CN UNIT-2

Network Classification: PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN and wireless network; Network Topology;
Network Modes; internet, intranet and Extranet; X.25, frame relay, narrow band and broad band
ISDN, ATM.

Network Reference Models: Layered architectures, protocol hierarchies, interface and services: ISO-
OSI reference model, TCP/IP reference model; internet protocol stacks.

NETWORK: A computer network is a collection of computers and other peripheral devices that are
connected in order to exchange data and hardware resources. Computer networks aid in sharing of
information, sharing of resources, storage efficiency, and timely communication, among other things.

Type of Networking

The size of a computer network defines its classification. A network can be tiny, containing only one
system, or as large as needed. The following are the various types of computer networks:
 PAN
 LAN
 MAN
 WAN

PAN (Personal Area Network)

 It is the smallest network of computers.

1/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI
  Bluetooth or other infrared-enabled devices could be used to connect devices.
 It has a 10-metre range of connectivity.
 It can cover up to 33 feet in diameter.
 PAN network enables a single person's personal devices to connect with each other.

PAN is a personal area network having an interconnection of personal technology devices to

communicate over a short distance. It covers only less than 10 meters or 33 feet of area. PAN has
fewer users as compared to other networks such as LAN, WAN, etc. PAN typically uses some form
of wireless technology. PAN involves the transmission of data between information devices such as
smartphones, personal computers, tablet computers, etc.
Advantages:
 Allows for easy communication between personal devices in close proximity.
 Can be set up easily and quickly.
 Uses wireless technology, which eliminates the need for wires and cables.
 PANs are designed to be energy efficient, which means that devices can communicate with each
other without draining their batteries quickly.
 PANs are typically secured using encryption and authentication protocols, which helps to
prevent unauthorized access to data and resources.

Disadvantages:
 Limited coverage area.
 May not be suitable for large-scale data transfer or communication.PANs typically have limited
bandwidth, which means that they may not be able to handle large amounts of data or high-
speed communication.
 May experience interference from other wireless devices.

Types of PAN (Personal Area Network)

Personal Area Network is divided into two categories.

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  Wired Personal Area Network: The USB is used to create a wired Personal Area Network.
 Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs) are the
connection networks created by combining wireless technologies like WiFi and Bluetooth. It
is a network with a short range.

LAN (Local Area Network)

LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal computers and
workstations can share data, tools, and programs. The group of computers and devices are
connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined
by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers on the local
network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the larger WAN.
Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited. By definition, the
connections must be high-speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs, network
adapters, and Ethernet cables). LANs cover a smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few
kilometres) and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, school,
etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted-pair
cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.

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Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are normally 100 or 1000
Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The smallest LAN may only use two computers,
while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. LAN has a range up to 2km. A LAN
typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but wireless
connections can also be part of a LAN. The fault tolerance of a LAN is more and there is less
congestion in this network. For example A bunch of students playing Counter-Strike in the same
room (without internet).
Advantages:
 Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
 Easy to set up and manage.
 Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.
 Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.

Disadvantages:
 Limited geographical coverage.
 Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure upgrades to accommodate growth.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased usage.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 Cable TV Connection is an example of a network that can be connected within a city.
 Ethernet, ATM, Token-ring, and FDDI are some examples.
 MAN network has a wider range of applications.
 This network interface could be used to connect citizens to various organisations.

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered by a LAN and a smaller
area as compared to WAN. MAN has a range of 5-50km. It connects two or more computers that
are apart but reside in the same or different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may serve
as an ISP (Internet Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed
connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a
Metropolitan Area Network.

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The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is costly
and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and the propagation
delay of MAN are moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are Modem and
Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are part of the telephone company network that can provide a
high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a city.
Advantages:
 Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than LAN.
 Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
 Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.

Disadvantages:
 Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased usage.
 May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

 A network that spans a country or a larger group of individuals.
 The WAN network connects telephonic connections as well.
 The internet is the world's largest WAN, and it is mostly utilised by government entities to
handle data and information.

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical area,
although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. WAN has a range of above
50 km. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via telephone lines and
radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to
the public. The technology is high-speed and relatively expensive.
There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN is difficult to design
and maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more congestion
in the network. A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to long-
distance transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased distance and
increased number of servers and terminals etc. The speed of WAN ranges from a few kilobits per
second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems
faced here. Devices used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires, Microwaves,
and Satellites. An example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network
and Point-to-Point WAN is a dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet.
Advantages:
 Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.

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 Provides connectivity to the internet.
 Offers remote access to resources and applications.
 Can be used to support multiple users and applications simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
 Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
 Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
 May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due to longer distances and
multiple network hops.
 May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

Difference Between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Network LAN MAN WAN

Metropolitan Area
Expands to Local Area Network Wide Area Network.
Network.

A network that
It covers a broad It connects countries and spans a
connects a group of
Meaning area, such as cities broad geographic area. As an
computers across a
and towns. example, consider the Internet.
short distance.

Ownership of
Private Private or public Private or public.
Network

Speed High Moderate Low

Design and
Easy Difficult Difficult
Maintenance

Propagation
Short Moderate Long
Delay

Congestion Less More More

Fault
More tolerant. Less tolerant Less tolerant
Tolerance

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 School, college and
Used for Small town, city Country/Continent
hospitals.
WIRELESS NETWORKS: Computer networks that are not connected by cables are called
wireless networks. They generally use radio waves for communication between the network nodes.
They allow devices to be connected to the network while roaming around within the network
coverage.

There are four types of wireless networks -- wireless local area networks, wireless
metropolitan area networks, wireless personal area networks and wireless wide area networks -- each
with its own function.

1. Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology provides internet access within a building or a limited outdoor
area. First used within offices and homes, WLAN technology is now also used in stores and
restaurants. The use of home networks greatly increased as the COVID-19 pandemic forced office
workers, students, teachers and others to work and study from home.

Most home network designs are simple. A modem connects to the cable or fiber from a local service
provider. A wireless router is connected to the modem and receives the signal from the modem. The
router also serves as the wireless access point (AP), which then broadcasts using a wireless protocol,
such as the 802.11 standards.

Office networks are more complicated. APs are usually mounted on the ceiling, with each
broadcasting a wireless signal to the surrounding area. Multiple APs are required in large offices,
each connecting to the office backbone network via a wired connection to a switch. APs coordinate
support for users walking through the office area and hand off support to maintain open, connected
sessions from AP to AP.

