Design Improvement of Distribution Transformer (1000KVA) with Thermal

Analysis under Ambient Temperature Rise Conditions

Pyae Phyo Aung, Captain, B.E. (E.P), M.E. (E.P)

ABSTRACT

This paper is presented Design Improvement of Distribution Transformer

(1000KVA) with Thermal Analysis under Ambient Temperature Rise Conditions. Rising
ambient temperature due to climate change are affecting their performance of
transformers in power systems.

According to, the average global surface temperature is expected to increase

around 1.8℃ to 4℃, while the average increase of global ambient temperature is
predicted from 1.4℃ to 5.8℃, in the periods of 1990 to 2100. Rising ambient
temperatures can reduce the reliability of distribution systems. Higher temperatures
make it harder for transformers to work efficiently. This can lead to more failures and
power outages. Additionally, the ability of transformers to carry electrical loads, is also
reduced. As the temperature increases, transformers can handle less load without
overheating. This makes the system less reliable and increases the risk of damage to
the equipment. An increase in ambient temperature leads to increase in transformer
loading, which leads to a reduction of lifetime of transformers and low insulation value
due to degradation of degree of polymerization. As ambient temperature and operation
temperature increase can cause thermal aging of transformers, it is important to
control a loaded transformer to mitigate aging effect. The IEC 60076-7 and IEEE
C57.91-2011 standard is a critical guide for determining the thermal performance and
loading of transformers, taking into account ambient temperature variations. The
standard provides methodologies for calculating how long a transformer can operate
under different loading conditions and temperatures, without compromising its life
expectancy or safety. Transformer designers must consider the typical ambient
temperature range in the area where the transformer will operate. If the transformer is
intended for use in a hot climate, the designer may need to account for higher losses
and need for enhanced cooling systems. IEEE standards guide how to adapt the design
to ensure reliable performance despite higher ambient temperatures. Therefore, IEC
 2

60076-7 standard and IEEE C57.91 Standard are used for calculating thermal
characteristics and the loss of life of distribution transformer.

Key words - Distribution Transformer Design, Thermal Analysis, IEEE C57.91

standard, IEC 60076-7.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

The performance and reliability of distribution transformers are heavily

influenced by their operating temperature, which is primarily affected by the ambient
temperature and the load they carry. Transformers are key components in power
distribution systems, converting high-voltage electricity from the grid into lower
voltages suitable for domestic or industrial use.

However, these transformers generate heat due to electrical losses, which can
affect their efficiency and lifespan. Managing the internal temperature of transformers
is crucial, as excessive heat can lead to insulation degradation, hot spots, and even
transformer failure. With the rising concern over global climate change and increasing
ambient temperatures, transformers are exposed to higher thermal stresses than
anticipated in their original design. This poses challenges in design and maintaining
their reliability and extending their operational life.

This background section highlights the need for comprehensive thermal

analysis and constructional improvements in transformer design, focusing on mitigating
the effects of temperature rise due to changing environmental conditions. The study of
thermal modeling, according to standards such as IEEE C57.91, provides a systematic
approach to understanding the heat dissipation mechanisms and improving the design
to enhance thermal performance, efficiency, and resilience.

1.2. Problem Statement

Distribution transformers play a crucial role in the power distribution network,

converting high-voltage electricity to lower voltages for consumer use. However,
transformers are highly sensitive to temperature variations, and their performance can
be significantly affected by ambient temperature fluctuations. With rising global
 3

temperatures due to climate change, distribution transformers are increasingly exposed

to higher ambient temperatures, leading to elevated operating temperatures. This
exacerbates issues like increased hot spot temperatures, insulation degradation, reduced
efficiency, and accelerated aging, all of which contribute to the loss of transformer life
and higher operational costs.

The existing designs of many distribution transformers do not adequately account for
the current and projected increases in ambient temperatures. Moreover, traditional
thermal management techniques may not suffice in maintaining optimal thermal
performance under extreme environmental conditions. Therefore, there is a pressing
need to develop improved thermal analysis models and design strategies that take into
account the rise in ambient temperatures to enhance transformer resilience, efficiency,
and longevity.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The main aim of this thesis is to study the Design Improvement of Distribution
Transformer (1000KVA) with Thermal Analysis under Ambient Temperature Rise
Conditions. It also aims to analyze the thermal behavior of this transformer under
different ambient temperature conditions and to develop constructional design
improvements that enhance their thermal performance, reliability, and lifespan.

The primary objective of this research are

a) To design and analyze of 11/0.4 kV three-phase 1000 kVA distribution

transformer in terms of electrical and thermal performance.
b) To investigate the thermal behavior of the transformer under varying ambient
temperature conditions and to understand its impact on efficiency, reliability,
and operational stability.
c) To develop and propose constructional design improvements that enhance the
transformer's thermal performance, focusing on improving heat dissipation,
cooling methods, and material selection.
d) To evaluate the transformer's reliability and lifespan under different thermal and
operational stresses by using thermal modeling and simulation techniques.
e) To validate the proposed design improvements through simulation and
 4

experimental data to ensure the transformer performs optimally under real-

world conditions.

1.4 Outline of Thesis

The main representation of the thesis is about Design Improvement of

Distribution Transformer (1000KVA) with Thermal Analysis under Ambient
Temperature Rise Conditions. General overview of Transformer and its Thermal
Analysis are reviewed in chapter 2. In chapter 3 distribution transformer design analysis
by FEM is presented. Thermal modeling of a distribution transformer according to
IEEE standard are explained in chapter 4. Case study using real data is presented in
chapter 5. Chapter 6 described improvement of distribution transformer design and
Chapter 7 presented discussion and conclusion.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Historical Background of Transformer

The history of transformers begins in the early 19th century with important
discoveries in electromagnetism. Hans Christian Ørsted showed that electric currents
create magnetic fields, and Michael Faraday's work in 1831 led to the principle of
electromagnetic induction, which is the basis for transformer operation. These early
findings laid the groundwork for later technological developments.

In the 1880s, practical transformers were developed by engineers like Ottó

Bláthy, Miksa Déri, and William Stanley. Their designs made it possible to efficiently
transmit electricity over long distances using alternating current (AC), which
transformed the way power was distributed. This was a key advancement during the
"War of Currents," a competition between AC and direct current (DC) systems.

As transformers became widely used, managing heat became a major concern.

Electrical losses in the core and windings caused transformers to heat up, which could
damage the equipment and shorten its lifespan. To address this, engineers developed
cooling systems, such as oil-immersed and forced-air cooling. This improved
transformer reliability, but thermal issues continued to require careful monitoring.
 5

In the mid-20th century, thermal analysis became more standardized,

particularly with the introduction of IEEE guidelines. These guidelines included the
concept of the hot-spot temperature, which identifies the areas in the transformer that
experience the most heat. Hot-spot temperatures are critical for predicting the lifespan
and performance of transformers, as excessive heat can cause insulation breakdown and
other failures.

