Basic Electrical and Electronics

Engineering

Prepared by
Dr.P.Jeyaprakash,
ASP/EEE

Unit-III
WIRING AND ILLUMINATION
Types of wiring-staircase and corridor
wiring - wiring accessories. Different types
of safety measures - Earthing. Electrical
tariff - Energy conservation. Simple layout
of power system-various energy resources,.
The Laws of Illumination - Different types
of electrical lamps.

Electrical Wiring
• Electrical Wiring is a process of connecting cables and wires
to the related devices such as fuse, switches, sockets, lights,
fans etc. to the main distribution board is a specific structure
to the utility pole for continues power supply
Different Types of Electrical Wiring Systems
The types of internal wiring usually used are
• Cleat wiring
• Wooden casing and capping wiring
• CTS or TRS or PVC sheath wiring
• Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring
• Conduit wiring
Cleat Wiring
• This system of wiring comprise of ordinary VIR or PVC insulated wires
(occasionally, sheathed and weather proof cable) braided and compounded
held on walls or ceilings by means of porcelain cleats, Plastic or wood.
• Cleat wiring system is a temporary wiring system therefore it is not suitable
for domestic premises. The use of cleat wiring system is over nowadays.

Advantages of Cleat Wiring:

• It is simple and cheap wiring system
• Most suitable for temporary use i.e. under construction building or army
camping
• As the cables and wires of cleat wiring system is in open air, Therefore fault in
cables can be seen and repair easily.
• Cleat wiring system installation is easy and simple.
• Customization can be easily done in this wiring system e.g. alteration and
addition.
• Inspection is easy and simple.
Disadvantages of Cleat Wiring:
• Appearance is not so good.
• Cleat wiring can’t be use for permanent use because, Sag may be occur after
sometime of the usage.
• In this wiring system, the cables and wiring is in open air, therefore,
oil, Steam, humidity, smoke, rain, chemical and acidic effect may damage the
cables and wires. it is not lasting wire system because of the weather effect ,
risk of fire and wear & tear.
• it can be only used on 250/440 Volts on low temperature.
• There is always a risk of fire and electric shock.
• it can’t be used in important and sensitive location and places.
• It is not lasting, reliable and sustainable wiring system.

Casing and Capping wiring

• Casing and Capping wiring system was famous wiring system in the past but, it
is considered obsolete this days because of Conduit and sheathed wiring
system. The cables used in this kind of wiring were either VIR or PVC or any
other approved insulated cables.
• The cables were carried through the wooden casing enclosures. The casing is
made up of a strip of wood with parallel grooves cut length wise so as to
accommodate VIR cables. The grooves were made to separate opposite
polarity. the capping (also made of wood) used to cover the wires and cables
installed and fitted in the casing
 Advantages of Casing Capping Wiring:
• It is cheap wiring system as compared to sheathed and conduit wiring systems.
• It is strong and long-lasting wiring system.
• Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
• If Phase and Neutral wire is installed in separate slots, then repairing is easy.
• Stay for long time in the field due to strong insulation of capping and casing..
• It stays safe from oil, Steam, smoke and rain.
• No risk of electric shock due to covered wires and cables in casing & capping
.
Disadvantages Casing Capping Wiring:
• There is a high risk of fire in casing & capping wiring system.
• Not suitable in the acidic, alkalies and humidity conditions
• Costly repairing and need more material.
• Material can’t be found easily in the contemporary
• White ants may damage the casing & capping of wood.

Batten Wiring (CTS or TRS)

• Single core or double core or three core TRS cables with a circular oval shape
cables are used in this kind of wiring. Mostly, single core cables are preferred.
TRS cables are chemical proof, water proof, steam proof, but are slightly
affected by lubricating oil. The TRS cables are run on well seasoned and
straight teak wood batten with at least a thickness of 10mm.
• The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned brass link clips
(buckle clip) already fixed on the batten with brass pins and spaced at an
interval of 10cm for horizontal runs and 15cm for vertical runs.

Advantages of Batten Wiring

• Wiring installation is simple and easy
• cheap as compared to other electrical wiring systems
• Paraphrase is good and beautiful
• Repairing is easy
• strong and long-lasting
• Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
• less chance of leakage current in batten wiring system
Disadvantages of Batten Wiring
• Can’t be install in the humidity, Chemical effects, open and outdoor areas.
• High risk of firs
• Not safe from external wear & tear and weather effects (because, the wires are
openly visible to heat, dust, steam and smoke.
• Heavy wires can’t be used in batten wiring system.
• Only suitable below then 250V.
Lead Sheathed Wiring
• The type of wiring employs conductors that are insulated with VIR
and covered with an outer sheath of lead aluminum alloy containing
about 95% of lead.
• The metal sheath given protection to cables from mechanical
damage, moisture and atmospheric corrosion.
• The whole lead covering is made electrically continuous and is
connected to earth at the point of entry to protect against electrolytic
action due to leaking current and to provide safety in case the sheath
becomes alive.
• The cables are run on wooden batten and fixed by means of link
clips just as in TRS wiring.

