Waste Management

Solid-waste management, the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is
discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Improper disposal of municipal
solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead to pollution of
the environment and to outbreaks of vector-borne disease—that is, diseases spread by rodents
and insects. The tasks of solid-waste management present complex technical challenges. They
also pose a wide variety of administrative, economic, and social problems that must be managed
and solved.

Developments in waste management

A technological approach to solid-waste management began to develop in the latter part of the
19th century. Watertight garbage cans were first introduced in the United States, and sturdier
vehicles were used to collect and transport wastes. A significant development in solid-waste
treatment and disposal practices was marked by the construction of the first refuse incinerator in
England in 1874. By the beginning of the 20th century, 15 percent of major American cities were
incinerating solid waste. Even then, however, most of the largest cities were still using primitive
disposal methods such as open dumping on land or in water.

Technological advances continued during the first half of the 20th century, including the
development of garbage grinders, compaction trucks, and pneumatic collection systems. By mid-
century, however, it had become evident that open dumping and improper incineration of solid
waste were causing problems of pollution and jeopardizing public health. As a result, sanitary
landfills were developed to replace the practice of open dumping and to reduce the reliance on
waste incineration. In many countries waste was divided into two categories, hazardous and
nonhazardous, and separate regulations were developed for their disposal. Landfills were
designed and operated in a manner that minimized risks to public health and the environment.
New refuse incinerators were designed to recover heat energy from the waste and were provided
with extensive air pollution control devices to satisfy stringent standards of air quality. Modern
solid-waste management plants in most developed countries now emphasize the practice of
recycling and waste reduction at the source rather than incineration and land disposal.

Sources & Types

The sources of solid waste include residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial activities.
Certain types of wastes that cause immediate danger to exposed individuals or environments are
classified as hazardous; these are discussed in the article hazardous-waste management. All
nonhazardous solid waste from a community that requires collection and transport to a
processing or disposal site is called refuse or municipal solid waste (MSW). Refuse includes
garbage and rubbish. Garbage is mostly decomposable food waste; rubbish is mostly dry material
such as glass, paper, cloth, or wood. Garbage is highly putrescible or decomposable, whereas
rubbish is not. Trash is rubbish that includes bulky items such as old refrigerators, couches, or
large tree stumps. Trash requires special collection and handling.

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Construction and demolition (C&D) waste (or debris) is a significant component of total solid
waste quantities (about 20 percent in the United States), although it is not considered to be part
of the MSW stream. However, because C&D waste is inert and nonhazardous, it is usually
disposed of in municipal sanitary landfills.

Another type of solid waste, perhaps the fastest-growing component in many developed
countries, is electronic waste, or e-waste, which includes discarded computer equipment,
televisions, telephones, and a variety of other electronic devices. Concern over this type of waste
is escalating. Lead, mercury, and cadmium are among the materials of concern in electronic
devices, and governmental policies may be required to regulate their recycling and disposal.

olid-waste characteristics vary considerably among communities and nations. American refuse is
usually lighter, for example, than European or Japanese refuse. In the United States paper and
paperboard products make up close to 40 percent of the total weight of MSW; food waste
accounts for less than 10 percent. The rest is a mixture of yard trimmings, wood, glass, metal,
plastic, leather, cloth, and other miscellaneous materials. In a loose or uncompacted state, MSW
of this type weighs approximately 120 kg per cubic metre (200 pounds per cubic yard). These
figures vary with geographic location, economic conditions, season of the year, and many other
factors. Waste characteristics from each community must be studied carefully before any
treatment or disposal facility is designed and built.

Generation and storage

Rates of solid-waste generation vary widely. In the United States, for example, municipal refuse
is generated at an average rate of approximately 2 kg (4.5 pounds) per person per day. Japan
generates roughly half this amount, yet in Canada the rate is 2.7 kg (almost 6 pounds) per person
per day. In some developing countries the average rate can be lower than 0.5 kg (1 pound) per
person per day. These data include refuse from commercial, institutional, and industrial as well
as residential sources. The actual rates of refuse generation must be carefully determined when a
community plans a solid-waste management project.