In recent decades, the rise of modern thermal analysis techniques has allowed
for more precise modeling of heat flow in transformers. Advanced materials, such as
amorphous metals, and better cooling technologies have further reduced thermal stress.
Additionally, as climate change leads to higher ambient temperatures, thermal analysis
plays an increasingly important role in ensuring transformers can withstand rising
environmental heat.

Today, transformers are more efficient and reliable thanks to continued

improvements in both their design and thermal management systems. Ongoing research
focuses on creating even more effective cooling solutions and improving the overall
durability of transformers in the face of environmental challenges.

2.2. The First Transformer

The first practical transformer was developed in the 1880s, marking a

significant milestone in electrical engineering. While early experiments with
electromagnetic induction had been conducted by scientists like Michael Faraday in
1831, it wasn’t until several decades later that engineers created a device specifically
designed to step up or step down alternating current (AC) voltage for power
transmission.

The first working transformer, as we recognize it today, was developed by

Hungarian engineers Ottó Bláthy, Miksa Déri, and Károly Zipernowsky at the Ganz
Works Company in 1885. Their design was a major improvement over previous
devices, enabling the efficient transmission of electrical power over long distances. This
early transformer had two main components: the primary winding, which received the
input voltage, and the secondary winding, which delivered the output voltage. The key
 6

innovation was its use of a closed iron core, which greatly enhanced the efficiency of
magnetic induction between the two coils.

At the same time, William Stanley, working for George Westinghouse in the
United States, created a transformer based on similar principles. His design further
refined the technology, making it more practical for commercial use. Stanley's
transformer was crucial in the development of AC power distribution systems, as it
allowed power to be transmitted over long distances with minimal losses and then
stepped down for safe local use.

These early transformers played a central role in the success of alternating

current (AC) systems, which were far more efficient for long-distance electricity
transmission compared to direct current (DC). The development of the transformer
helped settle the "War of Currents", with AC systems becoming the standard for
electrical power distribution worldwide.

Westinghouse realized that electric power could only be delivered over

distances by transmitting at a higher voltage and then reducing at the location of the
load. He purchased U.S patent rights to the transformer developed by Gaulard and
Gibbs. William Stanley, Westinghouse’s electrical expert, designed and build the
transformers to reduce the voltage from 500 V to 100 V on the Great Barrington system.
The Stanley transformers are shown in Fig. 2.1 and 2.2.

Figure 2.1. William Stanley's First Transformer built in 1885, Single Phase AC Power
 7

Figure 2.2. William Stanley's First Transformer which was used in the Electrification
of Great Barrington
2.3. Introduction of Distribution Transformer
2.3.1. Operating Principle
A distribution transformer is a crucial component in the electrical power
distribution system, used to step down high-voltage electricity to a lower voltage
suitable for use in homes and businesses. The operating principle of a transformer is
based on electromagnetic induction. When an alternating current (AC) passes through
the primary winding, it creates a magnetic field in the transformer’s core. This varying
magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary winding, and depending on the
winding ratio, the voltage is either increased (step-up transformer) or decreased (step-
down transformer). In a distribution transformer, the goal is to reduce the high
transmission voltage to the desired level for distribution.

Figure 2.3. Operating Principle of Transformer

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2.3.2 Construction
The basic construction of a distribution transformer consists of the following parts:

1. Laminated core: Laminated core is the most important part of transformer,

used to support the windings of the transformer. It is made up of laminated
soft iron material to reduce eddy current loss and hysteresis loss. Nowadays in
the core of the transformer, laminated sheets are used to minimize
eddycurrent losses, and CRGO steel material is used to minimize hysteresis
losses. The composition of the core material depends on the voltage,
current, and frequency of supply to the transformer. The diameter of the
transformer core becomes directly proportional to copper losses and
inversely proportional to iron losses or core losses. Laminated core also
provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux that minimizes
leakage flux and maximizes the strength of the main working flux for the
transformer.

Figure 2.4. Laminated Core

2. Windings: There are two types of windings: primary and secondary. The
primary winding receives the high voltage from the transmission lines, while
the secondary winding delivers the stepped-down voltage to the distribution
network.
 9

Figure 2.5. Transformer Windings

3. Insulation: Insulating materials, such as oil or solid insulation (paper, resin),

are used between the windings to prevent electrical shorts and to protect the
transformer from high voltages.

Figure 2.6. Insulation Winding Kits

4. Main Tank: Tanks are made up of fabricated rolled steel plates. They are
provided with lifting hooks and inbuilt cooling tubes. In order to minimize the
weight and stray losses, aluminum sheets are also being used instead of Steel
plates. However, due to its lightweight property, nowadays aluminum tank is
more familiar and costly than a steel tank. The main tank is the robust part of
the transformer that serves mainly two purposes:
 10

a. It protects the core and windings from the external environment and
provides housing for them.
b. It is used as a container for transformer oil and provides support for
all other external accessories of the transformer.

Figure 2.7. Transformer Tank

5. Terminals and Bushings: Terminals and bushings are also important parts of
transformer that are used to connect incoming and outgoing cables of supply
and load. These are connected with the ends of the windings conductor.
Bushings are mainly insulators made up of porcelain or epoxy resins. They are
mounted over the tank and form a barrier between the terminals and the tank.
They provide safe passage for the conductor connecting terminals to the
windings. As windings are of two types and so bushings are also of two types
as named below:

a) High-Voltage Bushings
b) Low-Voltage Bushings
 11

Figure 2.8. Terminals and Bushings

6. Transformer Oil: The function of transformer oil is to provide insulation

between windings as well as cooling due to its chemical properties and very
good dielectric strength. It dissipates the heat generated by the core and
windings of a transformer to the external environment. Hydro-carbon mineral
oil is used as transformer oil and acts as a coolant. It is composed of aromatics,
paraffin, naphthenes, and olefins.
7. Tap Changer: The main function of the tap changer is to regulate the output
voltage of the transformer by changing its turn ratio. There are two types of tap
changers.

a) On-Load Tap Changer: - In an on-load tap changer, tapping can

be changed without isolating the transformer from the supply.
Hence it is capable of operating without interrupting the power
supply.
b) Off-Load Tap Changer:- In the off-load tap changer, the
transformer needs to isolate from the supply to change its tapping
(turns ratio).
 12

Figure 2.9. Tap Changer

8. Buchholz Relay: Buchholz relay is the most important part of a power

transformer rated at more than 500kVA. It is a gas-actuated relay mounted on
the pipe connecting the main tank and conservator tank. The function of the
Buchholz relay is to protect the transformer from all internal faults such as short
circuit faults, inter-turn faults, etc. When a short circuit occurs in winding it
generates enough heat to decompose transformer oil into gases (hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, methane, etc.). These gases move toward the conservator
tank through a connecting pipe, and then due to these gases, the Buchholz relay
gets activated. It sends a signal to trip and alarm circuits and activates it. Then
circuit breaker disconnects the transformer from the supply.

