Basic organiza on of a computer

A computer's basic organiza on revolves around several key components that work together
to process informa on. The fundamental organiza on of a computer can be broken down
into four main func onal units: the Arithme c Logic Unit (ALU), the Control Unit (CU),
Memory, and Input/Output (I/O) Units.

. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is o en called the "brain" of the computer. It is
responsible for execu ng instruc ons and processing data. The CPU itself is composed of two
main parts:

Arithme c Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU is the computa onal heart of the computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU). It's
responsible for performing all arithme c and logical opera ons on data.

 Arithme c Opera ons: These include basic mathema cal calcula ons like addi on,
subtrac on, mul plica on, and division.

 Logical Opera ons: These involve comparisons and Boolean logic, such as AND, OR,
NOT, XOR, and comparing if two values are equal, greater than, or less than each
other.

Control Unit (CU): The CU directs and coordinates the ac vi es of all other components in
the computer system. It fetches instruc ons from memory, decodes them, and then directs
the other units to perform the required tasks. The CU doesn't process data itself; it only
manages the flow of data and instruc ons.

Memory

Memory is the computer's storage space. It holds both the instruc ons (programs) and the
data that the computer is currently processing or needs to access.

There are several types of memory, o en organized in a hierarchy based on speed and
capacity:

1. Registers: The fastest, smallest memory located directly within the CPU. They hold
data that the ALU is currently working on.

2. Cache Memory: A small, very fast memory located between the CPU and main
memory. It stores frequently accessed data and instruc ons to reduce the me the
CPU spends wai ng for data.

3. Main Memory (Primary Memory):

 o RAM (Random Access Memory): This is the main working memory. It's
vola le, meaning it loses its data when the power is turned off. RAM stores
the opera ng system, applica ons, and data currently in use.

o ROM (Read-Only Memory): This memory contains essen al instruc ons that
are permanent, like the boot-up sequence of the computer. It's non-vola le.

4. Secondary Memory (Auxiliary Memory): This is slower but offers larger, non-vola le
storage for long-term data reten on.

o Examples: Hard Disk Drives (HDDs), Solid-State Drives (SSDs), USB drives,
op cal discs.

Input Units:
These devices are used to enter data and instruc ons into the computer. They convert
human-readable informa on into a format the computer can understand.

Examples of Input Devices with Defini ons

1. Keyboard
o A keyboard is the most common input device used to enter text,
numbers, and commands into the computer.
o Example: Typing le ers, pressing func on keys (F1–F12).
2. Mouse
o A poin ng device that detects two-dimensional mo on to control
the cursor on the screen.
o Example: Clicking icons, dragging files.
3. Scanner
o A device used to convert physical documents or images into digital
form.
o Example: Scanning photos, barcodes, QR codes.
4. Microphone
o An audio input device that captures sound and converts it into
digital signals.
o Example: Voice recording, voice commands in virtual assistants.
5. Webcam
o A camera used to capture real- me images and videos, o en used
for video calls.
o Example: Online mee ngs (Zoom, Google Meet).
6. Joys ck
o A control device with a s ck that pivots on a base to send
direc onal input, mainly for gaming.
o Example: Flight simulators, racing games.
7. Touchscreen
o A display that also works as an input device by detec ng touch
gestures (finger/stylus).
o Example: Smartphones, ATMs.
8. Light Pen
o A pen-shaped device that detects light from the screen, allowing
precise poin ng and drawing.
o Example: Computer-aided design (CAD).
9. Graphics Tablet (Digi zer)
o A flat surface with a stylus used to draw or design directly into the
computer.
o Example: Digital art crea on.
10.Barcode Reader
 A scanner that reads barcodes and converts them into digital data.
 Example: Supermarket billing counters
11.Trackball
 A poin ng device similar to a mouse, but with a rota ng ball on top.
 Example: Used in laptops, gaming controls.
12.Stylus Pen
 A pen-shaped device used to write or draw on touchscreens.
 Example: Used in tablets (Samsung S-Pen, Apple Pencil).
13.Biometric Devices
 Devices that recognize human features like fingerprints, iris, or face for
authen ca on.
 Example: Fingerprint scanner in smartphones.
14.Digital Camera
 Captures photos and videos directly in digital format.
 Example: Uploading pictures to a computer.
15.Gamepad / Controller
 A handheld device with bu ons and joys cks for controlling video
games.
 Example: PlaySta on or Xbox controller.
16.Magne c Stripe Reader
 Reads data stored on the magne c strip of credit/debit cards.
 Example: ATM machines, payment swipes.
17.Smart Card Reader
 Reads chips embedded in smart cards for security and payments.
 Example: Bank chip cards.
18.VR Input Devices (Gloves, Headsets, Sensors)
 Devices that allow interac on in virtual reality environments.
 Example: Oculus VR controllers.
19.Mo on Sensor (Kinect, Leap Mo on)
 Detects body movement and gestures for input.
 Example: Xbox Kinect for gaming.
 20.OCR (Op cal Character Recogni on) Device
 Scans printed text and converts it into editable digital text.
 Example: Conver ng books into e-text.
21.MICR (Magne c Ink Character Recogni on)
 Reads special magne c ink characters printed on cheques.
 Example: Banking sector.
22.Voice Recogni on Systems
 Input device/so ware that converts spoken words into text/commands.
 Example: Google Assistant, Siri, Alexa.
23.3D Scanner
 Captures the shape of real-world objects and creates 3D digital models.
 Example: 3D prin ng.
24.Remote Control (Wireless Input)
 Used to input commands wirelessly to devices.
 Example: TV remote, projector remote.
25.Sensor Devices
 Convert physical quan es into signals that computers can process.
 Example: Temperature sensors, pressure sensors
Output Units:
These devices are used to display or provide the results of the computer's processing to the
user.