2. Wireless MAN
Wireless metropolitan area networks have been installed in cities worldwide to provide access for
people outside an office or home network. These networks cover a wider area than office or home
networks, but the principles are the same. APs are located on the sides of buildings or on telephone
poles throughout the covered area. APs are connected to the internet via a wired network and
broadcast a wireless signal throughout the area. Users connect to their desired destination by
connecting to the nearest AP, which forwards the connection through its internet connection.

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 Use this chart
to compare the major differences among WLANs, WMANs, WPANs and WWANs.
3. Wireless PAN
Wireless personal area networks cover a very limited area -- typically a maximum of 100 meters for
most applications -- using protocols like Bluetooth and Zigbee. Bluetooth enables hands-free phone
calls, connects a phone to earpieces or transmits signals between smart devices. Zigbee connects
stations along an IoT network. Infrared technology is limited to line of sight, such as connecting TV
remotes to televisions.

4. Wireless WAN
Wireless WANs use cellular technology to provide access outside the range of a wireless LAN or
metropolitan network. These networks enable users to make phone calls to others. WANs can support
either speech or data transfer using the same technology. Users can also connect to the internet to
access websites or server-based applications.

Cell towers are located nearly everywhere within the U.S. and most other countries. A user
connection is routed to the nearest cell tower, which, in turn, is connected either to the wired internet
or to another tower connected to wired internet.

5G : The advent of 5G has suggested a possible fifth form of wireless, larger than a WAN but smaller
than most MANs. Ongoing work is investigating a possibly less expensive alternative to cable: 5G to
the home or office.

Currently, most cable internet and TV access requires a fiber or coax cable to reach subscribers.
Running cable throughout a neighborhood is expensive to install and maintain. With 5G, however,
providers could mount a 5G AP on an existing power pole, while each house or building gets a
mounted receiver.

5G can compete with cable for data rates and latency, but several drawbacks to this concept could
prevent adoption success. Below are some of the drawbacks to 5G:
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 5G signals are point to point. Any obstruction, like a building or tree, disrupts communication.
 Distance is limited from about 1,000 to 2,000 feet.
 Heavy rain and snow can disrupt the signal, which isn't acceptable for internet or TV access.
 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and NASA are concerned 5G could interfere
with their satellites that monitor changing atmospheric measurements to help predict upcoming
weather.

Assuming providers and organizations can overcome these issues, 5G competition will vary. Most
areas in the U.S. are served by cable installed years ago. 5G to the home or office would be
competitive only in areas with new housing and office developments or where there is no current
cable infrastructure.

As neither a MAN nor a WAN but a combination of the two, 5G to the home or office will constitute
a new category of wireless access. Still, whether this 5G option succeeds, the capabilities of 5G will
open new applications for wireless.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES: In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected

devices. Think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily
correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network.

Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

 bus
 ring
 star
 tree
 mesh

More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies.

Bus Topology: Bus networks use a common backbone to connect all devices. A device wanting to
communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all
other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message.

Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the
alternatives. 10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet cabling
options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number
of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems
will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes
unusable.

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Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Ring Topology: In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication
purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire
network. To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology.
Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.

Star Topology: Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central
connection point called a "hub node" that may be a network hub, switch or router. Devices typically
connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.

Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star
network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub
fails, however, the entire network also fails.)

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Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

Tree Topology: Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest
form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the root of a tree of
devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than
a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by
the number of hub connection points) alone.

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Mesh Topology (Complete or Irregular): A mesh network in which every device connects to every
other is called a full mesh.

Fully connected network partially connected

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Partially connected mesh topology: The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of
the network are connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link –
this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical
fully connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity required for a connection
between every node in the network.

Hybrid Topology: Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way
that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.).
A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected.
For example, if there exists a ring topology in one office department while a bus topology in another
department, connecting these two will result in Hybrid topology. Remember connecting two similar
topologies cannot be termed as Hybrid topology. Star-Ring and Star-Bus networks are most common
examples of hybrid network. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and
star bus network .

 A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus
trunk serves as the network's backbone).
 A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a multistation access
unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.

NETWORK MODES:

Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between
individual devices that are interconnected.
There are three types of transmission mode:-

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These are explained as following below.

1. Simplex Mode –

In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor
can only give the output.

Advantages:
 Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.
 It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication channel.
 There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices, which
simplifies the communication process.
 Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response is not required,
such as broadcasting or surveillance.

Disadvantages:
 Only one-way communication is possible.
 There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received correctly.
 Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional communication.

2. Half-Duplex Mode –

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in
cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time. The entire
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
directions.
Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

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 Advantages:
 Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful in situations where
devices need to send and receive data.
 It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the channel can be used for
both transmission and reception.
 Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only requires one
communication channel.

Disadvantages:
 Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices cannot transmit at the
same time.
 There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause problems in some
applications.
 There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices, which can
complicate the communication process.

3. Full-Duplex Mode –

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex mode,
signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in another direction,
this sharing can occur in two ways:
 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the
other for receiving.
 Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay

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 Advantages:
 Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication, which is ideal for real-
time applications such as video conferencing or online gaming.
 It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can transmit and receive data
simultaneously.
 Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there is no need for error
correction mechanisms.

Disadvantages:
 Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two communication channels.
 It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two physically separate
transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.
 Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a high level of
bandwidth and may not be necessary for some types of communication.

X.25: X.25 is a protocol suite defined by ITU-T for packet switched communications over WAN
(Wide Area Network). It was originally designed for use in the 1970s and became very popular in
1980s. Presently, it is used for networks for ATMs and credit card verification. It allows multiple
logical channels to use the same physical line. It also permits data exchange between terminals with
different communication speeds. The current X.25 standard supports synchronous, full-duplex
communication at speeds up to 2 Mbps over two pairs of wires.
X.25 was developed by common carriers in the early 1970s a as a global standard for a packet-
switching network. X.25 was originally designed to connect remote character-based terminals to
mainframe hosts. The original X.25 standard operated only at 19.2 Kbps, but this was generally
sufficient for character-based communication between mainframes and terminals.

X.25 was designed when analog telephone transmission over copper wire was the norm, X.25 packets
have a relatively large overhead of error-correction information, resulting in comparatively low
overall bandwidth. Newer WAN technologies such as frame relay, Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN), and T-carrier services are now generally preferred over X.25. However, X.25
networks still have applications in areas such as credit card verification, automatic teller machine
transactions, and other dedicated business and financial uses.