Conduit Wiring
• There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe
installation
• Surface Conduit Wiring
• Concealed Conduit Wiring
Surface Conduit Wiring
If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface conduit
wiring. in this wiring method, they make holes on the surface of wall on
equal distances and conduit is installed then with the help of rawal plugs.
Concealed Conduit wiring
If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help
of plastering, it is called concealed conduit wiring. In other words, the
electrical wiring system inside wall, roof or floor with the help of plastic
or metallic piping is called concealed conduit wiring. obliviously, It is
the most popular, beautiful, stronger and common electrical wiring
system nowadays.
• In conduit wiring, steel tubes known as conduits are installed on the
surface of walls by means of pipe hooks (surface conduit wiring) or
buried in walls under plaster and VIR or PVC cables are afterwards
drawn by means of a GI wire of size if about 18SWG.
• In Conduit wiring system, The conduits should be electrically
continuous and connected to earth at some suitable points in case of
steel conduit.
• Conduit wiring is a professional way of wiring a building. Mostly PVC
conduits are used in domestic wiring.
• The conduit protects the cables from being damaged by rodents (when
rodents bites the cables it will cause short circuit) that is why circuit
breakers are in place though but hey! Prevention is better than cure.
• Lead conduits are used in factories or when the building is prone to fire
accident.
• Trunking is more of like surface conduit wiring.
• It’s gaining popularity too.
• It is done by screwing a PVC trunking pipe to a wall then passing the
cables through the pipe.
• The cables in conduit should not be too tight. Space factor have to be
put into consideration

Advantage of Conduit Wiring Systems

• It is the safest wiring system (Concealed conduit wring)
• Appearance is very beautiful (in case of concealed conduit wiring)
• No risk of mechanical wear & tear and fire in case of metallic pipes.
• Customization can be easily done according to the future needs.
• Repairing and maintenance is easy.
• There is no risk of damage the cables insulation.
• it is safe from corrosion (in case of PVC conduit) and risk of fire.
• It can be used even in humidity , chemical effect and smoky areas.
• No risk of electric shock (In case of proper earthing and grounding of metallic
pipes).
• It is reliable and popular wiring system.
• sustainable and long-lasting wiring system.
Disadvantages of Conduit Wiring Systems
• It is expensive wiring system (Due to PVC and Metallic pipes, Additional
earthing for metallic pipes Tee(s) and elbows etc.
• Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
• installation is not easy and simple.
• Risk of Electric shock (In case of metallic pipes without proper earthing system)
• Very complicated to manage additional connection in the future.

Comparison between different wiring systems

Staircase Wiring
• Below is old-school staircase wiring circuit diagram. Here we
can control a bulb from two different places by using two 2-way
switches.

Working & Operation of Staircase Wiring –

2-Way Light Switching
• Consider the above 2-way switch wiring diagram which has been used to
control a bulb in staircase.
• The schematic shows that circuit is completed and bulb is ON. Suppose you
want to OFF the bulb from the upper switch at top of stair ( (upper portion of
staircase) ) simply Switch OFF the switch then circuit will break and the bulb
will be OFF.
• To switch ON the bulb again, just switch ON the same switch at upper portion
of staircase.
• In other words you can OFF and ON bulb from upper switch at the top of stair.
Obviously; you can perform the same operation from the bottom switches
installed in staircase.

• For this purpose, consider the figure given above. In this case, you can see that
circuit is complete and bulb is ON.
• Suppose you want to OFF the bulb from the lower switch at bottom of stair.
• Simply OFF the switch, then again circuit will break and the bulb will be OFF.
• You can switch ON the bulb again to switch ON the same switch installed at the
bottom or downstairs as shown in the fig.
• To get the switching position in ON condition for light bulb, the above operation
is same as the Exclusive-NOR (EX-NOR) logic gate truth table which is given
below.
2-Way Switching Applications and Uses
• The main purpose of two-way switching connection is to connect
and control AC appliances and equipments from two separate
locations.
• It is mostly used in staircase wiring where a light bulb can be
control (Switch ON / Switch OFF) from different places, no
matter you are in the upper or lower portion of stair. Also, it does
not depend on the switches position as well. You just have to
press the switch button to OFF / ON to perform the switching
operation.
• It is also used in rooms having large area which has two entry and
exit gates.
• It is used to control any electrical (AC or DC) appliance or
equipment like fan, light bulbs etc from two different places.

