Chapter 32 &44
An Introduction
to Animal
Diversity
& Body structure
Dr. Randa Albdaiwi
Lecture Presentations by
Nicole Tunbridge and
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd. Kathleen Fitzpatrick
Animal Kingdom
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A Kingdom of Consumers
In general, animals are efficient consumers of other organisms
Most have adaptations that help them to detect, capture, eat,
and digest other organisms
For example, the chameleon captures insect prey with its
long, sticky, quick-moving tongue
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Concept 32.1: Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic
eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers
Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes ingest
their food
They have tissues that develop from embryonic layers.
Several characteristics, taken together, sufficiently define
the animal kingdom.
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Cell Structure and Specialization
Animals are multicellular eukaryotes
They have eukaryotic cells that have no cell wall. Cells are
supported by structural proteins such as collagen, rather than
cell walls.
Tissues are groups of similar cells that act as a functional
unit. The science that study the tissues is histology.
Nervous tissue and muscle tissue are unique, defining
characteristics of animals
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Reproduction and Development
Most animals reproduce sexually, with the diploid stage
usually dominating the life cycle
After a sperm fertilizes an egg, the zygote undergoes rapid
cell division called cleavage
Cleavage leads to formation of a multicellular, hollow
blastula
The blastula undergoes gastrulation, forming a gastrula
with different layers of embryonic tissues
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Figure 32.2_3
Zygote Figure 32.2_3 Early embryonic development
in animals
Cleavage
Eight-cell
stage
Cleavage Blastocoel
Cross section
Blastula
of blastula
Gastrulation
Cross section
of gastrula Blastocoel
Endoderm
Blastopore Ectoderm
Archenteron
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Concept 32.3: Animals can be characterized by
“body plans”
Zoologists sometimes categorize animals according to a
body plan, a set of morphological and developmental traits
Some body plans have been conserved, while others have
changed multiple times over the course of evolution
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Symmetry
Animals can be categorized according to the symmetry of their
bodies, or lack of it:
I. Radial symmetry
Some animals have radial symmetry, the type of symmetry
found in a flowerpot
Radially symmetrical animals have a top and a bottom, but
no front and back, or left and right.
Radial animals are often sessile or planktonic (drifting or
weakly swimming)
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II. Bilateral symmetry
The two-sided symmetry of a shovel is an example
Bilaterally symmetrical animals have:
A dorsal (top) side and a ventral (bottom) side
A right and left side
Anterior (front) and posterior (back) ends
Many also have sensory equipment, such as a brain,
concentrated in their anterior end.
Bilateral animals typically move actively and have a central
nervous system
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Figure 32.8 Body symmetry
(a) Radial symmetry
(b) Bilateral symmetry
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Tissues
Animal body plans also vary according to the organization of
the animal’s tissues
Tissues are collections of specialized cells isolated from other
tissues by membranous layers
During development, three germ layers give rise to the
tissues and organs of the animal embryo
Ectoderm is the germ layer covering the embryo’s surface
Endoderm is the innermost germ layer and lines the developing
digestive tube, called the archenteron
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Sponges and a few other groups lack true tissues
Diploblastic animals have only ectoderm and endoderm
These include cnidarians and a few other groups
Triploblastic animals also have an intermediate tissue layer
called mesoderm
All bilaterally symmetrical animals are triploblastic
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Body Cavities
Most triploblastic animals possess a body cavity
A true body cavity is called a coelom and is derived from
mesoderm
1. Coelomates: are animals that possess a true coelom, a body
cavity completely lined by tissue derived from mesoderm.
2. Pseudocoelomates: a triploblastic animals that possess a
pseudocoelom (is a body cavity derived from the mesoderm
and endoderm).
3. Acoelomates: a triploblastic animals that lack a body cavity
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A body cavity has many functions:
1. Fluid cushions the suspended organs
2. Fluid acts like a skeleton against which muscles can
work
3. The cavity enables internal organs to grow and move
independently of the outer body wall
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Protostome and Deuterostome Development
Based on early development, many animals can be
categorized into:
I. Protostome development
II. Deuterostome development
These developmental modes differ in cleavage, coelom
formation, and fate of the blastopore (the blastopore in
protostomes are developed into a mouth, while in
deuterostomes are developed into an anal opening)
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The Diversification of Animals
By 500 million years ago, most animal phyla with members
alive today were established
Zoologists recognize about three dozen animal phyla
Phylogenies are now based on a combination of whole-
genome analysis, morphological traits, ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) genes, Hox genes, protein-coding nuclear genes,
and mitochondrial genes
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Five important points about the relationships among living
animals are reflected in their phylogeny
1. All animals share a common ancestor
2. Sponges are the sister group to all other animals
3. Eumetazoa (“true animals”) is a clade of animals with
tissues
4. Most animal phyla belong to the clade Bilateria
5. There are three major clades of bilaterian animals, all of
which are invertebrates, animals that lack a backbone,
except Chordata (which includes vertebrates, animals
with a backbone).