Most communities require household refuse to be stored in durable, easily cleaned containers
with tight-fitting covers in order to minimize rodent or insect infestation and offensive odours.
Galvanized metal or plastic containers of about 115-litre (30-gallon) capacity are commonly
used, although some communities employ larger containers that can be mechanically lifted and
emptied into collection trucks. Plastic bags are frequently used as liners or as disposable
containers for curbside collection. Where large quantities of refuse are generated—such as at
shopping centres, hotels, or apartment buildings—dumpsters may be used for temporary storage
until the waste is collected. Some office and commercial buildings use on-site compactors to
reduce the waste volume.

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Solid-waste treatment and disposal

Once collected, municipal solid waste may be treated in order to reduce the total volume and
weight of material that requires final disposal. Treatment changes the form of the waste and
makes it easier to handle. It can also serve to recover certain materials, as well as heat energy, for
recycling or reuse.

Composting

Another method of treating municipal solid waste is composting, a biological process in which
the organic portion of refuse is allowed to decompose under carefully controlled conditions.
Microbes metabolize the organic waste material and reduce its volume by as much as 50 percent.
The stabilized product is called compost or humus. It resembles potting soil in texture and odour
and may be used as a soil conditioner or mulch.

Composting offers a method of processing and recycling both garbage and sewage sludge in one
operation. As more stringent environmental rules and siting constraints limit the use of solid-
waste incineration and landfill options, the application of composting is likely to increase. The
steps involved in the process include sorting and separating, size reduction, and digestion of the
refuse.

Sorting and shredding

The decomposable materials in refuse are isolated from glass, metal, and other inorganic items
through sorting and separating operations. These are carried out mechanically, using differences
in such physical characteristics of the refuse as size, density, and magnetic properties. Shredding
or pulverizing reduces the size of the waste articles, resulting in a uniform mass of material. It is
accomplished with hammer mills and rotary shredders.

Digesting and processing

Pulverized waste is ready for composting either by the open windrow method or in an enclosed
mechanical facility. Windrows are long, low mounds of refuse. They are turned or mixed every
few days to provide air for the microbes digesting the organics. Depending on moisture
conditions, it may take five to eight weeks for complete digestion of the waste. Because of the
metabolic action of aerobic bacteria, temperatures in an active compost pile reach about 65 °C
(150 °F), killing pathogenic organisms that may be in the waste material.

Open windrow composting requires relatively large land areas. Enclosed mechanical composting
facilities can reduce land requirements by about 85 percent. Mechanical composting systems
employ one or more closed tanks or digesters equipped with rotating vanes that mix and aerate
the shredded waste. Complete digestion of the waste takes about one week.

Digested compost must be processed before it can be used as a mulch or soil conditioner.
Processing includes drying, screening, and granulating or pelletizing. These steps improve the
market value of the compost, which is the most serious constraint to the success of composting
as a waste management option. Agricultural demand for digested compost is usually low because
of the high cost of transporting it and because of competition with inorganic chemical fertilizers.

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Sanitary landfill

Land disposal is the most common management strategy for municipal solid waste. Refuse can
be safely deposited in a sanitary landfill, a disposal site that is carefully selected, designed,
constructed, and operated to protect the environment and public health. One of the most
important factors relating to landfilling is that the buried waste never comes in contact with
surface water or groundwater. Engineering design requirements include a minimum distance
between the bottom of the landfill and the seasonally high groundwater table. Most new landfills
are required to have an impermeable liner or barrier at the bottom, as well as a system of
groundwater-monitoring wells. Completed landfill sections must be capped with an impermeable
cover to keep precipitation or surface runoff away from the buried waste. Bottom and cap liners
may be made of flexible plastic membranes, layers of clay soil, or a combination of both.