Figure 2.10. Buchholz Relay

9. Oil Conservator: The function of the oil conservator tank is to provide

adequate space for the expansion and contraction of transformer oil according
 13

to the variation in the ambient temperature of transformer oil inside the main
tank. It is a cylindrical drum-type structure installed on the top of the
main tank of the transformer. It is connected to the main tank through a
pipe and a Buchholz relay mounted on the pipe.

Figure 2.11. Oil Conservator Tank

10. Breather: The breather is a cylindrical container filled with silica gel and
directly connected to the conservator tank of the transformer. The main function
of the breather is to supply moisture-free fresh air to the conservator tank during
the expansion and contraction of transformer oil. This is because the transformer
oil when reacting with moisture can affect the insulation and cause an internal
fault in a transformer.
11. Explosion Vent: An explosion vent is a metallic pipe with a diaphragm at one
end and installed on the main tank slightly above than conservator tank. It is
available only in high-rated power transformers. The main function of the
explosion vent is to protect the power transformer against explosion during
excessive pressure build-up in the main tank due to severe internal faults. It acts
as an emergency exit for oil and hot air gases inside the main tank of the
transformer. The explosion vent works on the same principle as the safety valve
works in the pressure cooker. Hence In other words we can also call the
explosion vent as safety valve of the transformer.
12. Radiator and Fans: Since Power losses in the transformer are dissipated in the
form of heat. So a cooling arrangement is required for the power transformer.
 14

Dry-type transformers are generally naturally air-cooled. But when we talk

about oil-immersed transformers several cooling methods are used depending
upon kVA rating, power losses, and level of cooling required. Hence to provide
proper cooling, radiators and fans are installed on the main tank of the power
transformer. Radiators are also called cooling tubes. The main function of
cooling tubes or radiators is to transfer heat generated by the core and windings
to the environment by circulating heated oil throughout the cooling tubes. In a
large power transformer, forced cooling is achieved with the help of cooling
fans fitted on the radiator.
Some parts of the transformer are shown in Fig 2.10 and explained the various labels
of the description at the following.

Figure 2.12. Parts of Transformer

1. Oil filter valve 17. Oil drain valve

2. Conservator 18. Jacking boss
3. Buchholz relay 19. Stopper
4. Oil filter valve 20. Foundation bolt
 15

5. Pressure-relief vent 21. Grounding terminal

6. High-voltage bushing 22. Skid base
7. Low-voltage bushing 23. Coil
8. Suspension lug 24. Coil pressure plate
9. B C T Terminal 25. Core
10. Tank 26. Terminal box for protective devices
11. De-energized tap changer 27. Rating plate
12. Tap changer handle 28. Dial thermometer
13. Fastener for core and coil 29. Radiator
14. Lifting hook for core and coil 30. Manhole
15. End frame 31. Lifting hook
16. Coil pressure bolt 32. Dial type oil level gauge
2.4 Types of Transformer
There are different types of transformer classified on the basis of shape of core,
type of service, number of phase etc. Different types of transformer are Step up, Step
down, isolation, core type, shell type, berry types, Instrument transformer, Single phase
and three phase transformer, Auto transformer, Welding transformer etc. All types of
transformer is shown below in tree diagram.

Figure 2.13. Types of Transformer

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2.5 Transformer losses

An ideal transformer is characterized by zero energy losses, making it 100%
efficient. However, practical transformers in real-life applications experience energy
dissipation in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. The different losses in the
transformer as shown in Fig.

Losses in a Transformer

Copper Iron or Core Stray Dielectric Other

losses losses losses losses losses

Eddy Current Hysteresis

losses losses

Figure 2.14. Transformer losses

2.6 Thermal Analysis of Transformer

Thermal analysis is a crucial aspect of transformer design and operation,

focusing on understanding and managing the heat generated within transformers during
their operation. A transformer's efficiency and longevity are heavily impacted by its
thermal performance. Thermal analysis aims to determine how much heat is generated,
how effectively it is dissipated, and how temperature rise affects transformer life. The
thermal analysis of transformers integrates the effects of heat generation, heat
dissipation, temperature rise, and insulation aging. Through these calculations,
engineers can optimize transformer designs, loading conditions, and cooling systems to
ensure longevity and reliability. By properly managing the transformer’s thermal
behavior, operators can prevent insulation failure and reduce the loss of life under
varying ambient and loading conditions.

2.6.1 Heat Generation in Transformers

Heat generation in transformers is primarily due to energy losses that occur
during their operation. These losses can be classified into Iron (core) losses and winding
(copper) losses, which are dissipated as heat.
 17

Iron (core) losses consists of hysteresis and eddy current losses, both of which
occur in the magnetic core due to the alternating magnetic field. Hysteresis loss in the
core is related to the material's magnetic properties and can be estimated using
following equation is:
= × × .
× (2.1)
Where;
Is hysteresis losses (W)
Is Constant specific to the core material
Is frequency of the AC (Hz)
.
Is Maximum magnetic flux density (T)
Is Volume of the core ( m3)
Eddy current loss is due to induced currents in the core and can be expressed as:
= × × × × (2.2)
Where;
Is Eddy current losses (W)
Is constant related to core material and conductivity
Is thickness of the core laminations (m)
Winding (core) losses are due to the current flowing through the transformer
windings and are load-dependent. Copper losses increase with load, so as the
transformer experiences higher load currents, the heat generated in the windings rises.
The copper loss can be represented by the equation is:
= × (2.3)
Where;
Is Copper losses (W)
Is current through the windings (A)
Is Resistance of the windings (Ω)
Combining both copper and iron losses, the total heat generation can be
expressed as:
= + (2.4)
 18

2.6.2 Heat Dissipation in Transformer

Heat dissipation in transformers is a critical factor that directly affects the

operating temperature, efficiency, and overall lifespan of the transformer. As
transformers generate heat due to electrical and magnetic losses (core losses, copper
losses, stray losses), the heat must be efficiently dissipated to prevent overheating.
Failure to dissipate this heat can lead to insulation breakdown, premature aging of
components, and even transformer failure. Transformers dissipate heat through
conduction, convection, and radiation. Efficient cooling ensures that the temperature
rise does not lead to excessive aging of the insulation.

