Chapter 4 Documenting Historic and Archaeological Metals

All conservation projects begin and end with complete documentation of prior condition
documentation and the care and conservation and conservation treatments. Ideally, this
of metals are no exception. Before any documentation should be readily accessible
conservation strategy can be decided and to future conservators and researchers –
implemented it is essential to know exactly archived either as traditional treatment cards
what the problems are. Thus all historical and or as part of an electronic database. Taken
archaeological metalwork, from a steamship collectively, condition reports for a group of
to a Roman coin, are carefully documented to objects or a collection – a condition survey
establish their condition – a condition report – helps formulate conservation strategies at
– only then can a conservation proposal be a higher level. Assessing the condition of a
formulated and costs estimated. The condition museum’s collections is an essential part of
report should aim to investigate and document collections care and management. It identifies
the objects function, use, materials, state of any fundamental problems in the storage
deterioration, nature of deterioration products, environment, helps prioritise objects for
evidence of manufacturing methods (tool- conservation and allows budgets to be set and
marks, casting seams, etc.) and traces of use applied for.
such as wear-marks. Replaced parts in the
case of composite objects such as machines Documentation of metalwork can take many
should be recorded and evidence of previous forms, from written descriptions, through
treatments must be documented where drawings and photographs, to X-radiography.
possible. The condition report serves many These non-destructive methods can be
functions. In conjunction with a museum’s supplemented by various scientific analyses,
collections policy it may be used to determine some of which can be non-destructive such
whether an object fulfils the criteria for as X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry or
acceptance into the collection: Is the object Raman spectrometry, while others may require
authentic? Does the intrinsic interest of the the taking of a small sample, for example X-ray
object outweigh the costs and risks of its diffraction (XRD) studies of corrosion products
subsequent conservation or restoration? or the taking of a paint sample to establish
Does the object pose any significant health the original colour scheme on a repainted
risk to museum staff or public, for example vehicle or industrial machine. The types of
does a steam engine contain any asbestos documentation and analyses selected depend
insulation? The condition report also forms the largely on the nature of the object under study.
essential foundation for informed conservation For working machines the documentation may
– treatment decisions made and implemented be similar to a log book where hours of use,
on the basis of the best available evidence. routine maintenance, major overhauls and
replaced parts are recorded in detail. For
The condition report also forms a baseline archaeological objects the documentation may
assessment of the objects condition before any be more forensic in its approach, recording
conservation. This can be thought of as similar trace evidence that helps in the interpretation
to a doctor’s medical examination and diagnosis of the object, its function, use and eventual
of a patient’s health prior to treatment. Not deposition in the archaeological record.
only does this examination lead to a diagnosis
but also a treatment regime and choice of One of the most common and potentially useful
medications. Reference back to the initial methods of documenting archaeological metal
examination allows the doctor to see whether objects is the use of radiography, usually X-
the patient is improving or deteriorating. By radiography.
pooling this knowledge doctors can determine
which treatments are successful in the long 4.1 X-radiography of Archaeological
term and which are not. Similarly, museums Metals
and institutions with large collections of similar Iron objects and some copper alloys such
materials can re-evaluate different treatment as coins are routinely radiographed in
regimes by examining treated objects many archaeological conservation laboratories and
years after conservation. One example English Heritage provide excellent guidelines
is the re-examination of archaeological for radiography of archaeological metalwork
ironwork to evaluate the success or failure (English Heritage 2006). X-radiographs reveal
of different desalination methods (Keene the shapes of objects hidden under several
1994). Obviously, this is impossible without millimetres of external corrosion and act as
Figure 4.1: X-radiography is a fast and effective means of primary documentation for a large group of
corroded iron objects. The archaeological objects are laid out on a photographic plate (above) and the
exposed radiograph (opposite) records both their morphology and condition.