Constructing the landfill

The basic element of a sanitary landfill is the refuse cell. This is a confined portion of the site in
which refuse is spread and compacted in thin layers. Several layers may be compacted on top of
one another to a maximum depth of about 3 metres (10 feet). The compacted refuse occupies
about one-quarter of its original loose volume. At the end of each day’s operation, the refuse is
covered with a layer of soil to eliminate windblown litter, odours, and insect or rodent problems.
One refuse cell thus contains the daily volume of compacted refuse and soil cover. Several
adjacent refuse cells make up a lift, and eventually a landfill may comprise two or more lifts
stacked one on top of the other. The final cap for a completed landfill may also be covered with a
layer of topsoil that can support vegetative growth.

Two methods of constructing a sanitary landfill.

Daily cover soil may be available on-site, or it may be hauled in and stockpiled from off-site
sources. Various types of heavy machinery, such as crawler tractors or rubber-tired dozers, are
used to spread and compact the refuse and soil. Heavy steel-wheeled compactors may also be
employed to achieve high-density compaction of the refuse.

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The area and depth of a new landfill are carefully staked out, and the base is prepared for
construction of any required liner and leachate-collection system. Where a plastic liner is used, at
least 30 cm (12 inches) of sand is carefully spread over it to provide protection from landfill
vehicles. At sites where excavations can be made below grade, the trench method of construction
may be followed. Where this is not feasible because of topography or groundwater conditions,
the area method may be practiced, resulting in a mound or hill rising above the original ground.
Since no ground is excavated in the area method, soil usually must be hauled to the site from
some other location. Variations of the area method may be employed where a landfill site is
located on sloping ground, in a valley, or in a ravine. The completed landfill eventually blends in
with the landscape.

Controlling by-products

Organic material buried in a landfill decomposes by anaerobic microbial action. Complete

decomposition usually takes more than 20 years. One of the by-products of this decomposition is
methane gas. Methane is poisonous and explosive when diluted in the air, and it can flow long
distances through porous layers of soil. If it is allowed to collect in basements or other confined
areas, dangerous conditions may arise. In modern landfills, methane movement is controlled by
impermeable barriers and by gas-venting systems. In some landfills the methane gas is collected
and recovered for use as a fuel.

A highly contaminated liquid called leachate is another by-product of decomposition in sanitary

landfills. Most leachate is the result of runoff that infiltrates the refuse cells and comes in contact
with decomposing garbage. If leachate reaches the groundwater or seeps out onto the ground
surface, serious environmental pollution problems can occur, including the possible
contamination of drinking-water supplies. Methods of controlling leachate include the
interception of surface water in order to prevent it from entering the landfill and the use of
impermeable liners or barriers between the waste and the groundwater. New landfill sites should
also be provided with groundwater-monitoring wells and leachate-collection and treatment
systems.

Importance in waste management

In communities where appropriate sites are available, sanitary landfills usually provide the most
economical option for disposal of nonrecyclable refuse. However, it is becoming increasingly
difficult to find sites that offer adequate capacity, accessibility, and environmental conditions.
Nevertheless, landfills will always play a key role in solid-waste management. It is not possible
to recycle all components of solid waste, and there will always be residues from incineration and
other treatment processes that will eventually require disposal underground. In addition, landfills
can actually improve poor-quality land. In some communities properly completed landfills are
converted into recreational parks, playgrounds, or golf courses.

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Liquid - waste management:
Meaning of Sewage:

‘Sewage’ is a collective noun used to represent liquid or solid wastes carried in sewers. It
consists of domestic water-borne wastes including human and animal excrete, washing waters
and everything that goes down the drains of a town or a city. It also consists of industrial water-
borne wastes as well as ground, surface and atmospheric waters which enter the sewerage
system.

The amount of sewage produced in our country is of the order of 3.61 million cubic metres/day
(about 800 million gallons/day). About 30% of the above amount comes from urban areas. It is
estimated that only about 20% of one day sewage production of our country is treated and
utilized, and the rest (about 80%) still remains untreated and unutilized.

