• Long-term energy storage.
Biochemistry Comprehensive Notes • Cell membrane structure (phospholipid bilayer).
• Insulation and protection.
1. Introduction to Biochemistry • Hormone signaling.
• Definition: Biochemistry is the study of the chemical
substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms.
• It merges principles of biology, chemistry, and D. Nucleic Acids
physics to explain life at a molecular level. • Types: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA
• Biochemistry deals with the structure, composition, (ribonucleic acid).
and chemical reactions of biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, • Monomers: Nucleotides (composed of sugar,
lipids, and nucleic acids. phosphate group, nitrogenous base).
• It answers questions such as: How does food • Functions:
become energy? How do cells communicate? How do genes control • DNA: stores genetic information.
functions? • RNA: carries instructions for protein synthesis.
• Nitrogenous bases:
2. Importance of Biochemistry • Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G).
• Medical Science: Explains the biochemical basis of • Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T in DNA), Uracil
diseases (e.g., diabetes, cancer, metabolic disorders). (U in RNA).
• Nutrition: Studies digestion, absorption, and
metabolism of nutrients.
• Pharmacology: Drug design and mechanism of 4. Enzymes
action are based on biochemical principles. • Definition: Proteins (sometimes RNA-based) that act
• Agriculture: Helps improve crop yield, disease as catalysts to speed up biochemical reactions without being consumed.
resistance, and animal nutrition. • Properties:
• Biotechnology: Recombinant DNA technology, • Highly specific.
genetic engineering, and enzyme applications rely on biochemistry. • Work under mild temperature and pH.
• Lower the activation energy of reactions.
• Factors affecting enzyme activity:
3. The Major Biomolecules • Temperature (too high → denaturation).
• pH (extremes alter active site).
A. Carbohydrates • Substrate concentration (follows Michaelis-Menten
• Elements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O) in kinetics).
ratio ~1:2:1. • Inhibitors (competitive or non-competitive).
• Functions: • Examples: Amylase (breaks down starch), Lipase
• Primary energy source (glucose). (breaks down fats), DNA polymerase (replicates DNA).
• Structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in
exoskeletons). ⸻
• Cell recognition and signaling (glycoproteins,
glycolipids). 5. Metabolism
• Classification: • Definition: The sum of all biochemical reactions in
• Monosaccharides: simplest sugars (glucose, fructose, living organisms.
galactose). • Two major types:
• Disaccharides: two monosaccharides (sucrose = • Catabolism: Breakdown of molecules to release
glucose + fructose, lactose = glucose + galactose). energy (e.g., glycolysis, fatty acid oxidation).
• Polysaccharides: many sugar units (starch, glycogen, • Anabolism: Building of complex molecules requiring
cellulose). energy (e.g., protein synthesis, DNA replication).
⸻ Key Metabolic Pathways
1. Glycolysis: Conversion of glucose → pyruvate + ATP
B. Proteins (occurs in cytoplasm).
• Building blocks: Amino acids (20 standard types). 2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle): Produces NADH,
• Functions: FADH₂, ATP, CO₂ (occurs in mitochondria).
• Structural (collagen, keratin). 3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC): Uses NADH & FADH₂
• Enzymes (biological catalysts). to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
• Transport (hemoglobin carries oxygen). 4. Gluconeogenesis: Formation of glucose from non-
• Hormonal (insulin, glucagon). carbohydrate sources (amino acids, glycerol).
• Immune defense (antibodies). 5. Lipid Metabolism: Fatty acids broken down into
• Structure: acetyl-CoA.
• Primary: amino acid sequence. 6. Protein Metabolism: Amino acids used for energy,
• Secondary: folding into alpha-helices and beta- glucose production, or new protein synthesis.
sheets.
• Tertiary: 3D structure stabilized by bonds. 6. Vitamins and Coenzymes
• Quaternary: multiple polypeptides forming a • Role: Many vitamins act as coenzymes or cofactors
functional protein. in enzymatic reactions.
• Examples:
C. Lipids • Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) → carbohydrate metabolism.
• Definition: Hydrophobic molecules that are insoluble • Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) → amino acid metabolism.
in water but soluble in organic solvents. • Vitamin B12 → DNA synthesis.
• Types: • Vitamin D → calcium and bone health.
• Fats and oils (triglycerides). • Vitamin K → blood clotting.
• Phospholipids (important in membranes).
• Steroids (cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen). 7. Clinical Applications of Biochemistry
• Functions:
• Medical Diagnosis: Blood tests for glucose, liver
enzymes, kidney function.
• Disease Understanding:
• Diabetes → defect in insulin/glucose metabolism.
• Sickle cell anemia → abnormal hemoglobin
structure.
• Gout → excess uric acid metabolism.
• Drug Development: Biochemistry explains drug-
receptor interactions.
• Nutrition: Determines essential nutrients and
metabolism.
8. Summary
• Biochemistry explains life in terms of molecules and
reactions.
• Key focus areas: biomolecules, enzymes,
metabolism, and clinical relevance.
• It is essential for understanding health, disease,
nutrition, and biotechnology.