X.25 has three protocol layers

 Physical Layer: It lays out the physical, electrical and functional characteristics that interface
between the computer terminal and the link to the packet switched node. X.21 physical
implementer is commonly used for the linking.
 Data Link Layer: It comprises the link access procedures for exchanging data over the link.
Here, control information for transmission over the link is attached to the packets from the
packet layer to form the LAPB frame (Link Access Procedure Balanced). This service ensures
a bit-oriented, error-free, and ordered delivery of frames.

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  Packet Layer: This layer defines the format of data packets and the procedures for control and
transmission of the data packets. It provides external virtual circuit service. Virtual circuits may
be of two types: virtual call and permanent virtual circuit. The virtual call is established
dynamically when needed through call set up procedure, and the circuit is relinquished through
call clearing procedure. Permanent virtual circuit, on the other hand, is fixed and network
assigned.

How X.25 Works: The X.25 standard corresponds in functionality to the first three layers of the 7
layers Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model for networking. Specifically, X.25
defines the following:

An X.25 network consists of a backbone of X.25 switches that are called packet switching exchanges
(PSEs). These switches provide packet-switching services that connect DCEs at the local facilities of
X.25 carriers. You can connect several DTEs to a single DCE by using the multiplexing methods
inherent in the X.25 protocol. Similarly, a single X.25 end node can establish several virtual circuits
simultaneously with remote nodes.

An end node (DTE) can initiate a communication session with another end node by dialing its X.121
address and establishing a virtual circuit that can be either permanent or switched, depending on the
level of service required. Packets are routed through the X.25 backbone network by using the ID
number of the virtual circuit established for the particular communication session. This ID number is
called the logical channel identifier (LCI) and is a 12-bit address that identifies the virtual circuit.
Packets are generally up to 128 bytes in size, although maximum packet sizes range from 64 to 4096
bytes, depending on the system.

• The physical layer interface for connecting data terminal equipment (DTE), such as
computers and terminals at the customer premises, with the data communications equipment (DCE),

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such as X.25 packet switches at the X.25 carrier’s facilities. The physical layer interface of X.25 is
called X.21bis and was derived from the RS-232 interface for serial transmission.

• The data-link layer protocol called Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB), which defines
encapsulation (framing) and error-correction methods. LAPB also enables the DTE or the DCE to
initiate or terminate a communication session or initiate data transfer. LAPB is derived from the
High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) protocol.

• The network layer protocol called the Packet Layer Protocol (PLP), which defines how to
address and deliver X.25 packets between end nodes and switches on an X.25 network using
permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) or switched virtual circuits (SVCs). This layer is responsible for
call setup and termination and for managing transfer of packets.

 X.25 Packet Switched networks allows remote devices to communicate with each other across
high speed digital links without the expense of individual leased lines.
 lines.
 It allows the user to establish virtual circuits and send packets on them. These packets are
delivered to the destination reliably and in order.
 X.25 is a connection oriented service. It supports switched virtual circuits as well as the
permanent circuits.
 The problem with this standard is that it needs digital signal rather than analog signals on
telephone.

Frame-Relay: Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical
and data link layers of the OSI reference model. Frame Relay originally was designed for use
across Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) interfaces. Today, it is used over a variety of
other network interfaces as well. Frame relay is a packet-switching telecommunication service
designed for cost-efficient data transmission for intermittent/irregular traffic between local
area networks (LANs) and between endpoints in wide area networks (WANs). The Service is
phase out in 2015.

A major development in Frame Relay's history occurred in 1990. Frame Relay is a Layer 2 protocol
and commonly known as a service from carriers. For example, people will say “I ordered a frame-
relay circuit”. Frame relay creates a private network through a carrier’s network.

Frame Relay often is described as a streamlined version of X.25. Frame Relay is strictly a Layer 2
protocol suite, whereas X.25 provides services at Layer 3 (the network layer).

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Frame Relay Devices: Devices attached to a Frame Relay WAN fall into two general categories:
data terminal equipment (DTE) and data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE).

DTEs generally are considered to be terminating equipment for a specific network and typically are
located on the premises of a customer. In fact, they may be owned by the customer. Examples of
DTE devices are terminals, personal computers, routers, and bridges.

DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices. The purpose of DCE equipment is to provide
clocking and switching services in a network, which are the devices that actually transmit data
through the WAN. In most cases, these are packet switches. Figure shows the relationship between
the two categories of devices.

Figure: DCEs generally reside within carrier-operated WANs.

The connection between a DTE device and a DCE device consists of both a physical-layer
component and a link-layer component. The physical component defines the mechanical, electrical,
functional, and procedural specifications for the connection between the devices. One of the most
commonly used physical-layer interface specifications is the recommended standard (RS)-232
specifications. The link-layer component defines the protocol that establishes the connection between
the DTE device, such as a router, and the DCE device, such as a switch.

The majority of Frame Relay networks deployed today is provisioned by service providers who
intend to offer transmission services to customers. This is often referred to as a public Frame Relay
service.

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Frame Relay Virtual Circuits: Frame Relay provides connection-oriented data link layer
communication. This means that a defined communication exists between each pair of devices and
that these connections are associated with a connection identifier. This service is implemented by
using a Frame Relay virtual circuit, which is a logical connection created between two data terminal
equipment (DTE) devices across a Frame Relay packet-switched network (PSN).

Virtual circuits provide a bi-directional communications path from one DTE device to another and
are uniquely identified by a data-link connection identifier (DLCI). A number of virtual circuits can
be multiplexed into a single physical circuit for transmission across the network. This capability often
can reduce the equipment and network complexity required to connect multiple DTE devices.

A virtual circuit can pass through any number of intermediate DCE devices (switches) located
within the Frame Relay PSN. Frame Relay virtual circuits fall into two categories: switched
virtual circuits (SVCs) and permanent virtual circuits (PVCs).

The Frame Relay frame is transmitted to its destination by way of virtual circuits (logical paths from
an originating point in the network) to a destination point. Virtual circuits may be permanent (PVCs)
or switched (SVCs). PVCs are set up administratively by the network manager for a dedicated
point-to-point connection; SVCs are set up on a call-by-call basis.

Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs): Switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are temporary connections used
in situations requiring only sporadic/irregular data transfer between DTE devices across the Frame
Relay network. A communication session across an SVC consists of four operational states:

 Call Setup---The virtual circuit between two Frame Relay DTE devices is established.
 Data Transfer---Data is transmitted between the DTE devices over the virtual circuit.
 Idle---The connection between DTE devices is still active, but no data is transferred. If an
SVC remains in an idle state for a defined period of time, the call can be terminated.
 Call Termination---The virtual circuit between DTE devices is terminated.