Composition of Sewage:

The composition of sewage mainly depends upon per capita consumption of water and varies
from place to place and season to season.

The sewage composition can be studied under following two heads:

1. Chemical Composition:

Chemically, the sewage consists of approximately 99% water and 1% inorganic and organic
matter in suspended and soluble forms. Lignocellulose, cellulose, proteins, fats, and various
inorganic particulate matter exist in suspended state, whereas sugars, fatty acids, alcohols, amino
acids, and inorganic ions constitute the soluble forms.

However, on an average, the sewage of towns in our country contains about 350 ppm
biodegradable organic matter, 52 ppm N2, 45 ppm potassium and 16 ppm phosphorus. Salts of
several heavy metals such as Zn, Cr, Ni, Pb, etc. are also present above permissible levels in
sewage.

2. Microbial Composition:

The microbial population per millilitre of sewage may vary from a few lacs to several millions.
Various types of microorganisms, viz., micro-fungi, bacteria and protozoa, collectively called
‘sewage fungus’, are known to grow profusely in sewage.

In addition, viruses and many micro-algal genera have also been recorded from sewage. Bacteria
occurring in sewage are mainly intestinal and soil inhabiting and their common types are
coliforms, streptococci, Clostridia, micrococci, Proteus, Pseudomonas, and lactobacilli.

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Classification of Sewage:

Sewage may be classified mainly into two types, namely, domestic and industrial. All household
wastes and human and animal excrete constitute domestic sewage, whereas the industrial wastes
constitute industrial sewage.

Since industrial wastes vary greatly in their composition (some may be highly alkaline such as
soda wastes, some highly acidic such as acid-mine drainage, and others toxic because of
presence of heavy metals, antibiotics, pesticides, etc.), the treatment of industrial sewage proves
highly difficult in comparison to domestic sewage.

Characteristics of Sewage:

(i) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Oxygen Consumption (OC) values are extremely
high in sewage.

(ii) The sewage organic matter undergoes anaerobic or partial decomposition resulting in the
production of obnoxious gases, namely, CH3, CO and H2S due to anoxic condition. Besides
being toxic, these gases react with water and produce acids.

(iii) Production of acids in large quantity make the sewage more acidic thus making it unfit for
supporting life activities.

(iv) Heavy metals are generally present in abnormal concentration in sewage.

All these characteristics of sewage, viz., anoxic condition, high acidity, high heavy metal
concentration, and reduced photosynthetic rate due to poor illumination cause death of oxygen-
dependent organisms such as aerobic microorganisms, plants and animals in sewage. This is the
reason why sewage is dominated by organisms capable of growing in anaerobic environments.

Disposal of Sewage:

Sewage disposal has become of prime importance now-a-days as it brings undesirable and
harmful effects on living beings. Untreated or inadequately treated sewage is generally disposed
of into natural water reservoirs without taking its pros and cons into account.

It is so either because we are indifferent to the consequences or because we assume that the
water reservoirs are sufficiently large and so located that sewage-dilution prevents hazards.

However, we can no longer rely on disposed-sewage dilution in our natural water reservoirs; the
solution of sewage pollution is not its dilution. It is necessary, therefore, that the sewage must be
treated before its disposal so that we can, on one hand, save organisms including men from bad
effects and, on the other hand, can utilized it to the maximum for our welfare.

Disposal of sewage as such or inadequately treated one, generally leads to following

consequences:

(i) Frequent dissemination of water-borne disease causing microorganisms in large number.

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(ii) Depiction of dissolved oxygen in water leading to anoxic (oxygen-less) condition which may
ultimately kill O2 dependent aquatic life.

(iii) Creation of offensive odour and debris-accumulation due to which value of property
decreases.

(iv) Increased danger of swimming in water and diminished value of water for other recreational
purposes.