Corridor Wiring
• Corridor wiring or godam wiring is a wiring in which can
control number of light alternately.
• The corridor wiring the basic concept is based on two way
switch. A space mainly used as a means of access between a
room and an exit from the building or compartment.
• The main functions of corridors are to provide the efficient
movement of occupants within a building.
• They also play a part in partitioning different spaces such as
offices and breakout areas and central lobbies or waiting areas.
• More importantly, corridors provide the safe evacuation of a
building's occupants in the event of a fire or other disruptions
in its mains supply.
Working
• The phase has connected to the common pole of the first switch.
• The 1st throw of the switch has connected to load.
• And the 2nd throw has connected to the common pole of the next switch.
• Initially, common poles of all the switches are positioned to the 1st throw of the SPDT
switch. So in such an arrangement, changing the switch position to 2nd throw OFF’s
previous load and ON the next one.
• By this arrangement, an infinite number of loads can be connected in a sequence.
• Switch S1 in the circuit is SPST and remaining are SPDT (Refer: electrical
abbreviations and full forms), also called as a changeover switch.
• In godown wiring, the loads and switches are generally connected with equal spacing.
• The gauge of wire or the load capacity of the wiring should be considered based on the
power rating and the number of loads.
• If the power rating of all the loads is same, the ideal power consumption will be
constant.
• Because even though the circuit has a number of loads only one load will be ON at a
time.
• So, the number of loads makes a change only on the length of wiring and the overall
wire resistance.
• That is the copper loss or the heat loss in the wiring.

Wiring Accessories
Switch
We know that we can on and off an electrical supply with the help of a switch, which makes it one of the most common and
important electrical accessory. An electric circuit is a pathway made up of numerous wires through which electrons can flow
with the help of a power source. When the switch connected to such a circuit is switched off, a gap is created in the circuit that
hinders electrons from flowing. Conversely, when the switch is turned on, the gap is closed, allowing electrons to move about
and make the device work.
Main switch
This is the main on/off switch that controls the main supply that is responsible for the entire home’s power supply. In a
single-phase circuit, Iron Clad Double Pole (ICDP) main switch is used; and in a three-phase circuit, Iron Clad Triple Pole
(ICTP) main switch is used to control the power supply.
Sockets and plugs
Sockets allow plugging in of appliances to attach them to the electric grid and provide power for them to run. They allow
electrically operated equipment to be connected to the primary alternating current power supply in a building. These sockets
differ in voltage and current rating, and shape, size, and type of connectors. Sockets used in every country are set on the
country’s individual national standards. To derive power from the socket into the appliance, plugs are used to be inserted into
the socket, while being connected at the other end to the appliance.
Lamp holder
As the name itself indicates, a lamp holder is used to hold the lamp. It is a device designed to connect a lamp to an electric
circuit supply terminals, and support it mechanically. Depending upon the requirements and how they need to be used, lamp
holders are manufactured in different designs. These include batten, angle, pendant, swivel, and bracket lamp holder.
Fuse
Fuse in an electrical safety device that is designed to provide protection from excessive current in an electrical circuit. It
contains a metal wire or strip that melts down when too much current flows through it, thus interrupting the flow of current.
The fuse wire can be made of lead, tin, copper, silver, or aluminum.
Circuit breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch that can protect an electrical circuit from damage of
over-current, by disconnecting the circuit supply. Its basic function is to interrupt the flow of current after a fault is detected or
when the current drawn from the circuit increases to a pre-determined value. It has the same function of a fuse, with the
difference that a fuse needs to be replaces, while a circuit breaker can be simply reset by lifting the operational knob to resume
normal operation.

Switch Socket & Plug Lamp Holder

Fuse Circuit Breaker

 Insulation Tape
Insulation tape (or electrical tape) acts as a “pressure-sensitive” tape which is commonly used to insulate
devices and wires that conduct electricity. These are generally made of plastic; however, vinyl is highly
used as it enables better stretching and insulation.
Cable Clips
Cable clips are one of the most widely used items in the segment of electrical wiring accessories. These
are used to bind, fasten, and safeguard cables. While choosing a particular type of cable, consider
specifications like certifications and materials of construction. Some of the most common materials used
to make cable clips include: cloth, nylon, polyester, metalized polyester, steel, and vinyl.
Cable Glands
Cable glands are used to connect and protect the cable end to a device. It offers strain relief and gets
attached by a method appropriate for the type and construction of the cable for which it is specifically
made. Cable glands functions well in sealing cables running through gland plates and bulkheads.
Heat-Shrinkable Tubings
These tubings are used to insulate wires and prevent solid wire conductions from abrasion and
environmental hazards. It performs the following functions:
• Repairs the insulation on wires
• Can be used to bundle wires together
• Prevents abrasion
• Can make cable entry seals
• Provides environmental sealing protection
•Materials like nylon or polyolefin are commonly used to manufacture these tubings which shrink
outwardly while exposed to heat.