2.6.2.1 Heat transfer by Conduction

Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred through solid materials
via molecular interactions. In transformers, conduction primarily occurs through the
transformer windings, core, and insulating materials.
• Mechanism: Heat generated within the windings and core of the transformer is
conducted through solid materials to the surface. The rate of heat conduction
depends on the thermal conductivity of the materials involved, the temperature
gradient, and the geometry of the components.
• Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction: The rate of heat transfer through conduction
can be expressed mathematically using Fourier’s Law:
#
=− ×"× (2.5)

Where;
Is Conduction heat transfer rate (W)
Is thermal conductivity of the material (W/m·K)
" Is cross-sectional area through which heat is being conducted (m²)
#
Is temperature gradient (K/m)

• Applications in Transformers: Effective conduction is essential for heat

dissipation from windings to the core and subsequently to the surrounding oil
or air. Materials with high thermal conductivity, such as copper and aluminum
for windings, are typically used to optimize heat transfer.
 19

2.6.2.2 Heat transfer by Convection

Convection is the transfer of heat through a fluid (liquid or gas) caused by the
fluid's movement. In transformers, convection plays a crucial role in transferring heat
from the transformer components to the surrounding environment.
• Mechanism: Heat from the transformer is transferred to the surrounding air
or oil, which then carries the heat away as it moves. This process can be
natural or forced.
• Natural Convection: Occurs when fluid motion is induced by buoyancy
forces due to temperature differences. In transformers, warmer fluid rises,
and cooler fluid takes its place, creating a circulation pattern.
• Forced Convection: Involves the use of fans or pumps to enhance fluid
movement, increasing the heat transfer rate. This is commonly employed in
oil-immersed transformers with forced oil cooling.
• Newton’s Law of Cooling: The heat transfer rate by convection can be
described by Newton’s Law:
$ = ℎ × " × (' − '( ) (2.6)
Where:
$ Is Convection heat transfer rate (W)

ℎ Is convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m²·K)

" Is surface area for heat transfer (m²)

' Is surface temperature of the transformer (°C)

'( Is ambient temperature (°C)

• Applications in Transformers: Effective convection is crucial for cooling

transformer components, especially during peak load conditions. Enhanced
convection techniques, such as using fins or optimizing transformer
geometry, can improve cooling efficiency.
 20

2.6.2.3 Heat transfer by Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves. While it is

generally less significant than conduction and convection in transformers, it still
contributes to overall heat loss.
• Mechanism: All objects emit thermal radiation based on their temperature. The
amount of heat transferred by radiation depends on the surface temperature and
the emissivity of the material.
• Stefan-Boltzmann Law: The heat transfer rate by radiation can be expressed by
the Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
= * × + × " × (' , − ' , - ) (2.7)
Where:
= heat transfer rate by radiation (W)
* = emissivity of the surface (dimensionless)
+ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W/m²·K⁴)
" = surface area for heat transfer (m²)
' , = surface temperature of the transformer (K)
', - = ambient temperature (K)
• Applications in Transformers: Radiation losses are typically more significant at
higher temperatures. Transformer designs may incorporate radiation shielding
or reflective coatings to minimize heat loss.

2.6.2.4 Combined Heat Transfer

Total Heat Transfer: The total heat transfer from a transformer can be
described as the sum of the contributions from conduction, convection, and
radiation:
. = + $ + (2.8)

2.6.3 Top-Oil and Hot-Spot Temperature Rise in Transformer

In transformer thermal management, top-oil temperature rise and hot-spot

temperature rise are critical parameters that determine the operating temperature,
efficiency, and life expectancy of the transformer. Proper monitoring and management
 21

of these temperatures help prevent insulation degradation, reduce the risk of failures,
and ensure long-term reliable operation.

2.6.3.1 Top-Oil Temperature Rise

The top-oil temperature rise refers to the difference between the temperature
of the oil at the top of the transformer tank (the hottest part of the oil) and the ambient
temperature. Top-oil temperature rise can be expressed as:

∆0#1 = 0#1 − 0 - (2.9)

Where;
∆0#1 Is the top-oil temperature rise.
0#1 Is the top-oil temperature.
0 - Is the ambient temperature.

The top-oil temperature rise depends on the load current, losses, cooling
method, and transformer design. The IEEE Loading Guide (IEEE C57.91) provides
equations to estimate the top-oil temperature rise as a function of transformer load and
cooling conditions. For a specific load condition, Governing Equations for Top-Oil
Temperature Rise ∆'#1 can be estimated as:

53×(6( ))7
∆0#1 ( ) = ∆0#1,3 × 4 8 (2.10)
53

Where;
∆0#1 ( ) Is the top-oil temperature rise at time (t)(℃).
∆0#1,3 Is the rated top-oil temperature rise (℃)
Is the ratio of load losses to no-load losses at rated load
:( ) Is per-unit load at time (t)
; Is the oil exponent (typically 0.8 to 1.0)

2.6.3.2 Hot-Spot Temperature Rise

The hot-spot temperature rise is the temperature rise of the hottest point
within the transformer winding relative to the surrounding oil. This "hot-spot" typically
occurs deep within the windings, where heat dissipation is most limited. The hot-spot
temperature is the most critical factor affecting the life expectancy of the insulation. It
can be expressed as:
 22

∆0<= = 0<= − 0 . (2.11)

Where;
∆0<= Is the hot-spot temperature rise
0<= Is the hot-spot temperature
0 . Is the local oil temperature

The hot-spot temperature rise is influenced by load, cooling, and transformer

design. The IEEE Loading Guide (IEEE C57.91) provides a way to estimate the hot-
spot temperature rise based on load conditions. The Governing Equations for Hot-Spot
Temperature Rise is:

∆0<= ( ) = ∆0<=,3 × (:( )) (2.12)

Where;
∆0<= ( ) Is the hot-spot temperature rise at time (t)(℃).
∆0<=,3 Is the rated hot-spot temperature rise (℃)
:( ) Is per-unit load at time (t)
> Is the winding exponent (typically 1.3 to 2)

Hot-spot temperature rise is the primary factor affecting the aging rate of
transformer insulation. Insulating materials, such as paper and pressboard, degrade
faster at higher temperatures. The relationship between hot-spot temperature and
insulation aging is exponential. The aging acceleration factor (?@@ ) is given by:
DEF GHHI
ABB = 24 J
8
(2.13)
Where;
ABB Is the aging acceleration factor
0<= Is the hot-spot temperature
110°C Is the reference temperature at which insulation aging is considered to
proceed at a normal rate.