Biological oxygen demand:

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed (i.e. demanded)
by aerobic biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given water sample
at certain temperature over a specific time period. The BOD value is most commonly expressed
in milligrams of oxygen consumed per litre of sample during 5 days of incubation at 20 °C and is
often used as a surrogate of the degree of organic pollution of water.

BOD reduction is used as a gauge of the effectiveness of wastewater treatment plants. BOD of
wastewater effluents is used to indicate the short term impact on the oxygen levels of the
receiving water.

BOD analysis is similar in function to chemical oxygen demand (COD) analysis, in that both
measure the amount of organic compounds in water. However, COD analysis is less specific,
since it measures everything that can be chemically oxidized, rather than just levels of
biologically oxidized organic matter.

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Chemical Oxygen Demand:
In environmental chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) is an indicative measure of
the amount of oxygen that can be consumed by reactions in a measured solution. It is commonly
expressed in mass of oxygen consumed over volume of solution which in SI units is milligrams
per litre (mg/L). A COD test can be used to easily quantify the amount of organics in water. The
most common application of COD is in quantifying the amount of oxidizable pollutants found in
surface water (e.g. lakes and rivers) or wastewater. COD is useful in terms of water quality by
providing a metric to determine the effect an effluent will have on the receiving body, much like
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).

Single Dwelling Unit Treatment Processes:

1. Outdoor Toilets:

Where plumbing installations cannot be undertaken for any reason, the toilets or water closets
may be constructed outdoors. While this arrangement is undertaken, care could be taken to see
that flies have no access to these and changes of drainage from these, joining water supplies, are
eliminated.

2. Septic Tanks:

These are used for residential quarters (Fig. 32.1). All the residential sewage is passed through
suitable pipes leading to a tank located at a suitable place and made of metal or concrete. The
heavy particles of sewage settle down and undergo anaerobic decomposition whereas the gases
and clear water are allowed to go out through perforated pipes ramified within the ground.

The septic tank device should be so fitted that the sewage does not drain by any chance into
water supply of the residence. The sludge in the tanks must be periodically removed to prevent
clogging of the pipes.

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3. Imhoff Tank:

This is, in fact, a modification of septic tank and is generally used to treat larger community
sewage (Fig. 32.2). It consists of two chambers, one above the other. The top chamber receives
sewage and the heavier particles settle into the lower chamber and slowly decompose under
anaerobic conditions.

The gas liberated (mainly methane) can be drawn out through a passage and utilized as fuel. The
sewage effluent (remaining sewage water) is either let into larger body of water, or is subjected
to aerobic decomposition. The sludge is periodically removed, aerated and used as manure.

Municipal Treatment Processes:

Municipal sewage treatment systems carry out various steps involved (Fig. 32.3). These steps
are, namely, primary (or mechanical) treatment, secondary (or biological) treatment, and tertiary
(or final) treatment.

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1. Primary (or Mechanical) Treatment:

When the sewage arrives at a sewage treatment plant, it is first subjected to mechanical (or
physical) means, viz., flowing, dilution and sedimentation to remove its coarse solid materials.
The sewage is passed through a series of filters of graded openings and then allowed to flow
through sedimentation units (tanks, basins, etc.).

Coarse solid materials are concentrated in and collected from sedimentation units; these
particulate materials are collectively called ‘sludge’. Following sedimentation, the sludge and
liquid affluent are processed separately during secondary treatment.

2. Secondary (or Biological) Treatment:

This is purely a biological treatment of mechanically treated sewage and concerns microbial
activity which biodegrades organic substrates and oxidizable inorganic compounds. This
treatment accomplishes two important phases, namely, aerobic phase and anaerobic phase.

The aerobic phase consists of aerobic digestion of sludge by various filters (e.g., trickling filters),
oxidation ponds and activated sludge process, and the anaerobic phase is represented by
anaerobic digestion of sludge.