Insulation Tape Cable Clips

Cable Glands Heat-Shrinkable Tubings

Different Safety Measures

Safety Precautions:
1.Electric Power and Experimental Setup
• Avoid loose wires, cables, and connections.
• Assume any exposed metal is live with electricity unless otherwise verified.
• Familiarize oneself with all ON/OFF buttons on equipment, circuit breakers, and
disconnect switches of a bench.
• Only make changes to the experimental setup when the circuit power is turned off and
all power sources read zero voltage and zero current, as applicable.
• Use wires of suitable length for their appropriate applications. Long wires or
connections can cause clutter on a bench, and very short wires or connections can be too
tight and may be easily disconnected.
• Separate higher power equipment and connections from lower power equipment, such
as microcontrollers, to avoid both interference and electrical interconnections between
sensitive electronic devices and higher power devices.
• Make sure that all DC power supplies, AC sources, and other power sources start from a
zero voltage and zero current output or as directed in an experiment. Starting from a
non-zero voltage is possible in certain applications where a voltage source should have
a specific initial condition.
• Turn off all equipment before leaving the lab once an experiment concludes.
• Do not allow a single user to perform an experiment alone. Make sure at least two users
perform an experiment when operating more than 50 V DC and three-phase AC.
Safety measurements:
2. Work Environment
• Familiarize oneself with the exits in the laboratory.
• Avoid a cluttered work environment.
• Have a pen, calculator, lab notebook, and experiment description
prepared and ready.
• Appropriately cool and label warm (due to heat dissipation) equipment.
3. Clothing and Personal Requirements
• Remove jewelry, metal watches, or other metal accessories while
performing any experiment, as these can be dangerous in the vicinity of
rotation machinery and electrical connections.
• Do not wear loose apparel, shorts, or short skirts, as they expose skin to
electrical connections and rotation machinery.
• Do not wear hanging necklaces, glasses, ties, and other accessories, as
users tend to get close to rotating machinery and electrical connections.
Also, avoid hanging glasses around the neck, which can be easily
grabbed by rotating machinery.
• Tie long hair to the back of the head.

Earthing
• Earthing is the method of transmitting the instant electricity discharge
directly to the ground through low resistance wires or electrical cables.
This is one of the significant features of electrical networks.
• The grounding or earthing limits the voltage rise or potential difference
observed on a supply system. In case if there is a lightning strike on the
building or on the power distribution towers, the overvoltage which are
developed should be safely contacted through the connection to the
ground equipment.
Types of Earthing
There are different types of earthing system mostly used. They are
• Plate earthing
• Pipe earthing
• Rod earthing

Plate Earthing
• The plate material is of either copper or galvanized iron is used in the
plate earthing system. This plate selected should of certain specified dimensions,
which is placed inside the earth at a depth less than 3 meters from the bottom.
This plate is connected to the electrical conductors to divert the electric charge
inside the earth.

Rod earthing
• This type of earthing is similar to pipe earthing, but a rod made of galvanized
steel is used in this case. The rod used for this purpose is buried inside the earth
at a certain depth. As it is of low resistive material, the short circuit current will
be diverted to the ground safely. The rod earthing diagram is given the following
figure.
•
Pipe Earthing
• A galvanized iron pipe is selected should be such that it has holes pierced at
regular intervals and the pipe is narrow at the bottom end.
• A clamp is attached to the G.I pipe to which an earth wire is connected. This
pipe diverts the electrical conductance inside the earth.
• The pipe is placed in the earth pit at a depth not less than 3 meters. The space
inside the G.I pipe is filled by the alternate layers of salt and charcoal up to the
clamp level.
• The top portion of the G.I pipe is left open for maintenance when required by
constructing a chamber with bricks. Water is poured into the G.I pipe to
maintain earthing resistance within the specified limits.
• A galvanized steel and a pipe that has holes at regular intervals are kept inside
the earth. Keeping in view its low-cost Pipe earthing is commonly used for all
domestic purposes.

Difference between earthing and grounding:

• In grounding the current carrying part like neutral of the
transformer is directly connected to the ground. In grounding the
equipment is not physically connected to the ground, and the
current is not zero on the ground.
• Whereas in earthing the system is physically connected to the
ground and it is at zero potential.
Necessity of earthing.
• The necessity for earthing is to ensure that the metalwork of
electrical equipment, other than current carrying parts, cannot have
a potential above earth in the event of a fault which might
otherwise cause danger of an electric shock.

Electrical Tariff
The tariff is the methods of charging a consumer for consuming electric power.
The tariff covers the total cost of producing and supplying electric energy plus
a reasonable cost.
Types of Tariff
• Flat Demand Rate tariff
• Straight-line Meter rate tariff
• Block meter Rate tariff
• Two-part tariff
• Power factor tariff
• Seasonal rate tariff
• Peak load tariff
• Three-part tariff
 Flat demand rate tariff –
•The flat demand rate tariff is expressed by the equation C = Ax. In this type of tariff, the bill of the
power consumption depends only on the maximum demand of the load.
•The generation of the bill is independent of the normal energy consumption
•This type of tariff is used on the street light, sign lighting, irrigation, etc., where the working hours of
the equipment are unknown.
• The metering system is not used for calculating such type of tariffs.

Straight-line meter rate tariff –

•This type of tariff is given by the equation C = By. The generation of the bills depends on the energy
consumption of the load.
• Thus, different types of bills are generated by the consumers.
•The charges for different types of consumption depends on the load and diversity factors of the load.
• For example, the tariff for small devices is less as compared to the power loads. Hence different meters
are used for measuring the power consumption.

Block meter rate tariff –

•In this type of tariff, the energy consumption is distinguished into blocks.
• The per unit tariff of the individual block is fixed. The price of the block is arranged in the decreasing
order.
• The first block has the highest cost, and it goes on decreasing accordingly.
• The price and the energy consumption are divided into three blocks.
•The first few units of energy at a certain rate, the next at a slightly lower rate and the remaining unit at a
very lower rate.