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All bilateria invertebrates except Chordate (vertebrates)
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Figure 34.2 Phylogeny of living chordates
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The Animal Body: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges
Anatomy is the biological form or structure of an organism
Physiology is the biological functions an organism performs
The comparative study of animals reveals that form and
function are closely correlated
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Figure 40.1 How do long legs
help this scavenger survive in
the scorching desert heat?
Exchange with the Environment
Materials such as nutrients, waste products, and gases must
be exchanged across the cell membranes of animal cells
Rate of exchange is proportional to a cell’s surface area,
while amount of exchange material is proportional to a cell’s
volume.
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A single-celled organism living in water has sufficient surface
area to carry out all necessary exchange
Multicellular organisms with a saclike body plan have body
walls that are only two cells thick, facilitating diffusion of
materials
In flat animals such as tapeworms, most cells are in direct
contact with their environment
More complex organisms are composed of compact masses
of cells with complex internal organization.
Evolutionary adaptations such as specialized, extensively
branched or folded structures enable sufficient exchange with
the environment
In animals, the space between cells is filled with interstitial
fluid, which links exchange surfaces to body cells
A complex body plan helps an animal living in a variable
environment to maintain a relatively stable internal
environment
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Figure 40.3: Direct exchange with the
environment
(c) Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals
Organization Levels of the Body
Most animals are composed of cells organized into tissues
that have different functions
Tissues make up organs, which together make up organ
systems
Some organs, such as the pancreas, belong to more than
one organ system
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Organization levels of the body
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There are four main types of animal tissues:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
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I. Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines the
organs and cavities within the body
It contains cells that are closely joined
The shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like dice),
columnar (like bricks on end), or squamous (like floor tiles)
The arrangement of epithelial cells may be simple (single cell
layer), stratified (multiple tiers of cells), or pseudostratified
(a single layer of cells of varying length)
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Polarity of epithelia
- All epithelia are polarized, have two different sides:
1. Apical surface
2. Basal surface
- Apical surface: faces the lumen or outside the organ, so it is
exposed to fluid or air.
- Specialized projections often cover this surface, like apical
surface of the epithelium lining the small intestine is covered
with microvilli to increase the surface area available for
absorbing nutrients.
Simple Cuboidal epithelium
- Dice-shaped cells specialized for secretion.
- Make up the epithelium of kidney tubules and many glands
(Thyroid gland, Salivary gland).
Simple columnar epithelium
- Large brick-shaped cells.
- Found where secretion or active absorption is important.
- Lines the intestines, secreting digestive juices and absorbing
nutrients.
Simple squamous epithelium
- Single layer of platelike cells. Thin and leaky.
- Functions in the exchange of materials by diffusion.
- Lines blood vessels and air sacs of the lung, where
diffusion of nutrients and gases is critical.
Stratified squamous epithelium
- Multilayered and degenerates rapidly.
- New cells formed by division near the basal surface push
outward, replacing cells that are sloughed off.
- Found on surfaces subject to abrasion, such as outer skin
and the linings of the mouth, anus, and vagina.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- Single layer of cells varying in height and the position of their
nuclei.
- Found in ciliated cells forms a mucous membrane that lines
portion of the respiratory tract.
Connective Tissue
Loose connective tissue
Blood
Collagenous fiber
Plasma
White
blood
55 µm
cells
120 µm
Red blood cells
Elastic fiber
Cartilage
Fibrous connective tissue
Chondrocytes
100 µm
30 µm
Chondroitin sulfate
Nuclei
Bone Adipose tissue
Central
canal Lipid droplets
150 µm
700 µm
Osteon
II. Connective Tissue
Connective tissue mainly binds and supports other tissues
It contains sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an
extracellular matrix
The matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid
foundation
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There are three types of connective tissue fiber, all made of
protein:
Collagenous fibers: provide strength and flexibility
Reticular fibers: join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
Elastic fibers: stretch and snap back to their original length
Connective tissue contains cells, including:
Fibroblasts: secrete the protein of extracellular fibers
Macrophages: are involved in the immune system
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In vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine to form six major
types of connective tissue:
1. Loose connective tissue binds epithelia to underlying tissues
and holds organs in place
2. Fibrous connective tissue is found in tendons, which attach
muscles to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones at joints
3. Bone is mineralized and forms the skeleton
4. Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation and fuel
5. Blood is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood
plasma
6. Cartilage is a strong and flexible support material
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Six types of connective tissues
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Loose connective tissue
Collagenous fiber - Most widespread connective
tissue in vertebrate body
- Binds epithelia to underlying
tissues and holds organs in
120 m
place.