Examples of Output Devices with Defini ons & Examples

1. Monitor (Visual Display Unit)
o A screen that displays text, images, videos, and the user interface.
o Example: Computer screen, LCD, LED monitors.
2. Printer
o Produces a hard copy of documents, images, or graphics from the
computer.
o Example: Inkjet printer, Laser printer.
3. Speaker
o Produces sound output such as music, voice, or alerts.
o Example: Computer speakers, Bluetooth speakers.
4. Headphones / Earphones
o Personal audio output device worn on the head or in ears.
o Example: Gaming headphones, AirPods.
5. Projector
o Projects computer screen output onto a large surface
(wall/screen).
o Example: Used in classrooms, movie theaters.
6. Plo er
o Special output device used for prin ng large engineering drawings
or graphics.
o Example: CAD drawings, maps.
7. Smartboard / Digital Whiteboard
o Displays computer output on a large interac ve board.
o Example: Used in schools and offices.
8. Braille Display
o Converts computer text into Braille for visually impaired users.
o Example: Refreshable braille devices.
9. 3D Printer
o Creates three-dimensional physical objects from digital designs.
 o Example: Prin ng models, tools, and prototypes.
10.LED Indicators
 Small lights that provide status informa on.
 Example: Power indicator lights on laptops.
11.VR Headset (Output Part)
 Displays immersive 3D virtual environments.
 Example: Oculus, HTC Vive.
12.Augmented Reality Glasses
 Overlay digital informa on onto the real world.
 Example: Microso HoloLens.
13.Fax Machine (Output Side)
 Prints documents received through a telephone line.
 Example: Office fax output.
14.Hap c Devices (Force Feedback Devices)
 Provide output in the form of touch or vibra ons.
 Example: Vibra on in game controllers, mobile phones.
15.Large LED Displays
 Used for adver sing or public informa on display.
 Example: Digital billboards, railway sta on displays
Program counter :
What is Program Counter (PC)?
 The Program Counter is a special register in the CPU.
 It is also called the Instruc on Pointer.
 It holds the memory address of the next instruc on to be fetched and
executed.
Func ons of Program Counter
1. Stores the next instruc on address before execu on.
2. Increments automa cally a er each instruc on fetch (PC = PC + 1 or PC
+ instruc on size).
3. Updates to a new address when a jump, branch, or call instruc on
occurs
Key Points
 Loca on: Inside the CPU’s Control Unit.
 Size: Depends on CPU architecture (16-bit CPU → 16-bit PC, 32-bit CPU
→ 32-bit PC).
 Importance: Ensures instruc ons are executed in the correct sequence

THANK YOU
BY MOKSHAGNA