's Names],
who provided valuable insights and helped me refine my ideas. Finally, I am thankful to my
family and friends for their
Here is a sample application letter for a biology teacher position at Trust Academy, teaching
from Form 1 up to Form 6:
August 22, 2024

The Principal
Trust Academy
123 Main Street
Anytown, Country 12345

Dear Principal,

I am writing to express my strong interest in the biology teacher position currently available
at Trust Academy. With my extensive experience in teaching biology and my passion for
inspiring students, I believe I am an excellent candidate to contribute to the academic
excellence of your esteemed institution.

As an experienced biology educator, I have taught students ranging from Form 1 to Form 6
over the past 10 years. I am deeply committed to fostering a love for the life sciences and
helping students develop a strong foundation in biological concepts, laboratory skills, and
critical thinking. My teaching approach combines engaging lectures, hands-on experiments,
and interactive learning activities to cater to diverse learning styles.

One of my core strengths is my ability to effectively communicate complex scientific ideas

and make them accessible to students of all academic levels. I have a strong grasp of the
national curriculum and examination requirements, and I work diligently to ensure my
students are well-prepared for their assessments. Additionally, I stay up-to-date with the
latest advancements in biology and incorporate relevant case studies and real-world
applications into my lessons to stimulate students' curiosity and deepen their
understanding.

Beyond the classroom, I am also experienced in managing and supervising science clubs,
field trips, and extracurricular activities. I believe in the importance of providing students
with opportunities to explore their interests and apply their knowledge in practical settings.

I am confident that my combination of subject expertise, pedagogical skills, and

commitment to student success would make me an invaluable asset to the biology
department at Trust Academy. I am excited about the prospect of contributing to the
school's reputation for academic excellence and helping your students reach their full
potential.

Thank you for considering my application. I look forward to the opportunity to discuss my
qualifications further and demonstrate how I can contribute to the continued growth and
success of Trust Academy.

Sincerely,
[Your Name]unwavering support and motivation during the course of this project.
Here are 17 multiple choice questions with 4 answers each, using the content you provided:

1. What is a cell?
a) The basic unit of structure and function in a living thing
b) A small room in a prison
c) A group of people living together
d) A compartment in the human body

2. State three characteristics of all living organisms.

a) Sensitivity, reproduction, adaptation
b) Made of cells, need energy, respiration
c) Chlorophyll, photosynthesis, autotrophic
d) Movement, excretion, circulation

3. Which of the following is found in an animal cell but not in a plant cell?
a) Cellulose cell wall
b) Nucleus
c) Chloroplast
d) Mitochondria

4. The main function of the nucleus is:

a) Control the activities of the cell
b) Photosynthesis
c) Respiration
d) Digestion

5. The main function of the cell membrane is:

a) Intake of materials
b) Protection and support
c) Movement
d) Transport of materials in and out of the cell

6. The main function of the cell wall is:

a) Support and protection
b) Digestion of food
c) Transportation of materials
d) Storage of water

7. The two main respiratory gases are:

a) Oxygen and carbon dioxide
b) Nitrogen and hydrogen
c) Helium and argon
d) Ozone and nitrous oxide

8. The test for oxygen is:

a) Burning splint relights after being extinguished near the gas
b) Blue litmus paper turns red
c) Gas turns into liquid
d) Solid dissolves in the gas
9. Complete the table:
Gas Percentage
Nitrogen 78%
Carbon dioxide 21%
a) Oxygen 20%
b) Helium 1%

10. What are three ways of waste disposal?

a) Burning, dumping, recycling
b) Burying, composting, littering
c) Throwing away, flooding, airing
d) Decomposing, incinerating, spreading

11. An organism that can make its own food is called:

a) Heterotroph
b) Autotroph
c) Producer
d) Decomposer

12. Green plants and some other organisms are:

a) Autotrophs
b) Heterotrophs
c) Decomposers
d) Producers

13. Organisms that break down dead organic matter are:

a) Autotrophs
b) Decomposers
c) Heterotrophs
d) Producers

14. The process by which green plants prepare their own food is:
a) Respiration
b) Excretion
c) Osmosis
d) Photosynthesis

15. Substances needed for photosynthesis are:

a) Carbon dioxide and water
b) Oxygen and nitrogen
c) Sunlight and chlorophyll
d) Minerals and oxygen

16. The fluid inside the cells is called:

a) Vacuole
b) Cytoplasm
c) Lysosomes
d) Mitochondria

17. Sugars produced during photosynthesis are:

a) Stored in the cytoplasm
b) Used for cell growth and cell division
c) Carried through the phloem sieve tubes
d) Excreted out of the leaf

Here are 16 multiple choice questions using the provided content:

1. What is meant by the term neutralisation?

a) The processes of making a substance neither acidic nor alkaline
b) Dissolving a gas in water
c) Changing temperature of a substance
d) Mixing two substances together