Elastic fiber - Found in the skin and
throughout the body.
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Fibrous connective tissue
- Dense with collagenous fibers
- It is found in tendons (muscle to
bones) and ligaments (connect
30 m
bones at joint)
Nuclei
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Bone
Central Canal
(contain blood vessels
and nerves)
700 m
Osteon
- Bone forming cells called osteoblast, bone consists of
repeating units called osteon.
- Forms skeletal structure in most vertebrates
Adipose tissue
Fat droplets
- Specialized loose connective tissue
150 m
that stores fat in adipose cells.
- Stores fat for insulation and fuel.
Cartilage
Chondrocytes
100 m
Chondroitin sulfate
- Cells called chondrocytes secrete the collagen and
chondroitin sulfate.
- Strong and flexible support material.
- Act as cushions between vertebrae.
- Skeleton of vertebrate embryos.
Blood
Plasma
White
blood cells
55 m
Red blood cells
- Liquid extracellular matrix (Plasma)
- Blood cells:
erythrocyte (carry oxygen)
leukocytes (white blood cells)
platelets (blood clotting)
III. Muscle Tissue
and Tissues
Muscle tissue is responsible for
nearly all types of body movement
Muscle cells consist of filaments
of the proteins actin and myosin,
which together enable muscles
to contract
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Muscle tissue in the vertebrate body is divided into three
types:
Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for
voluntary movement
Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary body
activities
Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart
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Three types of muscle tissues
Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle
Nuclei
Muscle
fiber
Sarcomere
100 µm
Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle
Nucleus Muscle 25 µm Nucleus Intercalated 25 µm
fibers disk
- Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for
voluntary movement.
- Has multiple nuclei in each muscle fiber.
- Contractile units called Sarcomeres.
- Attached to bones by tendons.
- Smooth muscle lacks striation, spindle shaped.
- In the walls of digestive tract, urinary bladder, artries and
other internal organs.
- Responsible for involuntary body activities, such as churning
of the stomach.
- Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart.
- Striated like skeletal muscle.
- Has fiber that interconnect via intercalated disks, that relay
signals from cell to cell to synchronize heart contraction.
IV. Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue functions in the receipt, processing, and
transmission of information
Nervous tissue contains:
Neurons, or nerve cells, which transmit nerve impulses
Glial cells, or glia, which support cells
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Figure 40.5d Exploring structure and function in animal
tissues (part 4: nervous)
Figure 40.5db
- Neuron receive nerve impulses from other neurons via cell
body and multiple extensions called dendrites.
- Neuron transmit impulses to neuron, muscles, or other
cells via extension called axons.
Figure 40.5dc
- Glia helps nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons and
modulate neuron function.
Coordination and Control
Control and coordination within a body depend on the
endocrine system and the nervous system.
The endocrine system releases signaling molecules called
hormones into the bloodstream
A hormone may affect one or more regions throughout the
body
Hormones are relatively slow acting, but can have long-
lasting effects
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The nervous system transmits information between specific
locations
The information conveyed depends on a signal’s pathway, not
the type of signal
Nerve signal transmission is very fast
The endocrine and nervous systems often work in close
coordination
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Figure 40.6 Signaling in the endocrine and nervous systems
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Homeostasis
Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a “steady state” or
internal balance regardless of external environment
In humans, body temperature, blood pH, and glucose
concentration are each maintained at a constant level.
Feedback Control in Homeostasis:
I. Homeostasis in animals relies largely on negative feedback,
which helps to return a variable to a normal range
II. Positive feedback amplifies a stimulus and does not usually
contribute to homeostasis in animals
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Mechanisms of Homeostasis
Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate changes in the internal
environment
For a given variable, fluctuations above or below a set point
serve as a stimulus; these are detected by a sensor
A control center then generates output that triggers a
response
The response returns the variable to the set point
Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain
an internal temperature within a normal range.
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Thermostat in Sensors Response: Blood
hypothalamus vessels in skin dilate.
activates cooling
mechanisms. Responses
Response:
Sweat
Body temperature Body temperature
increases. decreases.
NORMAL BODY
Stimulus TEMPERATURE
(36–38ºC)
Body temperature Body temperature
increases. decreases.
Response: Shivering
Response: Blood Thermostat in
vessels in skin hypothalamus
constrict. activates warming
mechanisms.
Thermoregulation in mammals is controlled by a region of the
brain called the hypothalamus
The hypothalamus triggers heat loss or heat-generating
mechanisms
Fever, a response to some infections, reflects an increase in
the normal range for the biological thermostat
Some ectothermic organisms seek warmer environments to
increase their body temperature in response to certain
infections
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