When the hot-spot temperature exceeds the design limits, the insulation’s life
expectancy decreases significantly. Managing hot-spot temperature is crucial for
maintaining the transformer's health and ensuring long-term reliability.
 23

2.6.4 Total Hot-Spot Temperature rise

The total hot-spot temperature rise is the sum of the ambient temperature, the
top-oil temperature rise, and the hot-spot temperature rise:

0<= ( ) = 0 -( ) + ∆0#1 ( ) + ∆0<= ( ) (2.14)

Where;
0<= ( ) Is the hot-spot temperature at time (t)(℃).
0 -( ) Is the ambient temperature at time (t)(℃).
∆0#1 ( ) Is the top-oil temperature rise(℃).
∆0<= ( ) Is the hot-spot temperature rise(℃).
2.6.5 Thermal Time Constant
The thermal time constant is a critical parameter in transformer thermal
modeling. It defines how fast or slow the temperature of a transformer changes in
response to variations in load or external cooling conditions. The thermal time
constant (K) represents the time it takes for the transformer to reach a steady
temperature. It governs the thermal response to changes in load and ambient
temperature. The thermal model of the transformer can be expressed as:
L( )
= M × (0N − 0( )) (2.15)

Where;
0( ) Is the transformer temperature at time (t)(℃).
0N Is Final steady-state temperature(℃).
K Is thermal time constant (hours)
2.6.6 Loss of Life Calculation

The loss of life is calculated based on how long the transformer operates at
different temperatures relative to its designed life at the reference temperature (usually
110°C). The key equation used is based on the aging acceleration factor (FAA), which
depends on the transformer’s hot-spot temperature.
DEF (X)GDYZ[
W ]
:OPP O :R S (T. U. ) = V1 S \ ^ (2.16)
Where;
0<= ( ) Is hot-spot temperature at time (t)(℃).
 24

0 Is reference temperature (usually 110℃).

A Is constant (6°C for mineral oil transformers).

2.6.7 Transformer Cooling System

The heat produced in a transformer must be dissipated to an external cooling

medium in order to keep the temperature in a specified limit. If transformer insulation
is experienced higher temperatures than the allowed value for a long time, it will cause
rapid degradation of insulation and hence severely affect the transformer life. A cooling
system of transformers increases the load capacity of a transformer by improving its
ability to dissipate the heat generated by electric current. In other words, good cooling
systems allow a transformer to carry more of a load than it otherwise could without
reaching critical hot spot temperatures. In oil cooled transformers, the oil provides a
medium for both cooling and insulation. Heat from core, windings and structural
components is dissipated by the process of the oil circulation. The heat is finally
transmitted either to atmospheric air or water. The process of transferring heat from a
transformer involves three different heat transfer mechanisms which are conduction,
convection and radiation (M.T.Ishak, 2009). In the oil cooled transformers, convection
plays the most important role and conduction the least important. The conduction is the
transfer of heat through a material by direct contact, whereas the convection is the
transfer of heat in a fluid (oil) as a result of the movement of the fluid itself. The
radiation is the transfer of heat via electromagnetic waves through space. There are four
common types of cooling are:

1- Oil Natural and Air Natural cooling (ONAN)

2- Oil Natural and Air Forced Cooling (ONAF)
3- Oil Forced and Air Forced Cooling (OFAF)
4- Oil Direct and Air Forced cooling (ODAF)

They have been used in the industry and will be explained in more details.
 25

2.7. Type of Cooling Transformer

2.7.1. Oil Natural and Air Natural Cooling (ONAN)

This type of cooling is most common used in the practice. The ONAN cooling
transformers have their windings and core cooled by oil naturally circulation
(thermosiphon effect). The oil is then cooled by air which is naturally cooled.
Moreover, Oil is kept in circulation by the gravitational buoyancy in the closed-loop
cooling system as shown in Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.15. ONAN cooling diagram

The heat developed in active parts is passed on to the surrounding oil through the
surface transfer (convection) mechanism. The oil temperature increases and its specific
gravity drops, due to which it flows upwards and then into the coolers. The oil heat gets
dissipated along the colder surfaces of the coolers which increase its specific gravity,
and it flows downwards and enters the transformer tank from the inlet at the bottom
level.
In ONAN cooling system of transformers there is a big difference between the
temperatures of top and bottom oil because the oil velocity is slow between the
transformer and radiators.

2.7.2. Oil Natural and Air Forced Cooling (ONAF)

As the transformer losses increases, the number and size of the radiators that are
required to cool the oil must increase. Eventually, a point is reached where air and
 26

natural convection are not adequate to remove the heat and air must be forced through
the radiators by motor- driven fans (John J. Winder, Jr, 2002), This type of cooling is
termed as ONAF (Oil Natural and Air Forced) cooling, as shown in Figure 2.14. These
fans generate forced air flow in the radiators to increase the oil circulation rate from
tank to radiators. This type of cooling improves the efficiency of the transformer to
increase the capability to operate at a high load, but this flow rate is relatively low.
Because of this, the heat carrying (or dissipating) capacity of the oil is low. The heat
carrying capacity can be defined as
= _. `a (' −' ) (2.17)
Where Q is heat flow in W, m is mass flow rate in kg/s, Cp is specific heat in J/ (kg °
C) and temperatures Tout and Tin are in °C. For the given transformer oil inlet (Tin) and
top oil (Tout) temperatures.

Figure 2.16. ONAF cooling diagram

2.7.3. Oil Forced and Air Forced Cooling (OFAF)

Although the cooling capacity is greatly increased by the use of forced air, increasing
the loading to take advantage of the increased capacity will increase the temperature
gradients within the transformers. A point is reached where the internal temperature
gradient limit the ability to increase load any further. The solution is to increase the oil
velocity by pumping oil as well as forcing air through the radiators. This type of cooling
called OFAF (Oil Forced and Air Forced) cooling. The usual pump placement is at the
 27

bottom of the radiators as shown in Figure 2.15, forcing oil from the radiator outlets
into the bottom of the transformer tank in the Sam direction as natural circulation but
at a much higher velocity (John J. Winder, Jr, 2002). By direction the flow of oil within
the transformer windings, reduce considerably the temperature between the top and the
bottom of the radiators (M.T. Ishak, 2009).