Two-part tariff –
•In such type of tariff, the total bill is divided into two parts.
• The first one is the fixed charge and the second is the running charge.
•The fixed charge is because of the maximum demand and the second charge depends on the
energy consumption by the load.

•The factor A and B may be constant and vary according to some sliding.

Seasonal rate tariff –

•Such type of tariff measures the high price in kWh used by the consumer in one complete
year.
• It is also known as the on peak season tariff.
• If the low consumption occurs in the year, then it called the off-peak season tariffs.

Power factor tariff –

•The tariff, which depends on the power factor of the load is known as the power factor
tariff.
•The power factor tariff is mainly classified into two types.
a. kVA maximum demand tariff –
• This is also a two-part tariff.
•The low power factor increases the KVA rating of the load.
b. kWh and kVarh tariff –
•The bill is calculated by the sum of the kVarh and Kwh rating of the load
•The kVarh is inversely proportional to the power factor of the load.
Energy Conservation
• Energy conservation is not about making limited resources last as long as they
can, that would mean that you are doing nothing more than prolong a crisis
until you finally run out of energy resources all together.
• Conservation is the process of reducing demand on a limited supply and
enabling that supply to begin to rebuild itself.
• Many times the best way of doing this is to replace the energy used with an
alternate.
• The goal with energy conservation techniques is reduce demand, protect and
replenish supplies, develop and use alternative energy sources, and to clean up
the damage from the prior energy processes.
Practical Methods of Energy Conservation
• Below are 8 energy conservation techniques that can help you to reduce your
overall carbon footprint and save money in the long run.
1. Install CFL Lights: Try replacing incandescent bulbs in your home with CFL
bulbs. CFL bulbs cost more upfront but last 12 times longer than regular
incandescent bulbs. CFL bulbs will not only save energy but over time you end
up saving money.

2. Lower the Room Temperature: Even a slight decrease in room temperature lets say by only a degree or two, can
result in big energy savings. The more the difference between indoor and outdoor temperature, the more energy it
consumes to maintain room temperature. A more smarter and comfortable way of doing this is to buy a programmable
thermostat.
3. Fix Air Leaks: Proper insulation will fix air leaks that could be costing you. During winter months, you could be
letting out a lot of heat if you do not have a proper insulation. You can fix those leaks yourself or call an energy expert
to do it for you.
4. Use Maximum Daylight: Turn off lights during the day and use daylight as much as possible. This will reduce the
burden on the local power grid and save you good amount of money in the long run.
5. Get Energy Audit Done: Getting energy audit done by hiring an energy audit expert for your home is an energy
conservation technique that can help you conserve energy and save good amount of money every month. Home
energy audit is nothing but a process that helps you to identify areas in your home where it is losing energy and what
steps you can take to overcome them. Implement the tips and suggestions given by those energy experts and you
might see some drop in your monthly electricity bill.
6. Use Energy Efficient Appliances: When planning to buy some electrical appliances, prefer to buy one with
Energy Star rating. Energy efficient appliances with Energy Star rating consume less energy and save you money.
They might cost you more in the beginning but it is much more of an investment for you.
7. Drive Less, Walk More and Carpooling: Yet another energy conservation technique is to drive less and walk
more. This will not only reduce your carbon footprint but will also keep you healthy as walking is a good exercise. If
you go to office by car and many of your colleagues stay nearby, try doing carpooling with them. This will not only
bring down your monthly bill you spend on fuel but will also make you socially more active.
8. Switch Off Appliances when Not in Use: Electrical appliances like coffee machine, idle printer, desktop computer
keep on using electricity even when not in use. Just switch them off if you don’t need them immediately.
9. Plant Shady Landscaping: Shady landscaping outside your home will protect it from intense heat during hot and
sunny days and chilly winds during the winter season. This will keep your home cool during summer season and will
eventually turn to big savings when you calculate the amount of energy saved at the end of the year.
10. Install Energy Efficient Windows: Some of the older windows installed at our homes aren’t energy efficient.
Double panel windows and other vinyl frames are much better than single pane windows. Choosing correct blinds can
save on your power bills.