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I. Aerobic Phase of Secondary Treatment:

(i) Aerobic Digestion in Trickling Filters:

Trickling filter consists of generally 6-10 feet deep bed of crushed stone, gravel, slag, or similar
material. The sewage effluent is sprayed over the surface of the bed; the spraying saturates the
effluent with oxygen. The bed surface becomes coated with aerobic microbial flora consisting of
microalgae, micro-fungi, bacteria, and protozoa.

As the effluent seeps over, the aerobic microbes degrade the organic matter. However, the
treated effluent collected at the bottom of the tank is passed to sedimentation tank and, like
activated sludge process, the effluent follows tertiary treatment. Aerobic digestion of sewage
organic matter in a trickling filter is a very slow process.

(ii) Oxidation Ponds:

Oxidation pond sewage-treatment is recommended for small communities in rural areas where
suitable and sufficient land is available. Oxidation ponds (also called Lagoons or Stabilization
Ponds) are generally 2-5 feet deep shallow ponds designated to allow direct wind action and
algal growth on the sewage effluent.

Oxygen supplied from air and produced as a result of algal photosynthesis fulfils biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) of sewage effluent and thus helps in maintaining aerobic condition in
sewage effluent. In such condition the aerobic microbes grow rapidly and digest organic matter.
Chlorella pyrenoidosa is a common algal representative grown in oxidation ponds.

(iii) Activated Sludge Process:

In this process, the mechanically treated sewage effluent (serge liquid) is pumped into a
sedimentation or settling tank wherein the sewage floes and settles out. A portion of sewage
‘floe’ is returned to activate a new batch of mechanically treated sewage effluent, and the rest is
pumped to activated sludge digester where air is blown by several jets.

Thus, in the presence of plentiful oxygen, oxidation of sewage effluent is brought about by
aerobic microorganisms which break down organic matter to CO 2 and H2O. Now the effluent is
passed through a sedimentation tank. Though about 90% of the organic matter of the effluent is
digested via this process, the effluent still contains considerable amount of nitrate and phosphate,
etc.

It is, therefore, not safe to discharge effluent at this stage into a large body of water ds both
nitrate and phosphate can cause eutrophication. Now the effluent, which looks clear at this stage,
is subjected to tertiary (final) treatment for further purification.

II. Anaerobic Phase of Secondary Treatment (Anaerobic Digestion of Sludge):

The sludge collected after primary (mechanical) treatment of sewage is subjected to anaerobic
(oxygen- free) digestion in separate tank designed especially for the purpose. Since anaerobic
condition prevails in this tank, the anaerobic microbes bring about digestion of organic matter by

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degrading them to soluble substances and gaseous products (methane, 60-70%; CO 2, 20-30%;
and smaller amounts of H2 and N2).

This gas mixture can be used for operating power for the sewage plant or as a fuel. Recently,
Municipal Corporation of Delhi has started supplying this gas mixture to about 100,000 people
for cooking purposes.

3. Tertiary (or Final) Treatment:

Since the sewage-effluent treated during secondary treatment process still contains non-
biodegradable organic pollutants (if sewage contains industrial wastes) and mineral nutrients
particularly nitrogen and phosphorus salts, it is subjected to tertiary (or final) treatment for their
removal.

If not so, the sewage effluents containing nitrogen and phosphorus salts can cause serious
eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems. Non-biodegradable organic pollutants are normally
removed by using activated carbon filters whereas phosphorus and nitrogen salts by chemical
treated.

Phosphorus salts are precipitated by liming and the nitrogen present mainly as ammonia is
removed by volatilization (vigorous aeration at elevated temperature) at a high pH. These
treatments result in a high-quality effluent which does not cause eutrophication.

The find step of tertiary treatment is disinfection which is commonly accomplished by

chlorination using either sodium or calcium hypochlorite (NaOCl or CaOCl 2 respectively) or
chlorine. Now the effluent is a clean water and is considered microbiologically safe even for
human consumption.

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