Figure 2.17. OFAF cooling diagram

2.7.4. Oil Direct and Air Forced Cooling (ODAF)

In OFAF cooling type the oil forced from the pump into the transformer, its
flow is governed by the least resistance path as well as the buoyancy. Hence, part of the
oil may not enter either windings or core, and may from parallel path outside these two.
Thus, the top oil temperature may reduce because of the mixture of hot oil coming from
the windings and the cool oil coming from the pump. This in turn reduces the
effectiveness of radiators. The solution is to improve the heat dissipation rate by the oil
forced and directed in the windings through the paths. This type of cooling called
ODAF (Oil Direct and Air Forced) cooling, as shown in Figure 2.16, (S.V.Kulkani and
S.A. Khaparde, 2004).
 28

Figure 2.18. ODAF cooling diagram

ODAF type of cooling is used in most of the large rating transformer .one
disadvantages of ODAF cooling is the increased pressure loss because of the ducting
system used for directing the oil flow (S.V.Kulkani and S.A. Khaparde, 2004).
2.8 Basic Transformer Thermal Modeling Concept (From IEC 60067-7)
The Basic Transformer Thermal Modeling Concept from IEC 60076-7
focuses on understanding how transformers manage heat.

Figure 2.19. Transformer Thermal Diagram According to IEC 60076-7.

 29

Key
A Top-oil temperature derive as the average of the tank outlet oil temperature and
the tank oil pocket temperature
B Mixed oil temperature in the tank at the top of the winding (often assumed to be
the same temperature as A)
C Temperature of the average oil in the tank
D Oil temperature at the inlet of the tank (assumed to be the same as at the bottom
of the winding)
E Bottom of the tank
gr Average winding to average oil (in tank) temperature gradient at rated current
H Hot-spot factor
P Hot-spot temperature
I Average winding temperature determined by resistance measurement
x-axis Temperature
y-axis Relative positions
measured point; calculated point
a) The oil temperature inside the tank increases linearly from bottom to top,
whatever the cooling mode.
b) As a first approximation, the temperature rise of the conductor at any position
up the winding is assumed to increase linearly, parallel to the oil temperature
rise, with a constant difference gr between the two straight lines (gr being the
difference between the winding average temperature rise by resistance and the
average oil temperature rise in the tank).
c) The hot-spot temperature rise is higher than the temperature rise of the
conductor at the top of the winding because allowance has to be made for the
increase in stray losses, for differences in local oil flows and for possible
additional paper on the conductor. To take into account these non-linearity’s,
the difference in temperature between the hot-spot and the top-oil in tank is
made equal to H×gr, that is, ∆θhr = H×gr.
 30

2.9 Various Approaches for the Transformer Thermal Modeling

Transformer losses are broadly classified as no-load and load losses. The no-
load losses are composed of two components: (1) the hysteresis loss and (2) eddy
current loss. The hysteresis loss is the energy loss when the magnetic material goes
through a cycling state. The eddy current loss is caused when the flux lines pass through
the core. Load losses occur when the output is connected to a load so that current flows
through the transformer from input to output terminals. Losses of energy appear as heat
which is the major cause of transformer temperature rise and its aging. Among the
several factors that affect the transformer performance, the location of the maximum
temperature of the solid insulation named ‘hot spot temperature’ (HST) and its
temperature level have been identified as the main reasons for transformer aging and
failures. In fact, high temperatures in a transformer will drastically shorten the life of
insulating materials used in windings and structures. For every 8 degrees Celsius (°C)
temperature rise, the transformer’s life is cut by one-half; therefore, maintaining cooling
systems is critical. In worst cases, the high HST may lead to transformer failure and
explosion. When the internal temperature of a transformer reaches 150–300 °C under
abnormal conditions, the mineral oils produce hydrogen and methane gases due to
chemical decomposition. At temperatures above 300 °C, ethylene is formed, and above
700°C, large amounts of hydrogen and ethylene are produced. These gases tend to
dissolve partially or entirely in the mineral oil and can form combustible/flammable
mixtures if they escape the transformer oil compartment, leading to unexpected
fire/explosion accidents. Consequently, excellent thermal design is paramount in
transformer design since it determines insulation aging and life.
The thermal modeling of the transformer can be divided into two general
categories. The first category is physical and semi-physical modeling describing a
transformer’s complex heat transfer modes with simple differential equations such as
correlation, lumped, and equivalent circuit models. The other category is the
computational fluid dynamic (CFD) modeling approach based on numerical methods
such as finite element and finite volume methods, which is very accurate but time-
consuming and requires the design detail of the transformer for modeling.
 31

2.9.1 Correlation Models

Correlation models are analytical tools used to estimate thermal behavior and
performance characteristics of transformers based on empirical relationships and
statistical data. The correlations consist of some thermal parameters which should be
obtained by heat run tests. IEEE C57.91-2011 and IEC 60076-7 suggest well-known
correlation models for estimating the hot spot temperature of transformers. In these
models, the hot spot temperature is assumed to consist of three components: the average
ambient temperature, the top oil rise over ambient temperature, and the winding hot
spot rise over top-oil temperature. The standards present a set of correlations to
calculate these components based on some parameters with a related estimation table
for each. Transformers usually operate on a load cycle that repeats every 24 h. Hence,
the proposed models try to estimate the hot spot temperature of the transformer
considering load variation. Based on the proposed thermal model in, the hot spot
temperature is:
0<= = 0 - + ∆0#b + ∆0<= (2.18)
Where;
0<= Is winding hottest-spot temperature, (°C)
0 - Is average ambient temperature, (°C)
∆0#b Is top-oil rise over ambient temperature, (°C)
∆0<= Is winding hottest-spot rise over top-oil temperature, (°C)
The top-oil temperature rise is calculated by the following expression:
X
∆0#b = c∆0#b,d − ∆0#b, e W1 − S ghi ] + ∆0#b, (2.19)

Where;
∆0#b Is top-oil rise over ambient temperature, (°C)
∆0#b,d Is ultimate top-oil rise over ambient temperature, (°C)
∆0#b, Is initial top-oil rise over ambient temperature, (°C)
S Is the base of natural logarithm
K#b Is the oil time constant of transformer
The initial and ultimate top oil rise are calculated by:
kl7 35
∆0#b, = ∆0#b,3 × j 35
m (2.20)
 32

kn7 35
∆0#b, = ∆0#b,3 × j m (2.21)
35

Where;
o Is the ratio of initial load to rated load, per unit.
o Is the ratio of ultimate load to rated load, per unit.
Is the ratio of load loss at rated load to no-load loss on the tap position.

The value of n has been chosen for each cooling model based on Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Proposed values of n and m for different types of cooling

Types of Cooling m n
OA/ONAN 0.8 0.8
FA/ONAF 0.8 0.9
Non-directed OFAF or NDFOA 0.8 0.9
Directed ODAF or DFOA 1.0 1.0

2.9.2 Lumped Models

The correlation models, are simple and generally acceptable. However, these
models lead to a conservative estimation of HST, which is mainly settled on the thermal
behavior of a specific transformer and needs detailed information that is not likely
available or constant with the time evolution. Thus, researchers have tried to predict the
HST of transformers more accurately. To do so, they have developed their estimation
based on lumped models. This type of modeling consists of different components, and
energy conservation is applied to each part. It is called a lumped model because it
simplifies the description of behavior of the physical systems into a topology with
discrete elements.