Electric Power System

• An electric power system or electric grid is known as a large network of
power generating plants which connected to the consumer loads.
• The main objective of an electric power system is to obtain electrical energy
and make it reachable safely to the load point where it is being used in usable
form. This is done in five stages namely
• Generating Station
• Primary Transmission
• Secondary Transmission
• Primary Distribution
• Secondary Distribution
Generating Station:
• The place where electric power produced by the parallel connected three
phase alternators/generators is called Generating Station (i.e. power plant).
• The ordinary power plant capacity and generating voltage may be 11kV, 11.5
kV 12kV or 13kV. But economically, it is good to step up the produced
voltage from (11kV, 11.5kV Or 12 kV) to 132kV, 220kV or 500kV or more (in
some countries, up to 1500kV) by Step up transformer (power Transformer).
 • The electrical energy is produced at generating stations, and through the transmission
network, it is transmitted to the consumers.
• Between the generating stations and the distribution stations, three different levels of voltage
(transmission, sub-transmission and distribution level of voltage) are used.
• The high voltage is required for long distance transmission and, the low voltage is required
for utility purposes.
• The voltage level is going on decreasing from the transmission system to the distribution
system.
• The electrical energy is generated by the three-phase synchronous generator (alternators) as
shown in the figure.
• The generation voltage is usually 11kV and 33 KV.
• This voltage is too low for transmission over long distance. It is, therefore, stepped up to 132,
220, 400 KV, or more by step-up transformers.
• At that voltage, the electrical energy is transmitted to the bulk power substation where energy
is supplied from several power substations.
• The voltage at these substations is stepped down to 66KV and fed to the sub-transmission
system for onward transmission to the distribution sub-stations.
• These substations are located in the region of the load centres.
• The voltage is further stepped down to 33KV and 11KV.
• The large industrial consumers are supplied at the primary distribution level of 33KV while
the smaller industrial consumer is supplied at 11KV.
• The voltage is stepped down further by a distribution transformer located in the residential
and commercial area, where it is supplied to these consumers at the secondary distribution
level of 400V three phase and 230V single phase.

Various Energy Resources

1. Solar Energy
• Solar power harvests the energy of the sun through using collector panels to create conditions that can then be
turned into a kind of power.
• Large solar panel fields are often used in desert to gather enough power to charge small substations, and many
homes use solar systems to provide for hot water, cooling and supplement their electricity.
• The issue with solar is that while there is plentiful amounts of sun available, only certain geographical ranges of
the world get enough of the direct power of the sun for long enough to generate usable power from this source.
2. Wind Energy
• Wind power is becoming more and more common.
• The new innovations that are allowing wind farms to appear are making them a more common sight.
• By using large turbines to take available wind as the power to turn, the turbine can then turn a generator to
produce electricity.
• While this seemed like an ideal solution to many, the reality of the wind farms is starting to reveal an unforeseen
ecological impact that may not make it an ideal choice.
3. Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal energy is the energy that is produced from beneath the earth.
• It is clean, sustainable and environment friendly.
• High temperatures are produced continuously inside the earth’s crust by the slow delay of radioactive particles.
Hot rocks present below the earth heats up the water that produces steam.
• The steam is then captured that helps to move turbines.
• The rotating turbines then power the generators.
• Geothermal energy can be used by a residential unit or on a large scale by a industrial application.
• It was used during ancient times for bathing and space heating.
• The biggest disadvantage with geothermal energy is that it can only be produced at selected sites throughout the
world.
• The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in
California, United States.
4. Hydrogen Energy
• Hydrogen is available with water(H2O) and is most common element available on earth.
• Water contains two-thirds of hydrogen and can be found in combination with other elements.
• Once it is separated, it can be used as a fuel for generating electricity.
• Hydrogen is a tremendous source of energy and can be used as a source of fuel to power ships, vehicles, homes, industries and
rockets. It is completely renewable, can be produced on demand and does not leave any toxic emissions in the atmosphere.
5. Tidal Energy
• Tidal energy uses rise and fall of tides to convert kinetic energy of incoming and outgoing tides into electrical energy.
• The generation of energy through tidal power is mostly prevalent in coastal areas.
• Huge investment and limited availability of sites are few of the drawbacks of tidal energy.
• When there is increased height of water levels in the ocean, tides are produced which rush back and forth in the ocean.
• Tidal energy is one of the renewable source of energy and produce large energy even when the tides are at low speed.
6. Wave Energy
• Wave energy is produced from the waves that are produced in the oceans.
• Wave energy is renewable, environment friendly and causes no harm to atmosphere.
• It can be harnessed along coastal regions of many countries and can help a country to reduce its dependance on foreign countries for
fuel.
• Producing wave energy can damage marine ecosystem and can also be a source of disturbance to private and commercial vessels.
• It is highly dependent on wavelength and can also be a source of visual and noise pollution.
7. Hydroelectric Energy
• What many people are not aware of is that most of the cities and towns in the world rely on hydropower, and have for the past
century.
• Every time you see a major dam, it is providing hydropower to an electrical station somewhere.
• The power of the water is used to turn generators to produce the electricity that is then used.
• The problems faced with hydropower right now have to do with the aging of the dams.
• Many of them need major restoration work to remain functional and safe, and that costs enormous sums of money.
• The drain on the world’s drinkable water supply is also causing issues as townships may wind up needing to consume the water that
provides them power too.