After the virtual circuit is terminated, the DTE devices must establish a new SVC if there is
additional data to be exchanged. It is expected that SVCs will be established, maintained, and
terminated using the same signaling protocols used in ISDN. Few manufacturers of Frame Relay
DCE equipment, however, support Switched Virtual Connections. Therefore, their actual deployment
is minimal in today's Frame Relay networks.

Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs): Permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) are permanently established
connections that are used for frequent and consistent data transfers between DTE devices across the
Frame Relay network. Communication across PVC does not require the call setup and termination
states that are used with SVCs. PVCs always operate in one of the following two operational states:

 Data Transfer---Data is transmitted between the DTE devices over the virtual circuit.
 Idle---The connection between DTE devices is active, but no data is transferred. Unlike
SVCs, PVCs will not be terminated under any circumstances due to being in an idle state.

19/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

Advantages of Frame Relay: Frame Relay offers an attractive alternative to both dedicated
lines and X.25 networks for connecting LANs to bridges and routers. The success of the Frame
Relay protocol is based on the following two underlying factors:

 Because virtual circuits consume bandwidth only when they transport data, many virtual
circuits can exist simultaneously across a given transmission line. In addition, each device can
use more of the bandwidth as necessary, and thus operate at higher speeds.
 The improved reliability of communication lines and increased error-handling sophistication
at end stations allows the Frame Relay protocol to discard erroneous frames and thus
eliminate time-consuming error-handling processing.

 By using the PVCs, you can design your WAN however you want. Meaning, you define what
sites have direct connections to other sites and you only pay the small monthly PVC fee for
each connection.

Frame Relay is implemented in both public carrier-provided networks and in private

enterprise networks.

Let’s take a simple example. Suppose you are working in a big company and your company has just
expanded to two new locations. The main site is connected to two branch offices, named Branch 1 &
Branch 2 and your boss wants these two branches can communicate with the main site. The most
simple solution is to connect them directly (called a leased line) as shown below:

To connect to these two branches, the main site router, HeadQuarter, requires two serial interfaces
which a router can provide. But what happens when the company expands to 10 branches, 50
branches? For each point-to-point line, HeadQuarter needs a separate physical serial interface (and
maybe a separate CSU/DSU if it is not integrated into the WAN card). As you can imagine, it will
need many routers with many interfaces and lots of rack space for the routers and CSU/DSUs. Maybe
we should use another solution for this problem? Luckily, Frame Relay can do it!
By using Frame Relay we only need one serial interface at the HeadQuarter to connect to all
branches. This is also true when we expand to 10 or 50 branches. Moreover, the cost is much lesser
than using leased-lines.

Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical and data link layers
of the OSI reference model. It offers lower-cost data transfer when compared to typical point-to-point
applications, by using virtual connections within the frame relay network and by combining those

20/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

connections into a single physical connection at each location. Frame relay providers use a frame
relay switch to route the data on each virtual circuit to the appropriate destination.
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode): ATM is a high-speed networking standard designed to
support both voice and data communications. The cost of maintaining separate, specialized
networks for computer, voice, and video is high. To reduce networking costs, ATM enables
integration of all of these services on a single network and the combination of existing networks into
a single infrastructure.

ATM History and Developments: When ATM was originally conceived in the 1990s, many people
saw it as the 'next best thing' in networking technologies since it could handle both LAN and WAN
technologies, allowing users to 'jump' between LAN and WAN without difficulty, in other words, it
would have become a single integrated system combining both. Unfortunately, ATM never became a
"magic" end-to-end solution integrating LAN and WAN technologies. ATM adapters for LAN-based
desktops were expensive, and the standards for interconnecting networks using the ATM cell system
were often confused and delayed. Telephone companies, ISPs and large corporations made use of
ATM for their WAN architecture and critical backbones because of the Qos it could assure.

ATM is normally utilized by Internet service providers on their private long-distance networks.
ATM operates at the data link layer (Layer 2 in the OSI model) over either fiber or twisted-pair
cable. ATM differs from more common data link technologies like Ethernet in several ways. For
example, ATM utilizes no routing. Hardware devices known as ATM switches establish point-to-
point connections between endpoints and data flows directly from source to destination.
Additionally, instead of using variable-length packets as Ethernet does, ATM utilizes fixed-sized
cells. ATM cells are 53 bytes in length that includes 48 bytes of data and five (5) bytes of header
information.

Because ATM is designed to be easily implemented by hardware (rather than software), faster
processing and switch speeds are possible. The performance of ATM is often expressed in the form
of OC (Optical Carrier) levels, written as "OC-xxx." Performance levels as high as 10 Gbps (OC-
192) are technically feasible with ATM. More common performance levels for ATM are 155 Mbps
(OC-3) and 622 Mbps (OC-12). Along with Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) and several
other technologies, ATM is a key component of broadband ISDN (BISDN).

ATM Architecture:

21/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

 • In order to carry data units longer than 48 octets in ATM cells, an adaptation layer is
needed.
• The ATM adaptation layer (AAL) provides for segmentation and reassembly of higher-
layer data units and for detection of errors in transmission.
• Since the ATM layer simply carries cells without concern for their contents, a number of
different AALs can be used across a single ATM interface.
• The AAL maps the user, control, or management protocol data units into the
information field of the ATM cell and vice versa.
• The physical layer transports ATM cells between two adjacent ATM layers.
• The ATM layer is concerned with the end to-end transfer of information, i.e., from the
transmitting end-device to the receiving end-device. ATM Service supports speeds from
1.544 Megabits (Mbps) to 622 Mbps.

22/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

ATM technology includes:

 Scalable performance. ATM can send data across a network quickly and accurately,
regardless of the size of the network. ATM works well on both very low and very high-speed
media.

 Flexible, guaranteed Quality of Service (QoS). ATM allows the accuracy and speed of data
transfer to be specified by the client. This feature distinguishes ATM from other high-speed
LAN technologies such as gigabit Ethernet. Traffic management at the hardware level ensures
that quality service exists end-to-end. Each virtual circuit in an ATM network is unaffected by
traffic on other virtual circuits. Small packet size and a simple header structure ensure that
switching is done quickly and that delays due to high traffic are minimized.

 Unobstructed speed. ATM imposes no architectural speed limitations. Its pre-negotiated

virtual circuits, fixed-length cells, message segmentation and re-assembly in hardware, and
hardware-level switching all help support extremely fast forwarding of data.