Figure 4.2: Radiography not only helps in the identification of objects it also documents the degree of
corrosion in a metal object. Here a Medieval knife has been sectioned for metallographic analysis and
radiography was used to locate areas where metallic iron was well preserved.
a way of identifying what is otherwise an of X-rays by ferrous corrosion products and
unremarkable and shapeless lump of corrosion. non-ferrous metals means that metal plating
Frequently, radiography is the fastest and most on corroded iron objects are often quite
effective means of primary documentation for visible in X-rays while being invisible in visible
a large group of corroded iron objects or coins light, even under magnification. As we saw
(Figure 4.1). Radiography not only helps in in Section 3.5 corrosion of iron can continue
the identification of objects it also documents beneath a tin or noble metal plating, while
the degree of corrosion in a metal object the tin is cathodically protected until all the
– especially in corroded iron objects where the associated iron is oxidised. Thus, tin plating or
voluminous corrosion products are much less copper alloy and silver inlays on iron objects
opaque to X-rays than the surviving metal core often remain un-corroded even in severely
(Figure 4.2). degraded objects.
The corrosion products in non-ferrous These platings and inlays lie at the original
metals are frequently more compact than surface of the object and are surrounded on the
iron corrosion products and therefore are outside by external corrosion – predominantly
barely less opaque to X-rays than the metal goethite – and on the inside by internal
itself. Nevertheless, radiography of smaller corrosion – predominantly magnetite and
copper- or silver alloy objects such as coins unstable, chloride-containing oxy-hydroxides.
and jewellery is often advisable since this can In smaller objects such as keys the presence
reveal otherwise hidden details. For example of a tin plating acting as the cathode results
the Anglo-Saxon brooch in Figure 4.3 has been in very serious corrosion, to the extent that
repaired in antiquity, using a small iron plate almost all metallic iron is dissolved from the
and iron rivets. Corrosion of the iron in the object. In these cases the tin plating is the
repair has caused the brooch to break once only surviving record of the original surface
again but all evidence for the repair is hidden and because of the extreme fragility of iron
from the naked eye by corrosion products. corrosion products it may be impossible to
The nature of the repair was revealed only by mechanically clean the artefact (see Section
radiography. The relative contrast in absorption 5.2.4). In such cases radiography in several
orientations allows a drawing to be made and folded – slag stringers. Corrosion often
of the object’s original shape and it may be follows these stringers so that X-rays of very
possible to open a small "window" in the corroded objects show a "grainy" texture. Steel
external corrosion to allow identification of frequently does not show these slag stringers
the non-ferrous metal using XRF or a similar but is prone to pitting corrosion. Thus, in
technique. Keys and similar objects may also thin objects such as knives and swords, steel
contain brazed joints where several composite cutting edges can sometimes be distinguished
parts have been joined. Brazing can sometimes from a wrought iron core. In antiquity blades
be distinguished by identifying bubbles in the were made by fire welding together iron and
dense metal on X-rays (Figure 4.4). steels of different hardness and toughness
to give a durable blade with good cutting
Because of the different corrosion characteristics characteristics. Repeated heating in the forge
of wrought iron and steel it is sometimes possible can cause trace elements such as phosphorus
to interpret X-rays to determine whether an and nickel in the steel to become concentrated
ancient ferrous object has been created by in the surface so that weld lines may be slightly
welding together several pieces of metal with cathodic with respect to the surrounding iron.
different carbon compositions. Wrought iron As a result weld lines may be visible in X-
usually contains long, parallel filaments of radiographs of corroded blades. Swords from
slag from having been repeatedly hammered the later Roman period and Migration Period

Figure 4.3: Anglo-Saxon brooch that has been repaired in antiquity using a small iron plate and iron rivets.
These are only visible on the radiographs.
Figure 4.4: Brazing can sometimes be distinguished
on X-radiographs of corroded archaeological objects
by identifying bubbles in the denser brazing metal
– usually brass. In this Medieval key tin plating is
visible as a dense white outline (white arrow). The
brazing with bubbles can be seen in the red boxes.

were frequently made by a complex process

of folding and twisting iron and steel bars to
achieve a springy, resilient blade with hard,
steel cutting edges – the co-called "pattern
welding" process. In the finished blade the
beautiful and complex pattern was a testament
to the skill of the swordsmith and a guarantee
of quality. Many surviving blades bear inlaid
inscriptions and makers’ names. This technique
of sword making was common to many pre-
industrial cultures as smiths sought to solve
similar problems, and Damascus blades join
those from India, Southeast Asia and China
in sharing these patterned steels. Figures 4.5
and 4.6 show stereo pairs of X-rays illustrating
pattern welding and inlayed inscriptions
revealed by differential corrosion in the blades Figures 4.5: Stereo pairs of X-radiographs
of these Viking swords from Norway. Use of illustrating pattern welding and inlayed inscriptions
stereo radiography can help is distinguishing revealed by differential corrosion in the blade of this
inscriptions on two sides of an iron object or Viking sword from Trondheim, Norway.
in understanding the internal mechanisms of a
lock for example. health and safety can be avoided. High energy
X-rays are used, typically over 100 kV and
Radiography of archaeological metals usually films may be used in combination with a lead
involves conventional industrial X-ray films in intensifying filter that screens out much of
a reusable cassette, although in some of the the scatter and increases the image contrast
larger laboratories digital radiography is being by stimulating photoemission of electrons in
introduced. If the X-ray plates are exposed in a the lead which is pressed into close contact
sealed cabinet X-ray source such as a Faxitron with the emulsion. Industrial X-ray films are
machine (Figure 4.7) then many issues with available with extremely fine grain emulsions
Figure 4.6: Digitally enhanced detail of the radiograph seen in Figure 4.5. By crossing ones eyes it is
possible to visualise a 3-dimensional, stereoscopic view of the twisted rods and inlayed pattern. To the
right is a reconstruction of a 9th century AD Viking sword by Czech swordsmith Patrick Bárta showing similar
pattern welding and inlay. The hilt is inlaid with copper and silver wires.