2.9.3 Thermal-Electrical Analogy

Two systems are considered to be analogous when they both have similar
equations and boundary conditions, and the equations describing the behaviors of one
system can be transformed into the equations for the other by simply changing the
symbols of the variables. Thermal and electrical systems are two such analogous
systems, as shown in Table 2.2. In the thermal-electrical analogy, temperature plays the
role of voltage which causes heat to flow in a similar fashion to the flow of charge in
an electrical circuit. Also, the two critical thermal parameters of a material such as
 33

cooling transformer oil are its heat capacity and thermal conductivity. The electrical
and corresponding thermal laws of resistance and capacitance are as follows:
$
p= . ×R And R=`.× (2.22)
L
0= × q And q=` × (2.23)

Where the symbols are defined in Table 2.2.

It should be mentioned that, for the heat transfer case, the thermal resistance may be
non-linear as follows:
0= ,3 ×q (2.24)
Where ,3 is the rated value of , i.e., the value for a known set of 0 ,q , and r.
Table 2.2. Thermal Electrical analogous quantities
Thermal Equivalent Circuit Electrical Circuit
Temperature T Voltage V
Heat flow Q Current I
Thermal Resistance RT Electrical Resistance R
Thermal Capacitance CT Electrical Capacitance C
Heat Source Current Source

G. Swift et al. present a simple equivalent circuit to represent the thermal heat flow
equations for power transformers. The proposed equivalent circuit is shown in Figure
2.18., which consists of two winding-to-oil and oil-to-ambient models. In order to
represent the effect of air or oil cooling convection currents, a nonlinear resistor is
assumed. Also, the heat generated by power losses and ambient temperature are
represented by current and voltage sources, respectively. This model considers three
inputs, including the iron loss (qfe), the copper loss (qcu), and the ambient temperature.
The oil thermal resistance (Roil) is a combination of the oil and the interface resistance
with the moving air layers. In addition, the hot spot resistance (Rhs) consists of the
insulation resistance and the interface resistance with the moving oil next to the
insulation. It should be noted that, for the lumped capacitance, it is assumed that the
temperature distribution within the medium (oil) is uniform at any given instant, which
is a reasonable assumption.
 34

Figure 2.20. Simple equivalent circuit for calculating HST.

Key
qwdn heat generated by winding losses
θhs hot-spot temperature
θoil top-oil temperature
Cth-oil equivalent thermal capacitance of the transformer oil
θamb ambient temperature
Cth-wdn thermal capacitance of the winding
Rth-hs-oil nonlinear winding to oil thermal resistance
qtot heat generated by total losses
ql heat generated by load losses
Rth-oil-air non-linear oil to air thermal resistance
 35

The differential equation related to Figure 2.20 for the oil-to-ambient model is:
H
Lslt
q +q =` . × +3 × v0 . −0 - wx (2.25)
slt,u

Where Coil is the thermal capacitance of the oil, and ORy, is the thermal resistance of
the oil at rated conditions. If we define as the ratio of qzU and q S at rated load, then
(2.25) reduces to:
7 35 H H
{|n Lslt
35
× }∆0 .,3 ~
x
=K . × + v0 . −0 - wx (2.26)

Where ∆0ORy, is the difference of 0ORy and 0•_€ at rated load, and KORy is the oil time
constant which can be obtained as follows:
K . = .,3 ×` . (2.27)
Hence, the difference equation corresponding to (2.26) is:
7 35 H H
‚ {|n
•0 . =M × ƒj 35
m × }∆0 .,3 ~
x
− v0 . −0 - wx „ (2.28)
slt

Where D is the difference operator, indicating a slight change in the associated variable.
As is shown in Figure 2.18, the winding-to-oil model is analogous to the oil-to-air
model. So, the equation for calculating the 0ℎP would be similar to (2.28).

2.9.4 Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)

In brief, network modeling reduces the complex pattern of the oil flow inside a
transformer winding down to a matrix of simple hydraulic channel approximations
interconnected by junction points or nodes. Figure 2.21, for example, shows the
geometry approximated for a 2D network model of windings of a transformer and its
corresponded THN model. The detailed THN model of windings comprises two
hydraulic network and thermal network models. The hydraulic part involves a network
of ducts and junctions describing the oil flow distribution. In this modeling, the oil flow
and pressure drop correspond to the electrical current and voltage, respectively. The
thermal model considering all types of heat transfer mechanisms is coupled with the
hydraulic models to evaluate the thermal performance of winding and obtain the HST
of the transformer.
 36

Figure 2.21. 2D geometry of a disc-type transformer winding related THNM

Several physical assumptions are made to find a practical set of equations to

describe the THN model. Firstly, the oil is considered a laminar flow between a pair of
an infinite parallel flat plate since the Reynolds number is low. The second assumption
is that the oil temperature rises linearly. Also, it is assumed that oil flow is completely
mixed at nodes hydraulically and thermally. Considering the mentioned assumptions,
the set of equations for the THN models are obtained from the following:
a) Conservation of mass applied to each node
b) Conservation of thermal energy applied to each node
c) Pressure-drop equation applied to each path
d) Heat-Transfer equation applied to each path
Various studies have been performed to evaluate THN models’ performance in
estimating transformer HST. Rahim pour et al. use 11 thermocouples in the ON-cooled
transformer disc type winding and measure the temperature of different discs. In spite
of the excellent accuracy of THN model results for the overall temperature distribution,
the complexity of oil dynamics modeling causes some discrepancies locally. Also, the
result of demonstrated that the original THN model equations might not be accurate
 37

enough, especially for describing the oil flow velocity. Therefore, the authors proposed
new equations based on CFD simulation data for the Nusselt number and friction
coefficient. In fact, although the thermal models based analytical methods can offer
acceptable accuracy in some cases, in most practical engineering applications, various
assumptions and simplifications need to be made to enable the analytical solution of
the differential equations representing the physical solution. This limits the
applicability of these methods to simple type problems or limits the validity of the
solutions if too many assumptions and simplifications are made. However, the advent
of digital computers has offered a solution to solve differential equations by numerical
methods, which can deal with these drawbacks. For several years’ significant effort has
been devoted to describing the thermal behavior of solid/fluid substances based on
numerical methods, resulting in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling.