 Integration of different traffic types. ATM supports integration of voice, video, and data
services on a single network. ATM over Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) enables
residential access to these services.

ATM DEVICES: ATM basically uses two types of devices such as ATM switch and end systems.
The function of the switch is to handle the transmission of the cells throughout the network. Switches
accept the incoming cells from the ATM end station or another ATM switch. On the other hand,
ATM end systems contain the ATM adaptors.

ATM CONNECTIONS: ATM supports two types of connections point to point and point to multi
point connections. In the point to point connections, two end systems are connected bi directionally
or uni directionally. The point to multi point system connects one source to the number of
destinations in uni directional. The source sends the information and switch replicates it to the
destinations. Unidirectional network connects two switches. A typical ATM network consists of a set
of the switches interconnected by point to point links. Switch support two types of interfaces user
network and network node interface.

There are four types of the choice when purchasing a connection.

1. Constant Bit Rate: It specifies fixed size rate and data is transferred in a steady form.
2. Variable Bit Rate: It provides specified throughput and it is best for videoconferencing.
3. Available bit rate: It provides guaranteed minimum capacity but high rate is also possible
when the network is free.

23/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

 4. Unspecified bit rate: It does not provide any fixed throughput level and it is best for the file
transfer where delay can occurred.

Applications: Applications suitable for ATM Service include:

 Voice and video

 Packetized voice and video
 WAN/VPN connectivity
 Web hosting
 E-commerce
 Client-server (terminal-host) data
 LAN interconnection
 Remote access
 File transfer
 Internet/intranet/extranet access
o E-mail messaging
o Text imaging
o Forms processing

Connection Types: LAN vs. ATM

Traditional LAN: In a traditional LAN, each client uses a network adapter card, which has a
software driver. Above that driver is a protocol driver, such as TCP/IP. The protocol driver bundles
information into frames of varying size and gives each bundle an appropriate header. As a result,
when the adapter gains access to the media, the data packets are sent on the media to a destination
hardware address. Traditional LAN technologies do not guarantee that data arrives on time or in the
proper order. While Ethernet and Token Ring can detect errors, they provide no service guarantees
and are not responsible for the recovery of missing or corrupted data packets.

Because the end stations are joined by a common medium, each end station on the traditional LAN
recognizes the frames, or packets, of data put on the wire by each of the others, regardless of whether
the frame is passed sequentially from one station to the next (as in a ring topology) or broadcast to all
stations simultaneously (as with Ethernet). Each station has an adapter card, which processes the
frame and examines the destination address. If the address applies to that computer, the frame is
checked for errors. If there are no errors, the adapter initiates a hardware interrupt and passes the
frame to the network adapter driver. The following figure, Traditional LAN: Connectionless Data
Transmittal of a Packet shows an example of a traditional LAN.

Traditional LAN: Connectionless Data Transmittal of a Packet

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Because a traditional LAN is connectionless, it cannot provide mechanisms that can guarantee
successful transmission. For example, it cannot determine the status of the destination adapter to
ensure that it can receive a frame. It cannot ensure that bandwidth is available throughout the
transmission. Unanticipated blockage, due to the media access control scheme of shared access
technologies, can hinder/delay a traditional LAN technology from supporting time-sensitive
applications such as video or voice traffic. Traditional LANs can use upper-level protocol drivers to
verify packet transmission (retransmitting, if necessary), partition big messages into smaller ones, and
use time stamps for synchronization. However, these services add time to the transmission, and none
of them provides end-to-end QoS guarantees.

Traditional Internetworking: If the destination address is remote rather than local, the chances of
transmission failure increase. If a router on an Ethernet network detects a broadcast meant for another
network, the router accepts the packet and passes it on using TCP/IP. A TCP/IP datagram is packet-
switched to its destination individually. The header of each contains a globally significant switching
address. This address allows a routing decision to be made each time the packet is forwarded, and
packets to the same destination might follow completely different paths to get there, jumping over
networks that use different underlying technology. No connection is required, but no delivery is
guaranteed. The following figure, Two Packets Taking Different Routes through a Traditional LAN,
shows an example of two packets taking different routes through a traditional LAN. Two Packets
Taking Different Routes through a Traditional LAN

Like an Ethernet data transfer, a routed data transfer cannot offer guarantees because bandwidth is
never reserved ahead of time. The packets being sent over TCP/IP are simply transmitted on the wire
and routed. While this allows flexibility in routing around obstructions, network performance can
vary a great deal depending on conditions at the routers and on the amount of network traffic.

ATM Networks: In contrast to connectionless transmission protocols, ATM is connection-oriented.

An ATM endpoint establishes a defined path known as a virtual channel (VC), also called virtual
25/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI
circuit, to the destination endpoint prior to sending any data on the network. It then sends a series of
same-size frames, called cells, along the virtual channel towards the destination.

While establishing the connection, the ATM endpoint also negotiates a QoS contract for the virtual
channel. The QoS contract spells out the bandwidth, maximum transit delay, acceptable variance in
the transit delay, and so forth, that the VC provides, and this contract extends from one endpoint to
the other through all of the intermediate ATM switches.

The path of ATM traffic is established at the outset, and the switching hardware merely needs to
examine a simple header to identify the proper path. Beyond specifying a path, ATM allows a
location to establish a full duplex connection (traffic travels in both directions) with multiple
locations at the same time. Note, however, that ATM is an unreliable transmission protocol because it
does not acknowledge the receipt of cells sent. As with LANs, missing or corrupted information must
be detected and corrected by upper-layer protocols.

The following figure, “ATM Virtual Channel and Packet Transmission,” illustrates ATM virtual
channel and packet transmission.

ATM Virtual Channel and Packet Transmission

Cells are transmitted in order, and the ATM network uses Virtual Path Identifier and Virtual Channel
Identifier (VPI/VCI) numbers in the ATM header to forward them efficiently. A switch reads the
header, compares the VPI/VCI to its switching table to determine the correct output port and new
VPI/VCI, and then forwards the cell. All the addressing information that the ATM switch needs is
contained in the header and is always found in the same place. This makes the forwarding task simple
to implement in hardware by, reducing latency. Moreover, with ATM from end to end, there is no
data translation required if a packet must travel from a LAN through a WAN to reach a destination
LAN. The following figure, “ATM Fixed-Length Cells,” shows two ATM end stations sending fixed-
length cells from A to B (although ATM traffic is bi-directional).