Figure 4.7: Closed cabinet industrial X-ray machines

are available for the routine radiography of small
objects. The multiple safety features means that
many issues with health and safety of the operator
can be avoided.

such that in very small, delicate objects such

as jewellery it is possible to cut out the area
of the image of interest and view it through a
conventional transmitted light microscope to
document fine details of manufacturing.

4.2 Microscopic Analyses of

Archaeological Metals
The conservation of archaeological metals
– in fact of almost all archaeological materials
except large structural timbers – is undertaken
under a low-power binocular microscope. This
allows the conservator to distinguish slight
differences in colour and texture that signify
changes in corrosion product as well as identify
potentially useful forensic information relating
to the object, its use or its burial environment.
Careful note should be made (and documented
in text, photographs or samples) of any
tool-marks, soldered joints, wear-marks or
Figure 4.8: Microscopic examination, combined
with mechanical cleaning and X-radiography can
reveal how objects have been made and assist the
archaeologist in interpreting ancient technologies.
A) shows a radiograph of several Roman writing
styli with a detail of two with decoration. B) shows
three styli that have been cleaned by air-abrasion
revealing brass inlay on two and a grooved grip on
a third.

associated organic materials preserved in

corrosion products. All these pieces of trace
evidence may help in the interpretation of the
object itself or its archaeological context.
The examination of tool-marks such as punches
used in the decoration of silver or copper alloys
vessels can lead to a better understanding
of manufacturing techniques in antiquity and
even shed light on the number of artisans
working in a workshop (Larsen 1987; Wicker
1994; Nielsen et al. 2005).

Microscopic examination, in conjunction

with close examination of X-rays can reveal
how objects have been made and assist
the archaeologist in interpreting ancient
technologies (Figure 4.8). When metal
objects have been buried quickly in controlled
circumstances, for example by being included
in a tomb or grave to accompany the dead into
the next world, the corrosion products may
preserve organic material in contact with the
corroding metal. These metal salts released by
corrosion can have a remarkable preserving
effect on materials that might usually decay
rapidly in the soil. Copper salts are naturally
toxic and work as biocides – killing bacteria
that would normally quickly degrade organic
materials like wool, linen, leather and wood. soluble metal salts. Traces of organic matter
Iron usually corrodes rapidly in the soil, preserved in association with metal grave
especially in combination with copper alloys goods are called mineral preserved organics
or noble platings, and this corrosion releases (MPOs) or mineral pseudomorphs. The most
soluble ions that penetrate organic matter. commonly encountered pseudomorphs are
Capillary forces draw aqueous metal salts those that have been preserved with iron
deep into porous organic materials such a or copper corrosion products, although
leather, textile, wood and horn. Metal salts are preservation by silver chloride is also known.
known to react chemically with proteins and The detail preserved by metal corrosion is
carbohydrates and salts of iron, copper and tin remarkable, with microscopic details of fibre
are used as mordants to help organic dyes bind and other cellular structures preserved. The
to textile fibres. Mineral preservation seems to quality of detail preserved is demonstrated by
be facilitated if the organic matter is slightly the preservation of insect remains on some
chemically degraded prior to infiltration with Anglo-Saxon grave goods (Figure 4.9).

Figure 4.9: The detail preserved by metal corrosion is remarkable, with microscopic details of fibre and
other cellular structures preserved. The quality of detail preserved is demonstrated by the preservation of
insect remains on these Anglo-Saxon grave goods from East Anglia, U.K.