2.10 Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) Modeling

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a theoretical method of scientific and

engineering investigation used for a unified cause and effect-based analysis of a fluid
dynamics, heat, and mass transfer problem. In CFD, the governing partial differential
equations are mathematically operated to derive a system of linear algebraic equations
(LAEs) called as discretization method, such as Finite Element Method (FEM), Finite
Volume Method (FVM), and Finite Difference Method (FDM). The system of LAEs
resulting from the algebraic formulation acts as the governing equations for CFD, and
consist of the three flow-properties including velocity, pressure, and temperature as the
unknown field variables. The CFD govern partial equations, known as NavireStokes
equations derived by applying the mass, momentum, and energy conservation laws to
an elemental fluid/solid control volume.

2.10.1 Mass Conservation Law

The law of mass conservation is a general statement of kinematic nature, which

expresses the empirical fact that in a fluid system, mass cannot disappear from the
system nor be created. If … is the fluid density, then the balance of mass …† entering
and leaving an infinitesimal control volume (Figure 2.22) is equal to the rate of change
in density as expressed by the relation:
 38

‡ˆ
+ ∇. (…† ) = 0 (2.29)
‡

Where † is the velocity vector of fluid (m/s) and ∇. Is known as the divergence operator
and operates as follows:
‡B ‡B ‡B
∇. " = + + (2.30)
‡ ‡ ‡‹

Figure 2.22. Coordinate direction and the infinitesimal control volume

2.10.2 Momentum Conservation Law

Momentum is a vector quantity defined as the product of mass and velocity. In

order to determine all the terms of the conservation equations, it is necessary to define
the sources for the momentum variation. According to Newton’s law, the sources for
variation of momentum in a physical system are the forces acting on it. These forces
consist of external volume force and internal forces defined per unit mass, such as the
pressure force, the viscous force, and the external body force. Hence, the momentum
conservation equation is:
‡(ˆd)
‡
+ ∇. (…† × †) = −∇T + Œ(∇ †) + A (2.31)

Where T is the pressure, Πis the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, and A is external body
force.
 39

2.10.3 Energy Conservation Law

The first law of thermodynamics states that the sources for the variation of the
total energy are the work of forces acting on the system plus the heat transmitted to this
system. Hence, with regard to the sources of energy variations in a fluid system and
according to Fourier’s law of heat conduction for transferring heat in a solid substance,
the conservative form of the energy equation is:
‡(ˆ•| #)
+ ∇. c…`a †'e = ∇. ( ∇') + Ž• (2.32)
‡

Where zT is specific heat capacity, ' is temperature, is thermal conductivity, and Ž•

is the heat source.

2.11 Dynamic Transformer Rating (DTR) Algorithm

The Dynamic Transformer Rating (DTR) Algorithm with reference to IEC

60076-7 standard focuses on the real-time thermal performance of power transformers.
IEC 60076-7 specifically provides guidelines for thermal performance and loading of
oil-immersed power transformers, especially in managing winding hot-spot
temperatures. Dynamic transformer rating (DTR) algorithm is developed based on IEC
60076-7. The inputs and outputs of the DTR algorithm are:

Inputs:

• Transformer load
• Top oil temperature
• Ambient temperature
• Tap position
• Cooling operation
Outputs:

• Dynamic rating
• Hot spot temperature
• Loss of life
 40

The insulation paper that determines aging rates can be calculated in two
conditions where thermally upgraded can retain a higher percentage in tensile and
strength of insulation paper than non-thermally upgraded.

(a) Non-thermally upgraded paper

D‘G’“
p=2 J (2.33)

(b) Thermally upgraded paper

H”III H”III
p = S HHI•7–—˜D‘•7–— (2.34)

The DTR algorithm sends periodic reports to asset managers on the actual loss
of life of insulation paper. Further, this algorithm can calculate various pre loading and
overloading scenarios. Moreover, multiple technical challenges may occur in this
algorithm such as applying it to all power transformers in the network and the accuracy
of the calculated or measured transformer hot spot temperature. Many tests are applied
to above models help in obtaining precise results. Even analytical method works in
obtaining the probabilistic distribution of hot spot temperature of the transformer.
Monte Carlo technique is a developed simulation calculates complicity of a model
parameters for estimating the hot spot temperature from various loads. Monte Carlo
technique is used due to its mathematical simplicity and its ability to include more
probabilistic parameters for ambient temperature and transformer load. Further,
through the above technique, the lifetime of the transformer can be addressed.
Arrhenius chemical reaction rate law is used to calculate the relationship for thermal
aging properties of insulation material. This method states logarithm of time for
physical property of the insulation material. Therefore, the aging insulation is governed
by chemical process and its reactions vary with time. According to the Arrhenius
chemical reaction can be presented as in
š
yO™ 1 = "+ (2.34)
L‘›X 5 œ•

Several thermal models are used for estimating hot spot temperature behavior.
 41

2.12 Software Tools

SOLIDWORKS was used for the CAD design of the transformer, while Ansys
Maxwell was utilized for CAE design with FEM modeling, and EMSWORKS was
employed for CFD modeling. Additionally, MATLAB was used for data analysis,
calculations, and visualization.
2.13 Conclusion
The design improvement of a 1000kVA distribution transformer under rising
ambient temperature conditions has focused on enhancing efficiency and reliability. By
analyzing the thermal performance, adjustments were made to the transformer design,
including better cooling systems and optimized materials. These changes help reduce
losses, prevent overheating, and extend the transformer’s lifespan. The study also
highlights the importance of considering environmental factors like temperature in
transformer design. Overall, the improved design ensures more stable operation, better
performance under high temperatures, and increased durability, contributing to a more
efficient power distribution system.

2.14 Future Works

The design and analysis of a 1000kVA three-phase 11/0.4kV distribution
transformer were conducted using Excel and Ansys Maxwell software. Thermal
modeling and analysis, following IEEE C57.91 and IEC 60076 standards, were
completed using MATLAB and EMSWorks. Based on the results, a new transformer
design will be developed to enhance performance and withstand increased ambient
temperatures. This improved design aims to reduce losses, ensure stable operation, and
extend the transformer’s lifespan under varying environmental conditions.
 42

Start

Specification and Constraints, Specify max; and min; limits of Design Parameter

Choose Proper Value of Design Parameter

Magnetic Frame, Low voltage winding, High voltage winding Design

Calculate Losses, Cooling Design

Print the Design Data Sheet

Identify Ambient Temperature Conditions, Data Collection

Thermal Modeling, Thermal Analysis

Is Analysis
Acceptable? No

Revise Design Parameter

Yes
Design Calculation, Thermal Design Improvement, Simulation and Validation

Were Results
No Valid?
Reassess Design and Modeling
Yes
Conclusion and Discussion

Figure 2.23. Flow Chart of Methodology of transformer

 43

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