ATM Fixed-Length Cells

26/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

Because ATM uses small (53-byte), fixed-length cells that require less logic to process, the network
spends no time determining where a particular cell begins and ends. The small cell size ensures that
delays in forwarding cells are minimized. Because the cell size is so predictable, buffer usage and
analysis algorithms can be simplified and optimized.

Traditional LAN technologies, such as Ethernet, have inherent speed limitations either the underlying
infrastructure (the cable) or the segment length must be changed to support fast traffic. However,
unlike Ethernet and Token Ring, ATM has no such imposed limitations.

ISDN: These are a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice,
video, data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone
network. Before Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), the telephone system was seen as a
way to transmit voice, with some special services available for data. The main feature of ISDN is
that it can integrate speech and data on the same lines, which were not available in the classic
telephone system.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also provides access to packet-
switched networks that allows digital transmission of voice and data. This results in potentially
better voice or data quality than an analog phone can provide. It provides a packet-switched
connection for data in increments of 64 kilobit/s. It provided a maximum of 128 kbit/s bandwidth in
both upstream and downstream directions. A greater data rate was achieved through channel
bonding. Generally, ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs (six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are
bonded.

ISDN offers high-frequency, ultra-high-bandwidth channels to all users of the public switched
telephone network (PSTN), delivering end-to-end digital functionalities using standard equipment

27/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

interface devices. ISDN networks support a range of heterogeneous digital transmission capabilities
over a single interface.

SDN acquired worldwide prominence in the 1990s but has been replaced mainly by newer long-
distance networking technologies. ISDN operates on conventional phone lines or T1 connections (E1
lines in certain countries) and does not permit wireless connections.

ISDN was initially introduced to the public as an alternative to regular dial-up internet access.
Although home ISDN broadband internet was somewhat expensive, some users were ready to pay
extra for a service that boasted connection rates of up to 128 Kbps, as opposed to 56 Kbps (or lower)
for dial-up connections.
ISDN internet connection requires a digital modem rather than a regular dial-up modem and a service
agreement with an ISDN provider. Eventually, the significantly faster network speeds provided by
more recent broadband internet technologies, such as DSL, drew the majority of ISDN’s consumers
away.
Most providers of internet services have phased out support for ISDN, while a few individuals persist
with it in rural locations where better alternatives are unavailable

Introduction:

ISDN is a set of protocols that is based on high-speed fully digitized telephone service. The main aim
of ISDN is to provide a fully integrated digital service to the users.

In ISDN there are following three types of ISDN services:

Bearer Services:

This type of services is used to transfer information such as voice, data, and video between the users
without manipulating the content of the network information. It belongs to the first 3 layers of the
OSI reference model.

28/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

Tele Services:

In these types of services, the network may change the contents of the data. It belongs to the last 4
layers of the OSI reference model. It includes telephony, tele box, fax, and teleconferencing etc.

Supplementary Services:

It provides additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices. Some of the examples of
supplementary services are reverse charging, call waiting, and message handling.

Principles of ISDN:

Following are the principles of ISDN are:

o It supports both circuit switching & packet switching with the connections at 64 kbps.
o In ISDN layered protocol architecture is used for specification.
o ISDN services provides maintenance.
o ISDN services includes some network management functions.
o In ISDN network several configurations are possible for implementing.

ISDN SERVICES:

Following are the two types of services associated with ISDN:

Basic Rate Interface:

In the Basic Rate Interface digital pipe consists of 2 B channels and a 1 D channel. Therefore it is
denoted as "2B + 1 D". These two B channels have a data rate of 64 kbps each, and the D channel
have a data rate of 16 kbps. It has also a usable bandwidth of 144 kbps.

Basic Rate Interface allows the concurrent use of voice and various data applications such as packet-
switched access, a link to a central alarm service, video, tax, etc. The signaling information for the
two channels is sent onto the D channel. The two B channels can be used for one 128 kbps
connection or two independent connections on the two channels.

The following figure shows the basic structure of the frame in the Basic Rate Interface is:

29/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

This service is used to meet the needs of most individual users, including residential and small
offices. In this case, the two B channels and the D channel are multiplexed with overhead bits in the
form of the frame structure. The overhead bits include framing, DC balancing, and other bits.

The 48 bit frame consists of

o 16 bits of B1 Channel
o 16 bits of B2 Channel
o 4 bits of D channel
o 12 overhead bits

The frame is transmitted in 250 µsec, which results in the following bit rates:

o In frame each B channel = 16 / 250 µsec = 64 kbps

o In frame D channel = 4 / 250 µsec = 16 kbps
o In frame Overhead Bits = 12 / 250 µsec = 48 kbps
o In frame Overall Bit rate = 48 / 250 µsec = 192 kbps

Primary Rate Interface:

Primary Rate Interface consists of either 23 B channels or 30 B channels and a one 64 Kbps D
channel. In North America and the Japan, 23 B channels and one D channel are used. It is also
denoted by '23 B + 1 D'. In addition, the Primary Rate Interface service itself uses 8 kbps of
overhead. Therefore 23D + 1D requires a data rate of 1.544 Mbps. In the case of 30 B channels and
one D channel, the total bit rate is 2.048 Mbps.

The following figure shows the basic structure of the frame in the Primary Rate Interface is:

30/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

ISDN CHANNELS:

ISDN structure have a central ISDN office in which all the users are linked to this through a digital
pipe. This digital pipe have different capacities and have a different data transfer rates and these are
organized into multiple channels of different sizes.

ISDN standard have the following three types of channels:

B Channel:

It stands for Bearer channel. It has a 64 kbps standard data rate. It is a basic user channel and can
carry any digital information in full-duplex mode. In this transmission rate does not exceed 64 kbps.
It can carry digital voice, digital data, and any other low data rate information.

D Channel:

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It stands for Data Channel. This channel carry control signal for bearer services. This channel is
required for signaling or packet-switched data and all-controlling signals such as establishing calls,
ringing, call interrupt, etc.

H Channel:

It stands for Hybrid Channel. It provides user information at higher bit rates.

There are 3 types of Hybrid Channel depending on the data rates. Following are the hybrid channels
types:

o Hybrid Channel 0 with 384 kbps data rate.

o Hybrid Channel 11 with 1536 kbps data rate.
o Hybrid Channel 12 with 1920 kbps data rate.

ISDN Devices:

Following are the types of ISDN devices:

TE1:Terminal equipment type (TE1) are specialized ISDN terminals. It includes digital telephone
instruments such as FAX, or data terminal equipment. All these devices have an S-bus ISDN
interface.