8. Biomass Energy
• Biomass energy is produced from organic material and is commonly used throughout the world.
• Chlorophyll present in plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground
into carbohydrates through the process of photosynthesis.
• When the plants are burned, the water and carbon dioxide is again released back into the atmosphere. Biomass generally include
crops, plants, trees, yard clippings, wood chips and animal wastes.
• Biomass energy is used for heating and cooking in homes and as a fuel in industrial production.
• This type of energy produces large amount of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
9. Nuclear Power
• While nuclear power remains a great subject of debate as to how safe it is to use, and whether or not it is really energy efficient
when you take into account the waste it produces – the fact is it remains one of the major renewable sources of energy available
to the world.
• The energy is created through a specific nuclear reaction, which is then collected and used to power generators.
• While almost every country has nuclear generators, there are moratoriums on their use or construction as scientists try to resolve
safety and disposal issues for waste.
10. Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil and Natural Gas)
• When most people talk about the different sources of energy they list natural gas, coal and oil as the options – these are all
considered to be just one source of energy from fossil fuels.
• Fossil fuels provide the power for most of the world, primarily using coal and oil.
• Oil is converted into many products, the most used of which is gasoline.
• Natural gas is starting to become more common, but is used mostly for heating applications although there are more and more
natural gas powered vehicles appearing on the streets.
• The issue with fossil fuels is twofold. To get to the fossil fuel and convert it to use there has to be a heavy destruction
and pollution of the environment.
• The fossil fuel reserves are also limited, expecting to last only another 100 years given are basic rate of consumption.
• It isn’t easy to determine which of these different sources of energy is best to use.
• All of them have their good and bad points. While advocates of each power type tout theirs as the best, the truth is that they are
all flawed.
• What needs to happen is a concerted effort to change how we consume energy and to create a balance between which of these
sources we draw from.

Laws of Illumination
i) Illumination is directly proportional to the
luminous intensity of the source.
ii) Inverse square law – The illumination of a
surface receiving its flux from a point source is
inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the surface and the source.
iii) Lambert’s cosine law – The illumination of a
surface at any point is proportional to the cosine
of the angle between the normal at the point and
the direction of the luminous flux.
Inverse square law
• If a source of light which emits light equally in all directions be placed at the centre of
a hollow sphere, the light will fall uniformly on the inner surface of the sphere, that is
to say, each square mm of the surface will receive the same amount of light. If the
sphere be replaced by one of the larger radius, the same total amount of light is spread
over a larger area proportional to the square of the radius. The amount which falls
upon any square mm of such a surface will, therefore, diminish as the radius increases,
and will be inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
• A similar relation holds if we have to deal with a beam of light in the form of a cone
or pyramid, as shown in Fig. 7.6 (a). If we consider parallel surfaces which cut the
pyramid at different distances from the source, the areas of these surfaces are
proportional to the square of these distances, and, therefore, the amount of light which
falls on one unit of the area of these surfaces is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance from the source. This relationship is referred to as the law of inverse
squares.

Mathematically it can be proved as follows:

• Let us consider surface area A1 and surface area A2 at distances r1 and r2 respectively
from the point source S of luminous intensity I and normal to the rays, as shown in Fig.
7.6(a).
• Let the solid angel subtended be ω steradians = I
• Total luminous flux radiated = Iω lumens
• Illumination on the surface of area A1,

• Hence the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the

distance between the surface and the light source provided that the distance between the
surface and the source is sufficiently large so that the source can be regarded as a point
source.

Lambert’s cosine law

• Very often the illuminated surface is not normal to the direction
of light as AC in Fig. 7.6 (b) but is inclined as AB. The area over
which the light is spread is then increased in the ratio-

• According to this law the illumination at any point on a surface is

proportional to the cosine of the angle between the normal at that
point and the direction of luminous flux
 Types of Lamps
✔ There have been significant improvements in lamp efficiency as well as the different types
of lamp after invention.
✔ They can be divided into two main categories:
✔ incandescent and
✔ luminescent gaseous discharge lamps.

✔The gaseous discharge type of lamp is either low or high pressure.

✔ Low-pressure gaseous discharge sources are the fluorescent and low- pressure sodium
lamps.
✔Mercury vapor, metal halide and high-pressure sodium lamps are considered
high-pressure gaseous discharge sources.

Fluorescent Lamp

Diagram

NOTE:- A and B are electrodes

Construction:
✔ The figure shows the constructional details of Fluorescent Lamp.
✔It consists of a long glass tube which is internally coated with a
little quantity of argon gas is also filled in the tube.
✔ There are two electrodes A and B made up of coiled tungsten
filament coated with an electron emitting material.
✔The control circuit of the tube contains glow type starter, choke L and
two capacitors C1 and C2.
✔There are two electrodes of which one is fixed while other is U
shaped bimetallic strip made of two different metals.
✔These electrodes are sealed in a glass bulb, which is filled with a
mixture of helium and hydrogen.
✔ The contacts are normally open.
✔The coating effect used depends upon the colour effect desired and
may consists of Zinc silicate, Cadmium, Silicate, or calcium
tungstate. They are commonly known as “Phosphrous”
 Working:
✔When the supply is switched ON as electric arc is established between
the electrodes of the starter due to flow of current through small air gap
between the electrodes.
✔Due to this arc, heat is produced which is sufficient to bend the
bimetallic strip which makes contact with fixed electrode.
✔ This closes the circuit and therefore choke carries large current.
✔Once the electrodes close, arc vanishes and bimetallic strips cool
down again.
✔Now the electrodes A and B become hot and due to cooling the choke
circuit open.
✔The current through the choke coil is suddenly reduced to a small
value.
✔This change in current induces an e.m.f. which is very high of the order
of 1000 V, in the choke coil.
✔This e.m.f. induced is sufficient for ionizing the gas molecules between
electrodes A and B, which establishes the discharge between the
electrodes A and B through the gas