2. What is formed when an acid and a base are reacted?

a) Salt and water
b) Oxygen and hydrogen
c) Carbon dioxide and water
d) Nitrogen and carbon

3. Write the word equation for a reaction between a base sodium hydroxide and nitric acid.
a) Sodium hydroxide + nitric acid → sodium nitrate + water
b) Sodium hydroxide + nitric acid → hydrogen gas + oxygen gas
c) Sodium hydroxide + nitric acid → sodium oxide + nitric oxide
d) Sodium hydroxide + nitric acid → sodium carbonate + water

4. Identify the three states of matter.

a) Solid, liquid, gas
b) Metal, non-metal, molecule
c) Acid, base, salt
d) Chroma, tint, tone

5. Which arrangement shows the particles in a solid?

a) Spread far apart and randomly arranged
b) Closely packed in an ordered arrangement
c) Evenly spread in fixed volumes
d) Flowing smoothly past one another
6. Which of the following best describes how gas particles move?
a) Sliding over and past each other
b) Vibrating about fixed positions
c) Floating freely in a disorganised arrangement
d) Forming a definite shape and volume

7. Which process involves changing directly from the solid to the gas state?
a) Melting
b) Freezing
c) Sublimation
d) Deposition

8. State two conditions needed for rusting to occur.

a) Oxygen and moisture
b) Heat and water
c) Carbon dioxide and light
d) Cold and darkness

9. Name three methods to prevent rusting.

a) Greasing, waxing, phosphating
b) Burning, drying, dissolving
c) Heating, cooling, mixing
d) Folding, cutting, hammering

10. What type of mixture consists of particles that are uniformly distributed and cannot be
separated using mechanical means?
a) Heterogeneous
b) Colloid
c) Homogenous
d) Solution
11. Name a method that can be used to separate the components of a colloid.
a) Sublimation
b) Filtration
c) Evaporation
d) Crystallization

12. Which process uses difference in mass to separate mixtures into pure substances?
a) Sieving
b) Fractional distillation
c) Magnetic separation
d) Filtration

13. What term is used to describe chemical change where new substances are formed?
a) Rusting
b) Combustion
c) Displacement
d) Neutralization

14. Give an example of a physical change.

a) Burning of wood
b) Dissolving salt in water
c) Corrosion of iron
d) Freezing of water

15. Which change can be reversed by changing conditions like temperature?

a) Rusting of iron
b) Burning of gas
c) Melting of ice
d) Ripening of bananas

16. Identify the type of mixture consisting of particles that settle out easily and can be
separated using filtration.
a) Colloid
b) Solution
c) Heterogeneous mixture
d) Homogeneous mixture

Here are 18 multiple choice questions for you using the content provided:

1. Identify three ways of presenting data:

a) Tables, graphs, charts
b) Pictures, essays, maps
c) Formulas, equations, calculations
d) Stories, plays, poems

2. What type of graph shows the information from this table?

a) Bar graph
b) Line graph
c) Pie chart
d) Histogram

3. Which SI unit is used to measure length?

a) Metres
b) Seconds
c) Grams
d) Kelvin

4. Which instrument is used to measure mass?

a) Ruler
b) Balance
c) Thermometer
d) Stopwatch

5. Which instrument is used to measure time?

a) Balance
b) Stopwatch
c) Thermometer
d) Ruler

6. Which SI unit is used to measure temperature?

a) Seconds
b) Metres
c) Grams
d) Kelvin

7. Identify two types of errors in measurement:

a) Systematic and random
b) Large and small
c) Over and under
d) Accuracy and precision

8. Give an example of a contact force:

a) Gravity
b) Electric force
c) Friction
d) Magnetic force
9. Give an example of a non-contact force:
a) Friction
b) Gravity
c) Electric force
d) Magnetic force

10. What component would be used to measure current in a simple circuit?

a) Cell
b) Bulb
c) Switch
d) Ammeter

11. What does stone A weigh?

a) Unknown
b) 21g
c) 17g
d) 14g

12. What is the volume of stone B?

a) 9cm3
b) 12cm3
c) 15cm3
d) Unknown

13. What is the mass of stone C?

a) 31g
b) 25g
c) 20g
d) Unknown
14. What is the density of stone C?
a) 1.5g/cm3
b) 2g/cm3
c) 2.5g/cm3
d) Unknown

15. Which of the following is a type of error when taking a reading from a measuring
cylinder?
a) Systematic error
b) Personal error
c) Occasional error
d) Parallax error

16. What term is used to describe the amount of matter in an object?

a) Density
b) Mass
c) Volume
d) Weight

17. How many grams are in 1 kilogram?

a) 1000g
b) 100g
c) 10g
d) 1g

18. What is the unit for measuring density?

a) Grams/cm
b) Grams/cubic cm
c) Grams/meters
d) Kg/m3