TE2:Terminal equipment type (TE2) is Non-ISDN compatible is connected through a Terminal

Adapter. It includes analog phones and 3270 terminal Fax.

TA:It stands for Terminal Adapter. This device acts as an intermediary device for non-ISDN terminal
devices. It converts the non-ISDN interface of these devices to the ISDN interface. The ISDN
terminal Adapter can be either a standalone device or a board inside the Terminal equipment type 2.
Some of the examples of Terminal adapter are EIA/TIA-232-C, V.24 etc.

NT1: It stands for Network termination type 1. It provides a line termination at the customer's
premise. They can also provide line monitoring, power feeding, error statistics, and proper timing.

NT2:It stands for Network termination type 2. It provides a switching, multiplexing, concentrating,
or distributing information for the customer's premises. Some examples of Network termination type
2 are this could be a LAN server or Private Branch Exchange etc.

ISDN Reference Points:

It specifies the number of reference points that provide interfaces between the adjacent devices.

Following Figure displays the working of ISDN reference points:

32/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

In the above figure it shows an ISDN configuration in which 3 devices attached to an ISDN switch at
the central office. In which 2 devices are ISDN compatible and they are attached through the S
reference point to Network termination type 2 devices. Out of these third device is a standard non-
ISDN telephone and is attached to a Terminal Adapter through an R reference point.

These reference points are R, S, T, and U.

o R:It stands for Rate transfer point. It is an interface for non-ISDN devices and therefore is the
reference point between non-ISDN equipment and a Terminal Adapter. It can be RS-232-C,
V, or X series of ITU-T standard or ordinary telephone interface with two wires.
o S:It stands for System transfer point. The interface between the user terminal and NT2. It is a
four-wire balanced to which upto eight ISDN terminals can be connected. The physical
connector for S - interface on terminals and NT1 is an 8-pin RJ-45 connector.
o T:It stands for Terminal transfer point. It is the interface between Network termination type 1
and Network termination type 2
o U: It is the interface between Network termination type 1 device and the line termination
equipment in the carrier network. The U interface is the local copper pair of the access
network. The same pair is used for full-duplex transmission of digital signals.

INTERNET: The Internet is named for "interconnection of computer networks". The Internet is a
global network connecting millions of computers. A means of connecting a computer to any other
computer anywhere in the world via dedicated routers and servers. When two computers are
connected over the Internet, they can send and receive all kinds of information such as text, graphics,
voice, video, and computer programs.

33/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

The Internet grew out of the Advanced Research Projects Agency's Wide Area Network (then called
ARPANET) established by the US Department Of Defense in 1960s for collaboration in military
research among business and government laboratories. Later universities and other US institutions
connected to it. This resulted in ARPANET growing beyond everyone's expectations and acquiring
the name 'Internet.' As personal computers became more mainstream in the 1980's and 1990's, the
Internet grew exponentially as more users plugged their computers into the massive network. Today,
the Internet has grown into a public spiderweb of millions of personal, government, and commercial
computers, all connected by cables and by wireless signals.

More than 100 countries are linked into exchanges of data, news and opinions. According to Internet
World Stats, as of December 31, 2016 there was an estimated 2,267,233,742 Internet users
worldwide. This represents 32.7% of the world's population. There are a variety of ways to access the
Internet. Most online services offer access to some Internet services. It is also possible to gain access
through a commercial Internet Service Provider (ISP).

The development of hypertext based technology (called World Wide web, WWW, or just the Web)
provided means of displaying text, graphics, and animations, and easy search and navigation tools
that triggered Internet's explosive worldwide growth.

No one owns Internet, although several organizations the world over collaborate in its functioning
and development. The high-speed, fiber-optic cables (called backbones) through which the bulk of
the Internet data travels are owned by telephone companies in their respective countries.

Internet Architecture: This architecture (client-Server) is based in the very specification of the
standard TCP/IP protocol, designed to connect any two networks which may be very different in
internal hardware, software, and technical design. Once two networks are interconnected,
communication with TCP/IP is enabled end-to-end, so that any node on the Internet has the near
magical ability to communicate with any other no matter where they are. This openness of design has
34/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI
enabled the Internet architecture to grow to a global scale. Each communication packet goes up the
hierarchy of Internet networks as far as necessary to get to its destination network where local routing
takes over to deliver it to the addressee.

Services Provided by Internet:Internet is today one of the most important part of our daily life.
There are large numbers of things that can be done using the internet and so it is very important. In
today's technological world, there are plenty of services that are provided by the Internet like World
Wide Web, E-mail, USENET-Newsgroup and Remote login. Internet has application in every area of
society today.

ISP provides access to the Internet to subscriber-based customers. An Internet Service Provider
offers dial-up, cable, DSL (digital subscriber line), fiber optic or other types of Internet access.
Dial-up Internet access is the slowest type of Internet connectivity offered by ISPs. Cable, DSL and
satellite Internet access typically provide much greater speeds than dial-up. Local Internet Service
Providers serve customers in a limited region, while national providers serve customers throughout
the country.

In recent years, broadband Internet, or high-speed Internet, has surpassed older dial-up Internet
access, offering speeds up to hundreds of times faster than the 56 kbps rate provided by dial-up
modems. Cable and DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) comprise the majority of Internet subscribers,
though other options include fiber, which has limited availability, and satellite, which is particularly
popular in rural areas where DSL and cable are not always available.

Cable modems deliver Internet access to residential users by drawing information from the same
coaxial cable that delivers information to their TVs, while DSL modems use the copper wiring in
telephone lines. Consumers can sometimes obtain cable and DSL modems from their Internet Service
Provider or from electronics retailers.

LAYERING ARCHITECTURE OF NETWORKS:- A Network is a conceptual framework that

describes how data and network information are communicated from an application on one computer
through network media to an application on other computers in terms of different layers. Network
35/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI
architecture is also known as Reference model. Layering simplifies the architecture of complex
system and enhances components reusability.Layer n relies on the services provided by layer n-1 to
provide service to layer n+1. The motivating factor for the use of a layered architecture is the use of
single service by multiple applications and incredible diversity of systems and physical devices - e.g.

1. One major goal of a layered architecture is to factor out various services so that a given
service can be used by multiple versions of the layer above it and can make use of multiple
versions of the layer below it. Example: the same reservation form “protocol” can be used
whether the information is communicated via email, fax, postal mail or telephone.
Conversely, fax, say, can be used for many other purposes besides transmitting reservation
forms
2. Diverse platforms - computers running various OS’s, but also devices such as smart phones,
entertainment systems, etc.
3. Diverse forms of physical connection - all sorts of wired connections, wireless connections,
fiber optics, etc.