✔The potential difference across the tube falls to about 100-110 V which
is sufficient to maintain the discharge but not sufficient to restart the
glow in the circuit.
✔So even if starter is removed from the circuit, discharge continues as
the current flows from electrode A and B due to ionization of gas.
✔ If the supply voltage is low, there is difficulty in starting the tube, as
the low voltage is insufficient to establish a glow in the starter.
✔As choke lowers the power factor, the capacitor C1 used in the circuit
improves the power factor of the circuit.
✔ The capacitor C2 suppresses the radio interference developed due to
arcing.
✔The function of the inductive choke coil is to supply a large voltage
surge for establishing discharge between the electrodes A and B.

Sodium Vapour Lamp

Diagram
 Construction:
✔It consists of two glass tube, outer glass tube and inner glass tube.
✔ The inner glass tube contains two electrodes (see fig.).
✔Sodium along with small quantity of neon or argon gas is filled in the inner
tube to make discharge self- starting.
✔ Sodium vapour is chemically active.
✔The glass of the tube is made up of suitable material to resist this action.
✔To maintain the correct temperature in the discharge, it is placed in an evacuated
outer tube. The outer tube reduces the heat loss. The transformer includes in the
circuit heats the cathode while choke stabilizes the discharge.
Working:
✔When the lamp is not in operation,. The sodium is usually in the form of solid
deposited on the side walls of the tube.
✔When the lamp is switched on, the discharge is first established through
the neon or argon gas.
✔ This gives out radish color.
✔After some time heat is developed due to this discharge that is vaporizes
sodium vapour.
✔In this way the lamp starts its normal operation giving yellow color.

✔ Capacitor C is connected to have a better power factor.

✔ The operating temperature of this lamp is about 300C.
✔ These lamps are commonly used for illumination of roads, good yards, and
airports.
✔ Efficiency of a Sodium Vapour Lamp under practical Conditions is about
40-50 lumens/watt
✔ Sodium Vapour lamp is only suitable for AC and Therefore, requires choke
control.
✔ Manufactures in 45, 60, 85 and 140Watt ratings.
✔ The average life is about 3000 Hours.
✔ Lamp is not affected by voltage variations.
✔ Light output reduced by 15% due to ageing.
✔ The metallic sodium gradually vaporizes and then ionizes. Thereby,
Producing the characteristics mono-chromatic yellow light, which makes
objects appears as gray.
✔ The lamp must be operated horizontally or nearly so, to take the sodium
well spread out along the tube.
✔ Some operated vertically as designed.

Advantages:
i) Its efficiency is higher than that of the filament lamp.
ii) It has a long life.
Disadvantages:
i)The bright yellow colour obtained is not suitable for indoor
lighting. So it is not useful in houses.
ii) For the necessary output, long tubes are required.
iii)For giving full output, some time (about 10 minutes) is
required.
Applications:-
▪ Used for high way.
▪ Used for General outdoor lighting where colour
discrimination is not required like Street light, parks, rail
yards, storage yards, etc..
 Mercury Vapour Lamp:
Diagram

Construction:
• The lamp consists of two bulbs, inner bulb and outer bulb.
• The electric discharge takes place in the inner bulb.
• The outer bulb protects the inner bulb and reduces loss of heat.
• The inner bulb consists of a small amount of mercury and argon gas. The two
electrodes A and B are made up of electron emitting material.
• Three electrodes B, A and S are provided in the inner bulb.
• The electrode ‘A’ is connected to electrode ‘S’ through a high resistance.
• Choke L and capacitor C forms the control circuits of the lamp.
Working
•When the supply is switched on, the initial discharge is established between
electrode B and S through the argon gas and then between electrodes B and A.
•The heat produced due to this discharge is sufficient to vaporize mercury and the
discharge through the mercury vapour takes place.
•In this normal operation of the lamp, it emits or radiates its characteristic light.
• The electrode ‘S’ is called as starting electrode or auxiliary electrode.
•The choke serves to limit the current drawn by the electrodes to a safe limit.
•The capacitor C improves power factor of the lamp.
•These lamps are widely used for outdoor street lighting where a high illumination
necessary, where the colour of light is not important.

Advantages:
i) Its efficiency is high and output is more.
ii) It has long life.
Disadvantages:
i) The initial time required for warming up is more about 5 minutes.
ii) If lamp goes out while in service, cooling is required for restarting. This
cooling reduces the vapour pressure. each lamp contains mercury which can
be harmful to both humans and wildlife.
Application:-
✔Ultra high pressure mercury vapor lamps are used in the area of photolithography
to expose various photo resists.
✔Phosphor coated or white mercury vapor lamps are recommended for all applications
where color is important.
▪ There are three standard modified mercury vapor lamps:
a. Color Improved: very poor on reds, marginal color, not recommended.
b. Deluxe White, DX: increased red, good color, recommended.
c. Warm White Deluxe, WWX: excellent reds, excellent color, highly
recommended, decreased lumens.