OSI MODEL: International Organization for standardization (ISO) developed OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model in late 1970s. In this data communication functions are defined in terms of 7
layers which are organized in the chronological order of events occurring during a communications
session. The top 3 layers explains how applications with in end stations communicate each other and also
with users. The bottom 4 layer defines end to end data transmission. Different Layers, their functions,
services and protocols are described below.

1. Application Layer - Layer 7 : This is the layer where users communicate with computer. The
main functions are file transfers, email, enabling remote access and network management
activities. The common protocols in this layer are HTTP, FTP, TFTP, Telnet etc.
2. Presentation Layer - Layer 6: Also known as 'Syntax layer' . This layer presents data to
application layer in format that can be processed by an end user. This is actually a translator that
provides coding and conversion functions. Main tasks are data compression, decompression,
encryption and decryption.
3. Session Layer - Layer 5 : This layer is responsible for setting up, managing and then tearing
down session between two computers. The main function is to manage flow of data
communication during a connection between 2 computers. Main services offered are Dialogue
control, Token management and Synchronization. Dialogue control refers to organizing a data
communication session between two computers via 3 modes namely simplex, half duplex and full
duplex. In token management during a session between 2 computers if a critical operation is to be
done they passes tokens and the one holding the token will do that operation. Synchronization is
used to manage timing signal between session for the functions like insertion of check points.

36/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

 4. Transport Layer - Layer 4 : Provides end to end data transfer and establishes logic connections
between sending host and destination host. Main functions are Flow control, Sequencing, error
detection and recovery. Important protocols in this layer are TCP and UDP
5. Network Layer - Layer 3 : This layer is the domain of WAN. Switches and Routers are devices
of Network layer. Functions are Logical addressing and Routing. The common protocols used by
routers are RIP, EIGRP, OSPF, IPv4 etc.
6. Data-Link Layer - Layer 2 : This functions the the transfer of data between the ends of a link. it
has two sub layers namely Media Access Control Layer and Logical Link Control Layer. Packets
received from network layer are transformed into frames. Devices in this layer are switches and
bridges. Functions are Framing packets, Sequence control, Error control, Flow control, Physical
addressing of devices in network, switching of LAN. Main protocols in this layer are HDLC,
SDLC, PPP.
7. Physical Layer - Layer 1 : Physical layer specifies electrical, mechanical, procedural and
functional requirements for activating, maintaining and deactivating a physical link between end
systems. The main function is to send bits and receive bits. Hub is the device in this layer. It also
includes hardware interfaces to connect physical media.

Protocol Hierarchies: A protocol is a set of rules and conventions agreed upon and followed by the
communicating entities for data communication. A protocol outlines the what, how and when of a
communication.

The three aspects of a protocol are −

 Syntax − It defines the format of data that is to be sent or received.

 Semantics − It defines the meaning of each section of bits that are transferred.
 Timings − It defines the time at which data is transferred as well as the speed at which it is
transferred.

Most networks are organized as a stack of layers, one on the top of another. The number of layers and
their names vary from network to network. Each layer has a specified function and adheres to
specified protocols. Thus we obtain a stack of protocols.

The following figure illustrates a four-layer network −

37/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI

The above figure represents communication between Device A and Device B. The data stream from
one device to the other is not sent directly but has to pass through a number of layers. The layers in
the same levels are called peers and have a set of protocols for communication. Between each
adjacent layer is an interface that defines the services that are being offered by a lower layer to the
next higher layer. The dotted arrows depict virtual communication between peer layers, while the
solid arrows represent the physical communications between the adjacent layers.

Let us consider a situation where Device A wants to send a message to Device B. Device A passes its
information to the highest layer. As soon as a data stream reaches a layer, it performs some specified
functions on it and passes it to the layer below. This continues until the data stream reaches the
lowest layer. Layer 1 passes a bit stream of 0s and 1s to the physical medium that communicates it to
the Layer 1 of the receiving end. Each layer in the receiving end performs certain functions on the
data stream adhering to the protocol with its peer and passes it to the layer above. This continues until
the information reaches the highest layer. The highest layer then conveys the message to Devic

TCP/IP Model (Internet Architecture): TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

defines a large collection of protocols that allow computers to communicate. It has 4 layers
architecture. TCP/ IP define each of these protocols inside document called Requests For Comments
(RFCs). By implementing the required protocols in TCP/IP RFCs, a computer can be relatively
confident that it can communicate with other computers that also implement TCP/IP. Different layers
and functions are described below.

1. Application Layer: Provide services to the application software running on a computer.

Application layer provides an interface between software running on a computer and the network
38/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI
 itself. Example for TCP/IP application is web browser. Example protocols are HTTP, POP3, and
SMTP etc.
2. Transport Layer: Consists of mainly two protocol options. Transmission control protocol (TCP)
and User datagram protocol (UDP). Each layer provides a service to the layer above it.In same
layer interaction on different computes, the two computers use protocol to communicate with the
same layer on another computer. The protocol defined by each layer uses a header that is
transmitted between the computers t, to communicate what each computer wants to do. While In
Adjacent layer interaction on the same computer, one layer provides a service to a higher layer.
The software or hardware that implements the higher layer requests that the next lower layer
perform the needed function.

3. Internetwork Layer:Internet protocol (IP), works much like the postal service. IP defines logical
addressing so that each host computer can have a different IP address. Similarly, IP defines the
process of routing so that routers can choose where to send data correctly.
4. Network Interface Layer: Defines the protocols and hardware required to deliver data across
some physical network. The term network interface refers to the fact that this layer defines how to
connect the host computer, which is not part of the network, to the network. It is the interface
between the computer and network. Ethernet is one example protocol at the TCP/IP network
interface layer. Ethernet defines the required cabling, addressing and protocols used to create an
Ethernet. IP relies on the network interface layer to deliver IP packets across each physical
network. IP understands the overall network topology, things such as which routers are connected
to which networks, and what the IP addressing schemes looks like.

Intranet: An intranet is used for establishing communication among internal employees, used in
telephone directories, and many more.

Extranet: An extranet is a private network similar to an intranet, but typically open to external
parties, such as business partners, suppliers, key customers, etc. The main purpose of an extranet is to
allow users to exchange data and applications, and share information.

39/ Designed By: Dr. Mahesh Yadav, GC ATELI